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Engineering Geology and Soil Mechanics
Week 1: Plate Tectonics. Minerals
Asst Prof. WONG Ngai Yuen Louis
Updated on 10/8/14
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I like geology
I like soil
mechanics
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Lecturers
Asst P WONG Ngai Yuen, Louis (LW)
Tel. 6790‐5290, lnywong@ntu.edu.sg
• First half
Assoc GOH Teck Chee, Anthony (AG)
Tel. 6790‐5271, CTCGOH@ntu.edu.sg
• Second half
Other professors are also involved in teaching tutorials
LBK (Assoc. Prof. Low Bak Kong) cbklow@ntu.edu.sg
LEC (Assoc. Prof. Leong Eng Choon) cecleong@ntu.edu.sg
HR (Professor Harianto Rahardjo) chrahardjo@ntu.edu.sg
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Course Outline
Week Lecture Topic Lecturer
1 Plate tectonics. Minerals. LW
2 Rock types and rock cycle. LW
3 Geological time scale. Soil forming processes. LW
4 Geological structures. LW
5 Geological maps. LW
6 Geology of Singapore. LW
7 Particle size analysis. Plasticity and Atterberg limits. Soil AG
classification.
Recess week (29th Sep – 3rd Oct)
8 Soil composition. Phase relationships and soil compaction AG
9 Seepage. Permeability tests. AG
10 Flow nets and effective stress principle. AG
11 Compressibility. Consolidation process. Oedometer test. AG
12 Settlement calculation. AG
13 Terzaghi’s consolidation theory. Time-rate consolidation. AG
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Topics for this week
• Geology, Engineering Geology, Geotechnical Engineering
• Earth’s structure
• Plate Tectonics
• Minerals
Geology
Study of the Earth.
It is about the present and past
morphology and structure of
the earth, its environments,
and the fossil record of its
inhabitants.
Engineering Geology
A subfield of geology
It serves the art and science of engineering through description of
the structure and attributes of the rocks connected with
engineering works.
Mapping and characterizing all the materials proximate to a
project.
Identify and evaluate natural hazards like landslides and
earthquakes that may affect the success of an engineering
project. 6
What do geologists do?
• Geological Mapping (just colour‐filling?)
• What to expect in
the ground?
• Engineering
properties of
geomaterials?
DSTA (2009) Geology of Singapore. Second Edition. 7
Job opportunities
Engineering Geologist (typically those with first degree in geology)
Responsible for interpreting the geologic data and providing a conceptual
model representing the morphology and engineering‐geologic
classification of each rock unit.
Geotechnical Engineer (typically those with first degree in civil engineering)
Responsible for design
Determines the adequacy of the rocks and soils for different zones in rock
fills or as components of concrete or asphaltic mixtures.
NTU will prepare you with the relevant courses (year 2 – year 4)
Engineering
Earth Geotechnical Engineering
Geology
Sciences
(Geology) (tunnel engineering,
(landslide mapping,
rock mechanics, soil mechanics,
discontinuity mapping,
foundation engineering)
rock core logging)
Outline
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Earth’s Structure ‐ The age of the earth
Archbishop James Ussher (1654) – earth was created in 4004 B.C.
James Hutton (late 18th century)
¾ Uniformitarianism
¾ The physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today
have also operated in the geologic past. The present is the key
to the past.
¾ e.g. volcanic eruption, water flow, sediment deposit….
By modern dating techniques, the age of the earth is estimated to
be around ________ billion years.
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Why do I have fill‐in‐the‐blanks?
• Highlight the key concepts
• Correct spelling
• Keep you and me awake in the class
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Earth layered structure (1)
The principal divisions of the solid Earth include: the inner core, a
solid, iron‐rich zone having a radius of __________ kilometers
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Earth layered structure (2)
… and the outer core, molten metallic layer some ___________
kilometers thick…
12
Earth layered structure (3)
… the mantle, a solid, rock layer having maximum thickness of
___________ kilometers… 13
Earth layered structure (4)
… and the crust, a relatively light outer skin that ranges from
_________ to more than __________ kilometers thick. 14
Earth layered structure ‐ crust
Earth’s crust consists of continental crust and oceanic crust.
The ____________ crust is much thinner, averaging only 5 km in thickness.15
Asthenosphere vs Lithosphere
Lithosphere
located above the __________________
includes ________________ and ___________________
in contrast to the hot, weak zone below, the lithosphere is composed of
relatively cool, rigid rocks.
The weak rock within the asthenosphere allows Earth’s rigid outer shell
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(lithosphere) to move.
Asthenosphere vs Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
located within the _______________________
between the depths of ~100 and 660 kms
hot, weak zone, capable of gradual flow
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Review questions
• What is the age of the Earth? 4.7 billion
years/million years?
• With the aid of a diagram, describe the key
layers in the Earth?
• Lithosphere consists of what two types of
crust?
Outline
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In correct order from the center
outward, Earth includes which units?
1. core, inner mantle,
outer mantle, crust
2. inner core, outer
core, mantle, crust
3. inner core, crust,
mantle, hydrosphere
4. core, crust, mantle,
hydrosphere Bring clickers
to next class
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Plate Tectonics
• Earth’s rigid outer shell (lithosphere) is broken into
numerous slabs called plates.
• Convection currents circulate within the mantle –
because it is heated from below – and the convection
cells have horizontal movements across their tops.
• Plate tectonics are the relative movements of the plates
as they are shifted by the underlying mantle flows.
MAP 20
Plate Tectonics
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Return
Plate Tectonics – World Plates
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Plate Tectonics
• Seven major plates: North American, South American,
Pacific, African, Eurasian, Australian‐Indian, and Antarctic.
• Intermediate‐sized plates: Caribbean, Nazca, Philippine,
Arabian, Cocos, and Scotia.
• Some plates include an entire continent plus a large area of
seafloor (e.g. South American plate). However, none of the
plates are defined entirely by the margins of a single
continent.
• Plate Tectonics Animation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLJLFYXp‐0Q 23
• The lithospheric plates move relative to each other at a very slow but
continuous rate that averages about _______________ a year.
• This movement is ultimately driven by the unequal distribution of heat within
Earth. Hot material found deep in the mantle moves slowly upward and
serves as one part of our planet’s internal ___________________________.
• Concurrently, cooler, denser slabs of lithosphere descend back into the
mantle, setting Earth’s rigid outer shell in motion.
• Ultimately, the titantic, grinding movements of Earth’s lithospheric plates
generate ____________________, create ___________________, and
deform large masses of rock into ____________________.
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Plate Tectonics
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Plate Tectonics – plate boundary types
A________________boundaries – zones where plates move apart, leaving
a gap between them. They are constructive as new oceanic plate is formed.
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Convergent and Divergent Plate Boundaries
(conservation of mass)
Plate Tectonics ‐ sea floor spreading at divergent boundary
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Review questions
With the help of simple (2D) sketches, illustrate
and compare the mechanisms at the divergent
and convergent plate boundaries.
Label the seven major plates in the supplied
map.
Outline 33
Topics for this week
• Geology, Engineering Geology, Geotechnical Engineering (√)
• Earth’s structure (√)
• Plate Tectonics (√)
• Minerals
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Mineral – naturally occurring inorganic solids, which possess
an orderly internal structure and a definite chemical composition
(>2000 types), e.g. quartz
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Based on the definition of a mineral,
evaluate the following statements
1) Gold is a mineral (T/F)
2) Synthetic diamonds are mineral(T/F)
3) Minerals must be solid (T/F)
4) Quartz is considered a mineral (T/F)
5) Petroleum is a mineral (T/F)
6) Animal bone is a mineral (T/F)
7) Ice is a mineral (T/F)
8) Granite is a mineral (T/F)
9) Steel is a mineral (T/F)
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Rock
An aggregate of one or more minerals.
The term aggregate
implies that the
minerals are found
together as a mixture in
which the properties of
the individual minerals
are retained.
e.g. granite (quartz,
feldspar, mica)
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Although most rocks are composed of more than one
mineral, certain minerals are found by themselves in
large, impure quantities, e.g. limestone (calcite)
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Silicate Structures (Minerals)
The most common group of rock‐forming minerals are the silicates
Silicon‐oxygen
____________________ is the
fundamental building block
_________oxygen atoms
surrounding a silicon atom)
Quartz : SiO2
Silicon atoms can be replaced by
ions of Fe, Mg, K, Na, Al, Ca
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Physical Properties of Minerals
• Crystal Form
• Luster
• Color Many minerals in the world
Î can’t always perform chemical analysis
• Streak
• Hardness
• Cleavage identification
• Specific gravity and
classification
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Crystal Form – external expression of a mineral that
reflects the ______________ internal arrangement of
atoms (if without restriction). e.g. cubic, hexagonal
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Luster – appearance or quality of ______________ reflected
from the surface of a mineral (metallic, nonmetallic, glassy,
pearly, silky, resinous, earthy)
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Color – is not always a useful diagnostic property. e.g. slight
impurities in the mineral quartz give it a variety of colors
Crystal quartz (colorless) Citrine
(brown yellow quartz)
Amethyst Smoky quartz
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(purple quartz) (gray to black)
Physical Properties of Minerals
Streak – color of a mineral in its _______________ form and
obtained by rubbing a mineral across a piece of unglazed
porcelain (streak plate). Not necessary equivalent to color.
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Streak
For instance hematite may look black,
but it will always produce a
RED/BROWN streak on a streak plate.
Pyrite looks yellow‐gold in the crystal
form, but gives a GRAY streak when
the plate is used.
Care must be taken if the mineral being
tested is harder than the porcelain, the Hematite on left
result will be a powder produced by Pyrite on the right
the porcelain plate being scratched http://www.theimage.com/geology/notes3/i
and will always be white. ndex4.html
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Hardness – resistance of a mineral to ___________________
_____________; relative property determined by rubbing
a mineral of unknown hardness against one of the known
hardness.
Mohs scale: (1) Talc (2) Gypsum (3) Calcite (4) Fluorite (5)
Apatite (6) Orthoclase (7) Quartz (8) Topaz (9) Corundum
(10) Diamond
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http://invsee.asu.edu/srinivas/Carbonmod/hardness.html
Hardness
(7) Knife blade
(5.5) Glass
(3.5) Copper
penny
(2.5) Fingernail
http://www.khulsey.com/jewelry/mohs_hardness_scale.html
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Review Question
Q: What is the use of the Mohs scale?
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Cleavage – smooth surfaces when mineral is broken due to planes
of ___________________________.
(1) micas, which has weak chemical bonds in one direction,
they cleave to form thin, flat sheets.
(2) calcite is a mineral whose cleavage angle is 75 degrees.
(3) hornblende has 2 cleavages, one at 60 degrees and one at
120 degrees
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Cleavage – e.g. hornblende has 2 cleavages, one at 60
degrees and one at 120 degrees
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Physical Properties of Minerals
• It is important not to confuse cleavage with crystal form.
Remember, crystal form is the external expression of a mineral’s
orderly arrangement of atoms. Whereas, cleavage is the tendency
of minerals to break along planes of weakness.
• All minerals have crystal form, but some minerals lack cleavage.
Minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken are said to
fracture.
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Specific gravity – ratio of weight of a mineral to the weight of an
equal volume of water; common range_____________
Physical
Properties
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Differences between
identification and classification
• Identification – to name a particular
mineral, e.g. quartz, muscovite
• Classification – to divide minerals into
appropriate groups
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Two general groups of silicate minerals on the
basis of their chemical makeup
A. Ferromagnesian (dark) silicates – containing
ions of iron (iron = ferro) and/or magnesium;
typically dark in color; specific gravity = 3.2‐
3.6
__________________
‐ Black to olivine green (hence name)
‐ Glassy luster
‐ Conchoidal fracture
‐ Granular appearance
‐ Individual tetrahedron
https://sharepoint.cisat.jmu.edu/isat/klevicca/
Web/IDLS/olivine/oodsnup.htm
http://www.iun.edu/~geos/Zoran%20IUN/G%20101/Lecture%20Outlines/Minerals.htm
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Ferromagnesian silicates (continued)
___________________
‐ Black, opaque
‐ 2 planes of cleavage that meet at nearly at 90 degrees
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/RockMin/pyrox‐70.html 58
Ferromagnesian silicates (continued)
___________________
‐ Hornblende is the most common member
‐ Dark green to black
‐ Cleavages at about 60 degrees and 120 degrees
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Ferromagnesian silicates (continued)
___________________
‐ Iron rich member of mica family
‐ Sheet structureÎ excellent cleavage in one direction
‐ Shiny black appearance
http://geology.com/minerals/biotite.shtml
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Ferromagnesian silicates (continued)
______________
‐ Glassy luster
‐ Brown to deep red
‐ Lacks cleavage; possesses conchoidal fracture
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http://crystal‐cure.com/garnet.html http://www.jewelrystones.org/garnet
Nonferromagnesian silicates
______________
‐ Member of mica family
‐ Sheet structure, hence excellent cleavage in one direction
‐ Light color and pearly luster
http://mulch.cropsoil.uga.edu/soilsandhydrolo
gy/Important%20Rocks%20&%20Minerals.htm
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Nonferromagnesian silicates (continued)
_________________
‐ Most common mineral group
‐ 2 planes of cleavage at or near 90 degrees Î rectangular shape
‐ Luster ranges from glassy to pearly
orthoclase orthoclase
http://tasaclips.com/photos.html plagioclase
Orthoclase Plagioclase http://www.learnearthscience.com
K ions rich Na and Ca ions rich /pages/Unit_Links/images/Plagiocl
ase%20feldspar.jpg
Light cream to salmon pink White to medium gray
Striations absent Striations on cleavage faces 63
Striations
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Nonferromagnesian silicates (continued)
_________________
‐ Consists entirely of silicon and oxygen (SiO2)
‐ Strong silicon‐oxygen bond
‐ Hard, very resistant to weathering,
‐ Does not have cleavage, exhibits conchoidal fracture
http://www.learnearthscience.com/pages/Uni
65
t_Links/mineral_images.htm
Nonferromagnesian silicates (continued)
___________________
‐ Sheet structure (microscopic scale)
‐ Usually fine‐grained (not equivalent to clay‐sized
particles, in association with silt, sand, cobble)
‐ Products of weathering
‐ e.g. kaolinite for manufacture of fine chinaware, pottery
http://www.farleygraphics.com/im
ages/Kaolinite(ChinaClay).jpg 66
Nonsilicate minerals
Carbonate minerals
‐Calcite, CaCO3 (rock is called limestone)
‐Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2 (rock is called dolostone)
‐Both have vitreous (glassy) luster
‐Both have hardness between 3 and 4
‐Both have nearly perfect rhombic cleavage
Q: How to differentiate?
A: Apply dilute hydrochloric acid – (a) intact calcite reacts vigorously, (b)
dolomite only reacts in powder form
(a) (b)
http://geology.about.com/od/mineral_i
http://saltthesandbox.org/rocks/acidtest.htm 67
dent/ig/acidtest/acidtestdolo.htm
Nonsilicate minerals
Evaporite
‐Minerals found in ancient seas that have long evaporated
‐Halite (NaCl)
‐Gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O)
69
Review Questions
• What are the key physical properties to identify
minerals?
• Both pyroxene and amphibole are black in
colour. How are they different from each other?
• What is Mohs scale? What is it used for?
Outline
70
Which of the following minerals is a
ferromagnesian silicate?
1. Quartz 25% 25% 25% 25%
2. Orthoclase
3. Hornblende
4. Muscovite
1 2 3 4
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1 2 3 4
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