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Contents
Block-I
Block-II
Block-III
Block-IV
Block-V
Unit 21 Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Other Modes ........................................... 255
1
Notes
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BLOCK-I
Detailed Contents Understanding Oil & Gas Business
2
Notes
UNIT 1: BASIC CONCEPTS
___________________ UNIT 3: THE MACRO-SYSTEM
z Introduction z Introduction
___________________
z What is Petroleum z From Wellhead to Petrochemicals
___________________
z Reservoir, Well and Well Fluid z History of Oil and Gas Industry
___________________
z Crude Oil and Natural Gas
___________________ UNIT 4: THE INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
z Units Specifically Used in Oil and Gas Industry
z Introduction
___________________
UNIT 2: CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS z The Indian Perspective – Upstream
___________________
CONCEPTS z The Indian Perspective – Downstream
___________________
z Introduction
___________________ UNIT 5: CASE STUDY
z Various Forms of Natural Gas
z ___________________
Elementary Concepts on Hydrocarbons
Unit 1
3
Notes
Basic Concepts
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
It’s amazing how much oil and gas has penetrated into our lives
today. The toothbrush we use to start the day, the suit we wear,
the fuel we use in our cars to drive to office, the car interiors, back
home with cozy furniture, tapestry, and mattress of the bed we
sleep on – all are petrochemicals i.e. chemicals from petroleum.
Search of oil and gas leads us to some of the most exotic forests,
deserts, and ocean. Perhaps some of the most beautiful man made
sights in the world are offshore platform in Deep Ocean, array of
offshore rigs in a remote desert or jungle or an illuminated
petrochemical complex at night.
4
To understand oil and gas business, one needs to understand a
Notes
Activity whole spectrum of activities from oil well to petrochemicals.
Discuss in groups if oil and
___________________
gas will truly start depleting in It is also important to understand the trend and future of the
___________________
another 20 to 30 years. industry in terms of technology, economics and pricing of energy
___________________ resources. Energy price is very important for the economy of any
___________________ country. As stated earlier, oil and gas provide over sixty percent of
the energy requirement of the world. Oil had been the dominant
___________________
component of the mix. Oil prices have been controlled from time to
___________________ time to a high level by the petroleum exporting countries (OPEC).
___________________ It is cleaner, cheaper and new discoveries and reserves of gas field
___________________
are coming up in many parts of the world including India.
___________________ Very often the question comes up how long the hydrocarbon
resources (oil and gas) will last. Many predict oil and gas will start
___________________
depleting in another 20 to 30 years.
But the world is keeping on adding new hydrocarbon finds and
developing technology to recover more hydrocarbons from existing
oil and gas fields. Also major R&D work is going on to find how to
exploit huge reserves of ‘Methane Hydrates’ i.e. an unstable
compound of water and methane, lying untapped deep below the
ocean in many parts of the world including coastal areas of India.
It is a fact that although the oil and gas industry will continue to
dominate for several decades from now, at some point of time other
forms of energy will take over. Oil and gas industry generates
wealth, and a part of the wealth is being put into R&D to innovate
for the future. We shall cover the topic in a later section on future
trends. Let us not call the industry just oil and gas industry – it is
energy industry.
What is Petroleum?
Petroleum is a word derived from the Latin words Petra (rock) and
Oleum (oil). It essentially comprises of naturally occurring
hydrocarbons i.e. compounds made of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
These hydrocarbons are trapped below the surface of the earth, in
porous rocks, in the form of oil and gas.
From where did the hydrocarbons come? There are various
theories. The most accepted theory is the organic theory.
Hydrocarbons came from remains of the bodies of pre-historic land
based animals, marine organisms (plankton) and vegetation, which
UNIT 1: Basic Concepts
were washed away and buried below the earth during upheavals 5
on the earth’s surface millions of years ago. Notes
In the course of time the buried organic matters decomposed and ___________________
the carbon and hydrogen present in these reacted under heat and ___________________
pressure to form various compounds, generally hydrocarbons.
___________________
The hydrocarbons got trapped in the porous rocks and were
___________________
covered by hard sedimentary rocks that formed over it. They acted
___________________
as “cap” or seal to prevent hydrocarbons from escaping.
___________________
As explained later, carbon and hydrogen atoms can join together to
form molecules of various sizes and structures. Hydrocarbons could ___________________
6
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
State whether the following statementsare true or false:
Construct a model of the
___________________
formation of a Reservoir.
___________________
1. Hydrocarbons in petroleum could be in gaseous, liquid
or solid form depending on the type and size of
___________________
hydrocarbon molecule.
___________________
2. Petroleum is a word derived from the Latin words Petra
___________________ and Oleum.
___________________
It must be noted that the reservoir in an oil field is not like a pool
of liquid or a container filled with gas. It is oil or gas trapped in
pores of porous sedimentary rocks, covered by impervious cap rock.
UNIT 1: Basic Concepts
7
To produce oil from the reservoir, wells are drilled through the
Activity
Notes
surface of the earth. A well is then perforated at right location
State all the components of
from where the oil or gas enters the well pipe and rushes out ___________________
Crude oil.
because of high pressure. ___________________
___________________
What is Well Fluid?
___________________
The fluid that comes out of the well in an oilfield or gas field is
called well fluid. ___________________
Well fluid is a mixture of crude oil, natural gas and saline water ___________________
along with small amounts of sand and sludge. The water is called ___________________
If the crude oil had been just made of hydrocarbons, processing to ___________________
get the final products would have been easy and at low cost. But a ___________________
number of undesirable components come out with the well fluid,
which increases the processing blocks and processing cost.
z Proportion of oil, water and gas may vary widely from one field
to other. It changes substantially with time during production.
8
Notes
Activity What is Crude Oil?
Find out using the Internet
___________________ Crude oil is a mixture of about 500 organic chemicals,
how many barrels of oil India
___________________
predominantly hydrocarbons (molecules made of carbon and
imports in a year.
hydrogen). It is recovered from underground reservoirs, normally
___________________
1000 - 5000 meters down the earth.
___________________
Crude oil can be of wide variety and characteristics. It could be
___________________ very fluid, very viscous or semisolid. The colour could be black,
___________________ dark brown, amber or light brown.
___________________ It is also called Petroleum.
___________________
What is Natural Gas?
___________________
Natural gas is a mixture of the lightest hydrocarbons like
___________________ methane, ethane, propane and butane. It also contains water to its
saturation limit. It may also contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and occasionally small amounts
of helium (He).
When natural gas comes out of the well along with crude oil, it is
called associated gas. Associated gas is produced along with crude
in a field which is essentially an oil producing field.
When the well produces mainly gas with very little liquids, it is
called free gas. Free gas production can be shut when we do not
want it.
When acid gases like CO2 and H2S are present in substantial
quantity, the gas is called sour gas. Otherwise it is called sweet
gas.
industry rather than Metric Units. Here are some important units ___________________
commonly used with which one must get familiar. ___________________
___________________
z A barrel of average crude oil weighs 0.150 ton, as a thumb
rule. It must be remembered that it depends on the density of ___________________
gas or any other fuel whose calorific value or heating value is ___________________
equivalent of one million barrels of crude oil.
10
Check Your Progress
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. Crude oil volume is usually measured in ……………… .
___________________
2. Weight or mass of crude in India is in metric ………… .
___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________
Petroleum is a saying determined from the Latin statements Petra
___________________
(rock) and Oleum (oil). It basically includes commonly happening
___________________ hydrocarbons i.e. fuses made of carbon and hydrogen particles. The
___________________ aforementioned hydrocarbons are trapped beneath the surface of
___________________
the earth, in permeable shakes, in the manifestation of oil and gas.
Keywords
Aromatics: They are compounds having a ring of six carbon atoms
with alternating double and single bonds and six hydrogen atoms.
Crude Oil: It is predominantly made of hydrocarbons. It is
composed of three main hydrocarbon groups: Paraffins,
Naphthenes, and Aromatics.
Well Fluid: It a mixture of crude oil, natural gas and saline water
along with small amounts of sand and sludge.
Petroleum: It essentially comprises of naturally occurring
hydrocarbons i.e. compounds made of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
UNIT 1: Basic Concepts
___________________
Books ___________________
Vollhardt, K.P.C. & Shore, N., Organic Chemistry (5th Edition), ___________________
New York: W.H. Freeman, (190-192), 2007.
___________________
Shore, N., Study Guide and Solutions Manual for Organic
Chemistry (5th Edition), New York: W.H. Freeman, (70-80), 2007
Web Readings
www.need.org/needpdf/infobook_activities/ElemInfo/PetroE.pdf
www.hindustanpetroleum.com
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
12
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 2: Crude Oil and Natural Gas Concepts
Unit 2
13
Notes
Activity
___________________
Objectives ___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Hydrocarbons
\ Composition of Crude Oil ___________________
___________________
Introduction
Crude oil is a mixture of about 500 organic chemicals,
predominantly hydrocarbons (molecules made of carbon and
hydrogen). It is recovered from underground reservoirs, normally
1000 - 5000 meters down the earth.
Crude oil can be of wide variety and characteristics. It could be
very fluid, very viscous or semisolid. The colour could be black,
dark brown, amber or light brown. It is also called Petroleum.
Natural gas is a mixture of the lightest hydrocarbons like
methane, ethane, propane and butane. It also contains water to its
saturation limit. It may also contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and occasionally small amounts
of helium (He).
14
As the name suggests, this is not really a gaseous component, but
Notes
volatile liquid.
___________________
LPG: The propane/butane component of the natural gas is
___________________ liquefied under moderate pressures and is supplied as cooking gas
___________________ fuel.
___________________ This is called LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas).
___________________ LNG: Natural gas in bulk is liquefied under very low (cryogenic)
___________________ temperature for transportation in large quantities by marine
tankers. This is bulk of the natural gas in liquefied form and is
___________________
re-vaporized after receiving it at its destination from tankers, to be
___________________ used as natural gas. The objective of converting the gas to LNG is
___________________ transportation in large quantities or export by marine tankers.
___________________ This is called LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas).
CNG: Natural gas is compressed to high pressures for use as
automotive fuel or for transportation in small quantities. This is
natural gas in highly compressed form but not liquefied.
It is called CNG (Compressed Natural Gas).
What is Hydrocarbon? 15
Notes
Hydrocarbons are compounds made of carbon and hydrogen. The
hydrocarbon molecules are formed by: ___________________
___________________
Bonding of a number of carbon atoms to form chain or cycle or
a combination of chain and cycle. ___________________
___________________
The number of carbon atoms bonded together can be a few or
many, in various combinations, creating numerous chemicals. ___________________
___________________
The bonding of carbon atoms could be in the form of a straight
chain, branched chain or cyclic manner. ___________________
___________________
Typical hydrocarbon structures are depicted in Figure 2.1.
___________________
16
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
Conduct further research on
___________________
Paraffins and make
___________________
a 1. Hydrocarbons are compounds made of ………………... .
presentation.
___________________ 2. The bonding of carbon atoms could be in the form of a
straight chain, ………………... or cyclic manner.
___________________
___________________
Composition of Crude Oil
___________________
Crude oil is predominantly made of hydrocarbons. It is composed of
___________________
three main hydrocarbon groups:
___________________
Paraffins
___________________
Naphthenes
___________________
Aromatics
It also contains unstable hydrocarbons called olefin.
Paraffins are straight chain compounds, chemically stable. Lighter
ones (CH4, C2H6) are gas. Heavier molecules are liquid (oil) or solid
(wax).
Naphthenes consist of carbon rings, with/without side chains.
Saturated with hydrogen, naphthenes are also chemically stable.
Lighter naphthenes are liquids and heavier ones could be solid.
Aromatics are compounds having a ring of six carbon atoms with
alternating double and single bonds and six hydrogen atoms. They
are relatively unstable.
Olefins are double bonded hydrocarbon chains, normally produced
during high temperature processing of petroleum. Olefins are
unstable and polymerize easily i.e. a large number of olefins can
combine together easily to form large gummy or plastic molecules.
UNIT 2: Crude Oil and Natural Gas Concepts
17
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
Activity
What___________________
is the boiling point of a
mixture of two liquids A and B
___________________
mixed 50-50, A and B having
a boiling points of 70°C and
___________________
80°C respectively?
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
18
Example:
Notes
C1 = Methane
___________________
___________________
C4 = Mixture of Butane and hydrocarbons with 4 carbon
atoms
___________________
C7 = Mixture of all hydrocarbons with 7 carbon atoms.
___________________
For further clarity let us put down some of the paraffin
___________________
hydrocarbons the symbol (-) indicating carbon to carbon bonds:
___________________
Methane CH4 CH4
___________________
Ethane C2H6 CH3 - CH3
___________________
Propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3
___________________
Butane C4H10 CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3
___________________
(normal butane or n-butane)
Butane structure can also be branched
chain type as given below:
CH3 - CH - CH3
|
CH3
(Isobutane or i-butane)
Both the structures of butane have same number of carbon atoms
and same number of hydrogen atoms i.e. C4H10.
The only difference is how the carbon atoms are bonded with each
other. This makes them different chemical entities but with very
similar and close physical properties like boiling point and vapour
pressure. The branched chain hydrocarbons of same carbon
numbers, same number of hydrogen atoms and same chemical
formula are called isomers.
Now let us look at Pentane.
19
Thus one can have more and more isomers as the number of
carbon atoms in the chain increases. Notes
20
Another common classification is based on Characterization
Notes
Factor, which depends on API Gravity and Boiling Point.
___________________
The crude oils are also classified in terms of chemical nature, for
___________________ example:
___________________ Paraffinic base
___________________ Asphaltic base
___________________ Intermediate base
___________________ Crude oils for which the residue after distillation contains paraffin
wax is called paraffinic. If the residue contains asphalt, it is called
___________________
asphaltic base and so on.
___________________
Refinery processing scheme and product yields depend on type of
___________________ crude in terms of chemical nature and gravity. It also indicates the
type of product it can yield.
As typical example:
Paraffinic base crude do not yield good bitumen (road tar) and
is not good for lubricating oil manufacture. But it is good for
diesel.
Light crude contains more of gasoline.
Medium crude is good for diesel production.
Heavy crude may give better bitumen.
Naphthenic crudes are good for lubricating oil.
Cut or Fraction
Crude Oil and its products are mixtures of several components.
Each component has a boiling point. It is interesting to examine
what would be the boiling point of mixture of several liquids.
Thus mixtures do not have a single boiling point; it has a boiling
range - from the initial boiling point to the final boiling point.
Liquid mixtures are identified with their boiling range. Crude oil
being a mixture, has a boiling range. Each product like gasoline or
kerosene is also a mixture and has a boiling range.
21
Product of a particular boiling range taken out of crude is defined
Notes
as cut or fractions.
___________________
The products are identified as cuts from crude of certain boiling
ranges and carbon numbers. ___________________
___________________
Table 2.1: Petroleum Product Cuts and Carbon Numbers
___________________
Product / Cut Boiling Range Carbon Number
___________________
Petroleum Products ___________________
Crude oil (Oil) and natural gas (Gas) mixed along with water,
comes out of the well as well fluid. Crude oil and natural gas
together can be broadly referred as petroleum. Petroleum is just a
raw material. Let us see what products we get from oil and gas
that comes out from well head.
The high calorific value of the petroleum products, its low cost in
the past and its suitability for use as relatively clean fuel created
incentive to consume as fuel. But in the current economic scenario,
valorization to higher value products has become integral part of
oil and gas industry.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
22
It is important to note that besides producing fuel and automotive
Notes
products like gasoline or diesel, both crude oil and natural gas
___________________
provide feed stock for petrochemicals. Feed stocks are component
___________________ of crude oil and natural gas that are converted into high value
___________________ petrochemical products like polythene, polyester, synthetic rubber
and synthetic fibre, etc. It is apparent from the table above that
___________________
there is substantial valorization once the oil or gas is converted to
___________________ petrochemicals.
___________________ The macro-system from well head to Petrochemicals has been dealt
___________________ in detail in the next section. For an initial understanding of the
___________________
petroleum products let us have a look at the simple block diagram
given in Figure 2.3.
___________________
___________________
23
Each individual block in the above diagram could be a separate
company. And each of these blocks could be located far away from Notes
This makes the oil and gas industry a real global industry. ___________________
Some important terms often used in oil and gas industry with ___________________
respect to the block diagram:
___________________
Offshore: Oil or gas field situated in the sea/ocean.
___________________
Onshore: Land based oil or gas field.
___________________
Upstream: The blocks covering reservoir, production,
___________________
processing and transportation of oil and gas is referred as
upstream blocks. ___________________
24
Only consistent trend is the reducing pattern of the
Notes
hydrocarbon constituents from the lightest to the heavier ones
___________________
e.g. methane followed by ethane and heavier hydrocarbons.
___________________
Utilization of gas as fuel is the easiest but lowest in the value
___________________ chain.
___________________ Utilization of gas to make petrochemicals is the highest in the
___________________ value chain.
___________________ Hence very often the components of the gas are separated by gas
___________________ processing to be used for manufacture of petrochemicals.
___________________ While Table 2.4 gives a range for gas composition; typical gas
composition is given in Table 2.3.
___________________
Table 2.4: Typical Gas Composition
___________________
Component Methane Associated Sour Gas with
(Volume%) rich gas gas high
Sweet Gas (mildly N2
sour)
Methane (C1) 94.5 76.5 71.5 62.5
Ethane (C2) 2.8 12.2 10.2 4.2
Propane (C3) 1.0 6.5 5.7 2.5
Butane (C4) 0.2 1.8 1.0 0.5
Heavies (C5+) Traces 1.0 0.5 0.1
Hydrogen Sulfide Nil Nil 3.5 Nil
Carbon Dioxide 1.5 2.0 7.6 5.4
Nitrogen Nil 300 ppm Nil 24.8
Water Saturated Saturated Saturate Saturated
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Petrochemical Products/Petrochemicals
What are petrochemicals? Petrochemicals are usually plastic
products and chemicals that are derived from petroleum and
natural gas and are made on a large scale (approximately >10,000
tons per annum upwards). As indicated in the earlier sections,
certain components from gas processing plants and refinery are
used as feedstock for manufacture of petrochemicals (e.g. ethane,
propane, naphtha).
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
26
Petroleum products from refinery and natural gas, supply over
Notes
50% of the feedstock for the entire chemical industry and more
___________________
than 50% of organic chemicals.
___________________
As you can see in the next table, petrochemical products have
___________________ permeated into every facet of our lives.
___________________ A vast majority of them are polymers, whose molecules are tailored
___________________ by reaction process to suit specific characteristics or properties.
___________________ Table 2.6: Petrochemicals
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
Raw petroleum might be of wide mixed bag and aspects. It could be
exceptionally liquid, extremely thick or semisolid. The colour could be
dark, dim tan, golden or light tan. It is additionally called Petroleum.
Regular gas is a mixture of the lightest hydrocarbons like
methane, ethane, propane and butane. It likewise holds water to
its immersion limit. It might additionally hold hydrogen sulphide
(H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and at times minor
measures of helium (He).
Hydrocarbons are fuses made of carbon and hydrogen.
UNIT 2: Crude Oil and Natural Gas Concepts
27
Unrefined petroleum is overwhelmingly made of hydrocarbons.
Notes
It is made out of three primary hydrocarbon bunches; Paraffins,
Naphthenes and Aromatics. ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________
___________________
Keywords ___________________
Further Readings
Books
Vollhardt, K.P.C. & Shore, N., Organic Chemistry (5th Edition),
New York: W. H. Freeman, (190-192), 2007
Shore, N., Study Guide and Solutions Manual for Organic
Chemistry (5th Edition), New York: W.H. Freeman, (70-80), 2007
Web Readings
www.need.org/needpdf/infobook_activities/ElemInfo/PetroE.pdf
www.hindustanpetroleum.com
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
28
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 3: The Macro-system
Unit 3
29
Notes
Activity
The Macro-system
Make a chart showing the
___________________
entire Petrochemical industry.
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
\ Oil and gas chain from oil well down to the petrochemical industry ___________________
\ Overview of business environment in each block of the chain ___________________
\ Overview of the major players in the chain
___________________
Introduction ___________________
___________________
Use of petroleum dates back to 3000 BC. But it was sourced from
natural oil seepages that occurred on the earth’s surface. Asphalt
from natural oil seeps is known to have been used around 3000 BC
in Mesopotamia They used it for construction of roads. Egyptian
mummies were known to be wrapped in asphalt-soaked clothing.
Application of asphalt was also made for the construction of
pyramids.
The oil producing countries are divided into two groups those who
are members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) and those who are not.
In India, the oilfield in Digboi was discovered during the later part
of nineteenth century. Till 1970, oilfields in Assam and Gujarat
were the major producers. In the seventies, Mumbai High was
developed into a major producer.
___________________ Transportation of oil and gas, which are raw material, is done by
pipeline, marine tankers or rail/road tankers. Transportation by
___________________
itself is a huge business sector.
The gas is first treated to remove impurities like sulfur. Then
cryogenic (low temperature) processing is carried out to liquefy and
separate by distillation, the components like ethane, propane and
LPG. The separated components are utilized to make higher value
products:
Methane, which is bulk of the gas, is a good raw material for
manufacture of urea fertilizer, chemicals like methanol or can
be used as fuel to generate power.
Ethane and propane are sent to the petrochemical plants as
feedstock to crack them into ethylene/propylene, which are
polymerized into plastics (polythene, polypropylene).
LPG (propane and butane mix) is bottled in cylinders and sent
for domestic consumption.
The heavier hydrocarbons (C5+), which are present in the gas
condenses as Natural Gas Liquids (NGL). NGL is sent to the
refinery to be processed as blending stock for gasoline or it is
sent to a petrochemical complex as feedstock.
If the gas is to be transported to another country by marine
tankers, it is liquefied as LNG.
The oil from the oilfield processing block is pumped (or taken by
tanker) to the refinery. Oil refining is a composite of several
processing steps. The first step is separation of raw products by
distillation. There are subsequent process steps to meet certain
specification of the products. Then there are processing to meet
UNIT 3: The Macro-system
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
32
Similarly for making PVC (polyvinyl chloride), vinyl chloride is
Notes
first formed by reaction of chlorine with ethylene.
___________________
With any of the feedstock mentioned, numerous petrochemical
___________________
products are made. Starting with ethane as feedstock,
___________________ configuration of a typical petrochemical complex is shown in
___________________ Figure 3.2. Ethylene is made by cracking ethane. Vinyl chloride is
made by reaction of ethane with chlorine. Plastic end products like
___________________
Polythene and PVC are made by polymerization of ethylene and
___________________ vinyl chloride.
___________________
Part of the ethylene undergoes processing with benzene
___________________ (originating from naphtha as feedstock) and produces polystyrene
___________________ as end product.
33
Gas Processing
Notes
Refinery
___________________
Petrochemicals
___________________
Power Plants and other gas based industries ___________________
Of course another large industry not mentioned earlier is the ___________________
storage, transportation and logistics of numerous products that
___________________
come out of processing of oil and gas.
___________________
The first two businesses i.e. oilfield processing and transportation
___________________
activities are known as Upstream. The others are referred as
Downstream. ___________________
Now we shall touch upon brief history of development of oil and ___________________
gas industry. Then the Indian oil and gas industry with reference ___________________
to the macro-system, upstream and downstream will be described.
34
The first effort for production of petroleum by digging wells were
Notes
reported in China in the year 600 BC. Crude oil is reported to have
___________________
been produced during digging of brine wells.
___________________
Those days the technique for search of oil was limited to looking for
___________________
oil or gas seeps and trying to locate an adequate source nearby.
___________________ The search for oil and gas today is much more complicated.
___________________
___________________
Industrial Revolution and the Search for Oil
___________________
During the eighteenth century, the industrial revolution created
the demand of lighting, fuel and lubricating oils for the
___________________
machineries. This intensified the search for oil (exploration) and it
___________________ resulted in the development of the technology for oil exploration.
___________________ In the middle of the nineteenth century oil from coal (named
kerosene) was being used to satisfy the demand of lighting oils lamps.
Whale oil and coal oil were also used for lubrication of the machines.
Kerosene from the petroleum produced from natural seepage started
shortly afterwards. During the period 1850 to 1870, drilling of wells to
produce oil started the oil boom in the USA. Those days often oil was
found at depths of 30 to 100 meters. Today the depth of oil wells are a
few thousand meters to several Kilometres. Development of the
exploration and drilling technology moved faster with the companies
getting cash rich with the oil boom. Some of the largest and
financially strong oil companies emerged in the USA. The landmark
events in the history of oil and gas industry are:
In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company,
which soon gained a near monopoly on oil production and became
one of the largest companies in the world.
Till 1900, fuel oil, kerosene and lubricating oils were the main
products from petroleum. Then came the advent of cars and the
demand for gasoline. During the early part of the twentieth
century, gasoline-fueled cars became popular; locomotive and ship
engines were converted from coal to oil; and the airplanes using
aviation gasoline started flying. The demand for gasoline went up
and with the advent of electric power, the demand for kerosene for
lighting went down, bringing change in refinery technology.
Search and production of oil became more technology oriented
since early twentieth century. Rotary drills were used to dig wells
for oil. The first offshore wells were drilled in California in 1896. In
1948 the first platform was used to drill an offshore well in
Louisiana.
UNIT 3: The Macro-system
35
In the first half of the twentieth century, the discovery of large
Notes
oilfields spread to the other parts of the world. New fields were
discovered in erstwhile USSR, the Middle East and other locations. ___________________
USSR became a major producer of oil under state ownership of the ___________________
various oil reservoirs. With the participation in major discoveries
___________________
and ownership worldwide, some of the pioneering American
companies like Standard Oil, Texaco, and Mobil became giants. ___________________
In India, the oilfield in Digboi was discovered during the later part ___________________
of nineteenth century. Till 1970, oilfields in Assam and Gujarat ___________________
were the major producers. In the seventies, Mumbai High was
___________________
developed into a major producer.
___________________
The Middle East came into the picture in the 1930s. In 1932, the
first crude oil discovery in Bahrain was made by Standard Oil. In ___________________
1936, Standard Oil of California joined with other American ___________________
majors to form Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO).
ARAMCO made a major oil discovery in Saudi Arabia in 1938.
North Sea oil field were discovered and developed during the late
sixties and seventies. During the eighties and nineties, some of the
Latin American countries (Mexico, Venezuela) made major oil field
discoveries and development. During the nineties, Asia Pacific
countries like China and Indonesia became major producers.
36
It is important to know that India’s proven reserves are meagre
Notes
compared to the size and potential of the country.
___________________
The oil producing countries are divided into two groups those who
___________________ are members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
___________________ (OPEC) and those who are not.
___________________ This post consists of oil producing countries. Total world
___________________ production of the oil is 12%. The oil of the world will run out in a
few years. Every country is trying to discover more reserves of oil.
___________________
It is known that how far this struggle will succeed. It is the need of
___________________ the hour that we cut short the need of oil. Anyhow we should try to
___________________ maximize the oil production.
___________________ Following are the list of top ten oil producing countries in which we
___________________
discuss their production, import and export of the oil.
37
4. China: It produces about 4.27 million oil barrels per day.
Notes
It supplies 5% of the world. It has about 20.3 billion barrels of
proven oil reserves. It is the fifth biggest supplier of oil to the ___________________
US. Iran supplies 11% of China oil imports. ___________________
5. Iran: Iran plays a major role in the world oil market because ___________________
its quality is very good. It produces about 4,172,000 bbl and
___________________
4.25 million barrels of oil per day. It supplies 4.95% oil to the
___________________
world.
___________________
6. Canada: It is the major industry in the economy of North
America. Its production is 3,289,000 barrels per day. It ___________________
supplies about 3.90% oil of the world. It is the single largest ___________________
source of oil imports into the United States.
___________________
7. Mexico: It supplies three leading foreign countries to the ___________________
United States, along with Canada and Saudi Arabia. Its
production is 3,001,000 oil of the world. It shares about 3.56%
oil to the world.
8. United Arab Emirates: It produces about 2,798,000 oil of the
world and exports 3.32% oil of the world. Their oil reserves are
ranked as the sixth largest country in the world and possess
one of the most developed economies in west Asia.
9. Brazil: It produces 2,572,000 barrel oil the world. It shares
about 3.05% oil to the world. It has 8.5 billion of proved oil
reserves. In Brazil, Tupi oil field is a large oil field.
10. Kuwait: It produces less than Brazil. The production of oil of
Kuwait is 2,494,000. It exports 2.96% oil to the world. It has
104 billion barrel proven oil reserves. Kuwait’s oil reserves are
the fourth largest in the world. It is on seventh no. in export.
Some important features of OPEC and non-OPEC countries are:
Proven crude reserves are concentrated in OPEC countries.
Out of the world’s 1.0 trillion barrels of proven reserves, 80% is
held by OPEC.
80 to 90% of the oil produced by them are exported.
There is very little internal consumption indicating the
economy to be oil export dependant.
OPEC countries have very high spare capacity for production.
Non-OPEC countries hold approximately a combined 500,000
barrels per day (bbl/d) of spare oil production capacity, while
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
39
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
In this unit, the total macro-system from oil well to petrochemicals
was explained in the form of block diagram. Flow of various
components of gas and oil in to the manufacturing blocks of
refinery and petrochemicals leading to final products was
highlighted.
Indications were given how at each step of processing the oil and
gas get valorized in to higher priced products.
Having explained the macro-system, a brief history of oil and gas
industry was presented. Major players in the world and specifically
in India were identified.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
40
Lesson End Activity
Notes
Prepare a project report on the history of oil and gas industry and
___________________
their composition worldwide.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): It is
___________________ an organization formed in 1961 to administer a common policy for
___________________ the sale of petroleum.
___________________ Industrial Revolution: The rapid development of industry in
___________________ Britain in the late 18th and 19th centuries, brought about by the
introduction of machinery.
___________________
Ethylene: It is made by cracking ethane.
___________________
Review Questions
1. Draw a block diagram showing the flow of gas and its
components from a gas field offshore to further processing and
generation of ethylene based petrochemicals.
2. Name three of the largest oil companies in the world.
3. Give an outline of the Oil and Gas industry worldwide.
4. Explain the Oil and Gas chain with the help of an illustration.
Further Readings
Books
March, J., Advanced Organic Chemistry: Wiley, 4th edition. 1992.
Walber, Richards & Haltiwangler, J. Am.Chem. Society. 1982
Web Readings
www.economywatch.com/world-industries/oil
www.oilmillmachinerysuppliers.com/history.html
www.history.com/topics/oil-industry
UNIT 4: The Indian Perspective
Unit 4
41
Notes
Activity
Introduction ___________________
(e) How is the gas distributed.
(f) ___________________
What are the
Oil exploration and production industry in India dates back to the Petrochemical Complexes
late nineteenth century. The first commercial oilfield was struck at and fertilizer plants based
Digboi in North-Eastern India in the year 1890. Till the 1970s, on Mumbai High Gas.
In this unit we will study about the Indian Oil and Gas scenario.
Contd…
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
44
2 Reliance India Ltd. Neelam, Panna, Krishna Downstream
Notes Godavari Basin refineries &
petrochemicals,
Pipeline
___________________
3 Oil India ltd. Assam, Rajasthan
___________________ 4 Cairn Energy India Cauvery Basin
5 Essar Oil Ratna Oilfield Development Downstream
___________________ Refinery
6 Gas Authority of India Oil Exploration, Gas Petrochemicals
___________________ Pipeline
7 Hindustan Oil KG Basin (PY3), Cambay
___________________ Exploration Co. Basin
8 Videocon Petroleum KG Basin (Ravva Offshore)
___________________ 9 Niko Resources Cambay Basin
___________________
The domestic oil demand and supply are presented in Table 4.1. It
___________________
can be seen that we are grossly insufficient in our hydrocarbon
___________________ resources and dependant on imports of oil and gas.
___________________
Natural Gas
The demand of gas has been projected by various estimates
depending on assumed user pattern at figures between 150 to 200
million SCMD. Major consumption of Natural Gas in India will be
in the Power and Fertilizer sectors. Natural Gas consumption in
other industries, such as petrochemicals, town gas, or as
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in the automobile sector, is also
considered in the projections.
This leaves a wide gap in the supply demand balance for Natural
Gas in the country. The India Hydrocarbon Vision 2025 has
projected that the demand for Natural Gas will go up to about 230
million standard cubic meters per day by 2007, to more than 310
million standard cubic meters per day by 2011, finally reaching a
UNIT 4: The Indian Perspective
level of 390 million standard cubic meters per day by 2025. In the 45
long-term policy statement, the Government of India has Notes
visualized Hydrate reserves and coal bed methane, as potential ___________________
indigenous resources.
___________________
Earlier plan was to meet the future gas requirements by import of ___________________
LNG. Recent hydrocarbon discoveries of Reliance and ONGC are
___________________
expected to bridge the gap to a certain extent.
___________________
The per capita energy consumption in India is very low at the level ___________________
of 226 Kg of Oil Equivalent compared to 7759 Kg Oil Equivalent in
___________________
the USA. With a low base, the energy supply in India has been
___________________
growing @ 6% annually compared to an average of 1.5% worldwide.
It is projected that the growth rate of Indian economy may go up to ___________________
7-8% in the near future. This will further increase the energy
requirement for the future.
46
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
Carry out a similar exercise as
___________________
the first one for the oil, gas,
___________________
1. A major gas processing complex is located at
refinery and petrochemical
………………….. where sweetening and recovery of LPG
facilities of
___________________Reliance
Petroleum. are carried out.
___________________
2. The first major cross country pipeline laid in North-
___________________ Eastern oil fields of India, was from ………………….. in
___________________ Assam to Barauni and Haldia.
___________________
___________________
The Indian Perspective – Downstream
___________________ The refinery industry also dates back to over one hundred years.
India’s first refinery was built at Digboi in 1901 by British
___________________
Petroleum. In the late ’50s and early ’60s multinational oil
companies such as Shell, Caltex and Esso invested in refineries in
India. Indian Refineries Ltd., the first state owned (public sector)
refinery was built in Guwahati in the early sixties. Later it became
Indian Oil Corporation.
47
With the deregulation of the oil economy initiated in the early
Notes
nineties, a number of private players emerged. The Reliance
refinery at Jamnagar became the biggest refinery in India and one ___________________
of the biggest in the world. Other players like Mangalore ___________________
Refineries and Petrochemicals Ltd emerged in the private sector.
___________________
Privatization of some of the public sector refineries are also on the
cards but presently held up in the legalities. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
was the first major petrochemical complex set up under state
ownership in the mid ‘70s. This was followed by another major
___________________
petrochemical complex at Nagothane in Maharashtra under IPCL.
___________________
India has also a large and growing Petrochemical industry with
___________________
one of the largest integrated petrochemical complexes in the world
and several other petrochemical complexes. India has the second
largest fertilizer production capacity in the world.
Transportation Infrastructure
India has major ports for handling of oil and products (export and
import) at Jamnagar, Mumbai, Mangalore, Cochin, Chennai, Vizag
and Haldia. Inland transportation of crude from the production
sites or ports is primarily undertaken via pipelines.
UNIT 4: The Indian Perspective
49
Transportation of refined products is carried out through multiple
Notes
options – pipelines, the rail system, road tankers and coastal
shipping using marine tankers. A very broad and approximate ___________________
distribution of load on various modes of transportation of ___________________
petroleum products is:
___________________
Pipelines: 42%
___________________
Marine transportation: 10% ___________________
Rail transportation: 38% ___________________
Pipelines
A few of the major pipeline systems in the country is shown in the
next block. A vast network of oil, gas, LPG and petroleum product
pipelines exist all over the country.
Rail System
About 40 Million tons of petroleum products are moved from
refineries to storage terminals or depots in other various cities and
towns by the railway network.
Summary
In this unit, the total macro-system from oil well to petrochemicals
was explained in the form of block diagram. Flow of various
components of gas and oil in to the manufacturing blocks of
refinery and petrochemicals leading to final products was
highlighted.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
50
Indications were given how at each step of processing the oil and
Notes
gas get valorized in to higher priced products.
___________________
Having explained the macro-system, a brief history of oil and gas
___________________
industry was presented. Major players in the world and specifically
___________________
in India were identified. Hydrocarbon infrastructure in India was
___________________ presented with maps. The high growth potential of oil and gas
___________________ business and future opportunities were highlighted.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
Oilfield Processing: The well fluid is processed in or in the
vicinity of the oilfield.
Further Readings 51
Notes
Books ___________________
March, J., Advanced Organic Chemistry: Wiley, 4th edition. 1992. ___________________
Walber, Richards & Haltiwangler, J. Am.Chem. Society. 1982 ___________________
___________________
Web Readings
___________________
www.economywatch.com/world-industries/oil
___________________
www.oilmillmachinerysuppliers.com/history.html
___________________
www.history.com/topics/oil-industry
___________________
___________________
___________________
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
52
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 5: Case Study
Unit 5
53
Notes
Case Study
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
___________________
The Changing Environment within the Gas Industry
___________________
Gas is the carefully controlled source of nearly half of the
country’s energy needs. And most of that gas is transported safely ___________________
and reliably by a British company - Transco. All day, every day,
___________________
sophisticated computer-based telemetry watches, records and
reports as the gas goes through meters, compressors, valves and
governors on its way to more than 20 million homes, factories and
businesses. Millions of cubic metres of gas every day are pushed
through the system at a steady 10-15 miles an hour.
55
Even though gas is in the private sector, it is still heavily
regulated. Transco is the country’s near-monopoly gas transporter Notes
and the largest of around ten public gas transporters licensed by ___________________
the regulator, OFGEM (the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets)
___________________
to move gas around the country. Transco’s pipeline business,
because it is a monopoly, is regulated by OFGEM whose staff ___________________
ensure that Transco works within the requirements of the Gas
___________________
Acts and its licence conditions.
___________________
Pricing and Competition
___________________
Transco’s revenues are earned within a price control linked to the
rate of inflation and modified by an efficiency factor decided by ___________________
the regulator who controls Transco’s revenues. The formula - RPI- ___________________
X - was introduced in the mid-80s. That type of control and the
___________________
regulation of profits in general was seen as a temporary means of
‘holding the fort’ until competition arrived. Developments in the ___________________
price controls in both the gas and electricity supply industries -
both now regulated by a common regulator - are being looked at.
1965: In the same year that The Beatles received their MBEs, the
nationalised Gas Council rebuilt and modernised the UK’s gas
industry. The energy map of Britain was drastically redrawn with
the discovery in the North Sea of high quality gas reserves that
would provide supplies for the foreseeable future. Coal and oil
gasification plants become virtually obsolete.
56
1979: Margaret Thatcher’s first government was elected and, in a
Notes
programme to be copied around the world, it prepared to privatise
___________________ national corporations.
___________________ 1986: The British Gas Corporation was privatised as British Gas
plc, with 17 million customers, 4.5 million shareholders, over
___________________
89,000 employees and had annual cost operating profits of £688
___________________ million. It was granted a 25 year monopoly to supply gas to
___________________ customers using under 25,000 therms a year and was subject to
strict pricing controls by the regulator, the Office of Gas
___________________
Regulation (Ofgas).
___________________
1988: Competition began to be felt. The South Morecambe gas
___________________ field, British Gas’s first major independent find, was brought into
operation. It was one of the largest gas fields on the UK
___________________
Continental Shelf. The Monopolies and Mergers Commission
___________________ (MMC) recommended the publication of contract price schedules,
allowing competitors to undercut British Gas in the 25,000-plus
therms a year business user market.
1998: The domestic gas market became fully competitive. Transco ___________________
spent over 500 man-years to design and build the computer
___________________
systems that enable the world’s largest competitive market to
function. ___________________
A matter of branding
58
The theme, ‘Transco, an essential British company, piping gas for
Notes
you’, continues to be used in company advertising, along with a
___________________ series of ‘We do, we don’t’ adverts which seek to emphasise that
Transco pipes gas and runs the gas emergency service - but
___________________
doesn’t sell gas, fit cookers, send gas bills or mend boilers.
___________________ Regular surveys, carried out to track public awareness of Transco
___________________ as a brand, demonstrate a steady rise.
___________________ Question
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 6: The Exploration of Oil
59
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
BLOCK-II
Detailed Contents Understanding Oil & Gas Business
60
Notes
UNIT 6: THE EXPLORATION OF OIL
___________________ UNIT 8: ONSHORE OILFIELD PROCESSING
z Introduction z Introduction
___________________
z Formation of Oil Traps z Typical Field Configuration for Production
___________________
z Exploration for Oil and Gas z Description of Oilfield Processing
___________________
UNIT 7: PRODUCTION METHODS
___________________ UNIT 9: OFFSHORE OILFIELD PROCESSING
z Introduction z Introduction
___________________
z Production – An Overview of Methods z Offshore Production Facility
___________________
z Offshore Field Operation and Logistics
___________________
___________________
UNIT 6: The Exploration of Oil
Unit 6
61
Notes
Activity
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
\ How hydrocarbons (oil and gas) were formed and trapped below the ___________________
surface of the earth
___________________
\ How hydrocarbons are explored, located and assessed for commercial
viability ___________________
\ Overview of primary production methods and enhanced oil recovery
___________________
methods.
___________________
Introduction
It is important to have an elementary understanding on how
hydrocarbon is formed and trapped in the rocks below the earth.
It was explained earlier that according to the widely accepted
“organic theory”, oil and gas were originated from huge masses of
organisms, animals and vegetation that got buried under the earth
and were covered by sedimentary rocks. Layers of rock formed over
it and the formation and trapping of the hydrocarbons took place in
the following stages over millions of years.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
which were formed due to various reasons like sedimentation and Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
In the trap, the gas being the lightest rises to the top. The oil
settles below the gas, and the water, which is heaviest, settles at
the bottom. Due to high pressure, a lot of gas remains dissolved in
the oil. A large formation of rocks of this nature bearing
hydrocarbons is called reservoir. The earth surface above a
reservoir from which commercial exploitation takes place, is called
oil, gas or condensate field depending on what it produces.
The term hydrocarbon reserves refers to the estimated amount of
oil, gas or condensate that is expected to be produced in the future
from wells in known fields.
The search for hydrocarbons is called prospecting or exploration of
oil or hydrocarbons.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
64
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
Differentiate between
___________________
Geologists and Geophysicists
___________________
1. The hydrocarbon formation took place by decomposition
according to the nature of their
in various layers of rock called ………………….. .
work.___________________
2. During the migration, the oil and gas got into densely
___________________
packed sedimentary rocks of very high porosity known
___________________ as …………………...
___________________
65
The range of activities outlined take several years of teamwork
Notes
between Geologists, Geophysicists, Reservoir Engineers, Chemical
Engineers, Petroleum Economists and other disciplines. ___________________
___________________
Licensing and Agreement
___________________
The first step in exploration of oil obviously is entering into
___________________
contract, lease agreement or obtaining licenses from the
governments. Normally the government of the country carries out ___________________
a lot of surveys (see next item) to define a ‘block’ for exploration ___________________
and invites bids. The selected bidder then enters into agreement
___________________
with the government. There are two types of arrangements:
___________________
z Licenses to the exploring company to explore and produce oil
___________________
and gas with license fees, royalties (per unit production) and
taxes payable to the state.
z Production sharing contracts, in which the state or a state
owned company, is made a partner in the venture. Normally
the initial exploration costs are borne by the licensee.
Revenues earned on production are first set-off against the
costs incurred by the licensee and the balance amount is
shared in an agreed percentage.
Once the agreement is reached, the exploration starts.
66
Geophysicists measure the properties and patterns of sub-surface
Notes
rock strata by three types of surveys. These are explained below:
___________________
z Magnetic Survey: To determine the strength of the Earth’s
___________________
magnetic field at a specific location.
___________________
z Gravity Survey: To determine the strength of the Earth’s
___________________
gravity at a location.
___________________
z Seismic Survey: To draw subsurface maps using sound
___________________
waves.
___________________
In seismic survey explosive charges are detonated in holes drilled
___________________
by truck mounted rigs at specific points in the survey area. This rig
___________________
is called Thumper Truck. The energy waves are picked up by
___________________ geophones laid out on the surface and recorded on magnetic tape
by seismographs, the same instruments that are used to measure
the earthquakes.
The seismic data helps to develop the geometry and size of the
“trap” formation, where hydrocarbon exists under the trap and
decide whether an exploratory well is to be drilled.
67
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Drilling
After geological and geophysical studies are carried out, the
possibility of presence of hydrocarbon deposits worth further
exploration is established. Once an exploration target is defined a
drilling contractor is hired to drill exploratory wells.
Exploratory well: An exploratory well is required to confirm the
existence of oil or gas in a basin identified through geological and
geophysical surveys. The first exploratory well drilled in a field is
called wildcat. The first successful well showing hydrocarbon
presence during wildcat is called discovery well. Points to note are:
z It may or may not produce oil and is abandoned if it does not
produce oil. The well is called dry hole.
z A lot of information is generated by logging some of the
properties of the well and analyzing the fluids and rocks that
come out during drilling. This data helps in defining the
geological history and the properties of the reservoir.
The information interpreted from the well logs is used for decision
making on whether the well is to be used for production or is to be
abandoned for being not viable economically. The information is
also used to update the geological models.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
68
Drilling is a continuous effort in a field even after discovery and
Notes
production of hydrocarbons. Drilling of additional well after
___________________
discovery to define the size of the reservoir is called delineation.
___________________ Development wells are drilled into a known reservoir to increase
___________________ production.
___________________ Oil wells are being drilled all over the world in diverse
geographical areas. Very often they are in remote areas like
___________________
deserts, forests or oceans (offshore). On land (onshore) the well site
___________________ must be cleared and access roads are constructed.
___________________
A typical drilling rig onshore is shown in Figure 6.5.
___________________
___________________
___________________
and mud down the inside of the drill stem to: ___________________
___________________
z to prevent any accidental “blow-out” meaning sudden eruption
of oil and gas through the well pipe. ___________________
Horizontal Drilling
Horizontal drilling is an important technology which makes oil
production more economic. Wells are usually drilled vertically or
slanted from a platform. Modern drilling technology can produce a
90 degree turn in a short distance. This is due to methods and tools
that control the drill bit, flexible pipe and innovative engineering
design. A horizontal well is first drilled vertically to a target then
angled to a path parallel to the formation to penetrate the
reservoir. This improves recovery and economics.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
70
Offshore Drilling
Notes
Offshore or marine rig is positioned by tugs. The type of rig
___________________ selected depends on depth of the sea. The different types of
___________________ offshore rigs are shown in Figure 6.6.
___________________ The various types of offshore drilling rigs are:
___________________ 1. Jack-Up Rig is floated to its well location. At the location
___________________ huge “legs” are cranked down to reach the sea floor. Then the
hull is raised above sea level. It normally stands on four legs
___________________
resting on the sea bed. Its use is limited to water depths of up
___________________ to a few hundred meters.
___________________
2. A Drill Ship is like any other ship but has a mast located
___________________ centrally and is therefore a very mobile drilling rig.
___________________ 3. Submersible Rigs have hulls on which it floats while being
towed to the site. On location the hulls are flooded and the
hulls come to rest on the bottom. Used for shallow water
drilling only.
4. Semi-Submersible Rigs are similar to submersible rigs
but when the hulls are flooded they do not sink to the bottom.
Once a reservoir is found to be commercially viable, a development
well program is carried out from a platform anchored to the sea
bed.
The rigs must not be confused with offshore platforms, which are
normally permanently piled in the sea bed.
De-Commissioning of Wells
In most of the countries, it is mandatory to decommission the
wells and bring back the land to its original state after the field is
abandoned.
Exploration and Production Costs
The costs incurred for production of oil and gas comprise of the
following:
z Exploration Costs
z Development Costs
z Operating Costs
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
72
Exploration costs include the cost of seismic surveys and
Notes
exploratory drilling and varies between US$ 1 per bbl in prolific
___________________
oilfields to more than US$ 12 per bbl, where the environment is
___________________ difficult and production per well is low. The finding costs have
___________________ reduced significantly over a period of time to US$ 4-6 per bbl on
average. This is due to the technological evolutions like:
___________________
z Developments of 3-D seismic surveys, which give more
___________________
precise location of wells
___________________
z Development of horizontal drilling
___________________
z Development of FPSO
___________________
z Development of sub-sea production system
___________________
Development and operating costs include the cost of production,
___________________
maintenance, processing, transportation, infrastructure, etc. It
varies from US$ 1 per bbl in Middle East to as high as US$ 20 per
bbl in certain locations.
On an average, the cost of oil exploration, development and
operation comes around US $ 10-12 per bbl.
z Production profile over the field life (for oil, gas and water) ___________________
Field Life
It could be from a few years to a few decades. Fields with low
production profile and short life are referred as marginal fields.
74 Oil Ratio (GOR) can vary widely from field to field and over the
Notes field life.
___________________
Production Profile
___________________
Normally the oil production starts at a low level, it increases to a
___________________
peak level called plateau level and then tapers off. The gas and
___________________ water production also changes with field life depending on
___________________ characteristics of the reservoir. Typical production profile of an
oilfield is given in Figure 6.7.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
In this unit, at first the formation of hydrocarbon bearing
structures was described. A description of hydrocarbon reservoir
comprising of porous rocks containing the hydrocarbon in its
pores and covered by a non-permeable cap rock was given.
This was followed by description of the methods of oil exploration,
identification of probable hydrocarbon bearing structures and
UNIT 6: The Exploration of Oil
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________
___________________
Keywords ___________________
Further Readings
Books
Fundamentals of Oil & Gas Accounting? Charlotte J. Wright,
Rebecca A. Gallun - Business & Economics, 2008
Introduction to the Global Oil & Gas Business? -Samuel Van
Vactor - Business & Economics
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
76
Web Readings
Notes
www.ril.com/html/business/exploration_production.html
___________________
www.wikinvest.com/.../Oil_%26_Gas_Drilling_%26_ Exploration
___________________
www.satimagingcorp.com › Satellite Imaging Services
___________________
www.hoovers.com › Hoover's Directories › Industry Overviews
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 7: Production Methods
Unit 7
77
Notes
Activity
Production Methods
Make a presentation on
___________________
Sucker Rod Pumps and how
they___________________
pump out the oil.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
Introduction ___________________
___________________
There are primary, secondary and tertiary methods of recovery of
hydrocarbons are used for maximum extraction of hydrocarbons
from the reservoir.
A team of reservoir engineers, geologists and geophysicists base
the choice of EOR method and its design/operating parameters on
a thorough simulation and study of the reservoir.
___________________ Sometimes the pressures of the reservoir are low at the early
___________________ stages of production. In such cases artificial methods are used even
___________________
during primary production.
___________________ These pumps having huge size of their drive system, which moves
up and down, make a magnificent sight in the oilfield, where often
___________________
an array of such pumps can be seen.
___________________
The plunger goes deep down the well moving up and down
pumping out the oil.
Water Injection
Water is first treated to meet reservoir specification for particulate
content, dissolved solids content, oxygen content etc. Then it is
injected around the periphery of the producing well as shown
(Figure 7.2).
UNIT 7: Production Methods
79
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Contd…
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
80
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Steam Injection
Steam is injected down injection wells to heat the heavy oil to
reduce its viscosity and make it more fluid. The steam also
produces drive to push the oil toward producing wells.
In-situ Combustion
This method of EOR is used for very viscous crude oils. It is also
used as primary production method where crude oil is too viscous
to flow up through the well on its own.
UNIT 7: Production Methods
81
In-situ combustion has been effectively used in North Gujarat
Notes
Oilfield in India to produce very viscous crude oil, which is almost
like semi-solid in the ambient temperature. ___________________
In this process (Figure7.4), air and water are injected into the oil ___________________
___________________
___________________
82
These are some of the typical EOR processes. A team of reservoir
Notes
engineers, geologists and geophysicists base the choice of EOR
___________________
method and its design/operating parameters on a thorough
___________________ simulation and study of the reservoir.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ………………. is injection of gas in the well tubing to
___________________
make the density of oil column in the well lighter.
___________________
2. ………………. involves injection of the gas directly to the
___________________ reservoir to provide drive to push out oil.
___________________
___________________ Summary
In this unit, an overview was given on various primary and
secondary methods of oil and gas production. This included Water
injection, Steam injection, In-situ Combustion and Gas Injection
and Gas Lift.
Keywords
Primary Production: It is the kind of production of oil on its own
pressure.
Christmas Tree: It is a primary production facility comprising a
Manifold on top of the well.
In-situ Combustion: This method of EOR is used for very viscous
crude oils.
Further Readings 83
Notes
Books ___________________
Fundamentals of Oil & Gas Accounting, Charlotte J. Wright, ___________________
Rebecca A. Gallun - Business & Economics, 2008
___________________
Introduction to the Global Oil & Gas Business, Samuel Van Vactor
___________________
- Business & Economics
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
www.ril.com/html/business/exploration_production.html ___________________
www.wikinvest.com/.../Oil_%26_Gas_Drilling_%26_ Exploration ___________________
84
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 8: Onshore Oilfield Processing
Unit 8
85
Notes
Activity
\ What kind of processing is required at the oilfield and the technology ___________________
involved
___________________
Introduction
Wellhead fluids must be processed before anything else. So, oil and
gas production involves a number of surface unit operations
between the wellhead and point of custody transfer. Collectively
these operations are called oilfield processing.
This unit talks about Oilfiels processing and its various facets.
86
In a land based field (onshore), the wells could be in short
Notes
distances (less than a Km) spread over the whole area. The well
___________________ fluid from the wells is collected into Group Gathering Stations
___________________ (GGS), where the oil, gas, and water are separated and processed.
___________________ A typical onshore field configuration is shown.
___________________ As shown, the well fluid is collected from the wells by flow lines
___________________ into a GGS. There could be more than one GGS in an oilfield
depending on the area of the field, number of wells and
___________________
development plan of the field.
___________________
After processing in the GGS, oil is stored in tank farms and sent to
___________________
the consumer (refinery) through pipeline or tankers. The gas is
___________________
compressed and sent by pipeline to the consumer (power plant or
___________________ industry) or sent to a gas processing plant to produce LPG and
separation of petrochemical feedstock.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Oil and gas as produced in the field is not transportable and does ___________________
88
Notes
Activity
Make a presentation on the
___________________
topic “Gas Dehydration”.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 8.2: Oilfield Facilities Configuration
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
90
To meet transportation requirement, compressors are installed to
Notes
meet pressure requirements in the pipeline and large oil pumps
___________________
are used to pump the oil into the pipeline or a tanker. Often for
___________________ greater efficiency of gas dehydration at higher pressures,
___________________ compressors are placed ahead of the gas dehydration facility.
___________________ Two more important items that form essential part of oilfield
processing are:
___________________
Custody Transfer Meter: Most often the producer of the gas and
___________________
oil and the customer are different companies or different profit
___________________
centres under the same company. Accurate metering of oil and gas
___________________ are required before they are despatched to the customer.
___________________ Pig Launcher: An equipment known as Pig, which is spherical or
___________________ cylindrical objects of diameter close to the pipeline diameter, is
pushed into the pipeline at certain intervals by the Pig Launcher.
The objective is to clean and monitor inner surface of the pipeline.
91
z Pumping and metering of oil
Notes
z Compression and metering of gas
___________________
In addition a number of utilities and other facilities are needed
___________________
like:
___________________
z Flare System
___________________
z Chemical Injection System
___________________
z Control System
___________________
z Utilities like power generation ___________________
Certain other facilities also may need to be installed in the field. ___________________
These are:
___________________
z Gas Sweetening: If hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide
___________________
content in the gas is high enough to cause severe corrosion
during processing and transportation.
z Storage of Oil: It is based on logistics of operation.
z Secondary and Tertiary Recovery: Requirement of
Enhanced Oil Recovery comes up as the field ages.
Separators
These are pressure vessels whose function is to separate oil, gas
and water. A simple sketch of a separator was presented earlier.
The operating pressure of the separators could be very high (say 50
to 60 atmospheres) or lower depending on the reservoir pressure.
Besides the simple design of separator shown, there could be wide
variety of designs, some of them of proprietary make:
z Horizontal separator
z Vertical separator
z Cyclone type separator
A skid mounted separation system is shown in Figure 8.6.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
92
Stabilization system for crude oil is a series of separators in
Notes
sequence (normally 3 to 4) where pressure of the well fluid is
___________________
brought down in each stage.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
93
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 8.7: Heater Treater
___________________
Dehydration of Gas
There are a number of processes for dehydration of gas as
described later. These could be Dry Bed Adsorbent process, where
moisture is adsorbed on the porous surface of the drying medium,
which are solid particles. For example beads of Silica Gel or
Molecular Sieves are used as drying medium. Some of these
processes are used to dry the gas to ‘bone dry’ level.
The other type of processes are based on absorption of the moisture
from the gas by scrubbing (washing) the gas with a liquid drying
agent, which is a good absorbent of moisture. These units are
easier to operate but not suitable for getting the gas totally dry
(bone dry). In oilfield, absorption type of process is more commonly
used. Water is removed from the gas by contacting the wet gas
with an absorbent liquid which absorbs the water (Figure 8.8).
Generally Glycols are used as absorbent. Tri-ethylene glycol (TEG)
and ethylene glycol (EG) are the two most commonly used glycols
in natural gas dehydration.
TEG is used in about 95% of glycol dehydrators. Dehydration with
TEG is most widely used in oil/gas field processing.
Dehydration of gas takes place in a column (Absorber Column)
with trays or packing inside to facilitate contact between glycol
absorbent and the wet gas. The gas fed at the bottom part of the
column goes up and the dry glycol (lean glycol) fed at upper part of
the column comes down the column absorbing water out of the gas.
Absorbent containing water absorbed from gas (rich glycol) is
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Such systems are widely used in offshore and onshore fields for
dehydration of gas. Gas dehydration unit is also skid-mounted
with piping and ancillary equipment for easy installation in the
field.
95
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 8.9: Produced Water Treatment
___________________
Water is taken to a settling tank where the quality is monitored
___________________
before discharging the water. In offshore platforms water is sent to
an equipment called Caisson. It resembles a cylindrical well dipped
into the sea. This allows for an additional guard before the water
goes into the sea. The last traces of water that separate out at the
Caisson are pumped to the slop tank.
Flare System
Flare system is an important facility in any plant processing oil or
gas. It is essentially a tall stack made of steel pipe along with a
flare tip (burner) at top and ancillary equipment.
It burns out any hydrocarbon released during processing due to
overpressure in any of the equipment. Normally, the plant
facilities have safety release valves which release the contents of
an equipment if the pressure rises beyond a safe operating limit.
The flare system prevents such flammable hydrocarbon releases to
get into the plant area and surroundings by burning out such
releases.
It is also used to burn out any excess gas produced. This situation
can occur when a customer downstream suddenly stops taking the
gas due to any operating problem in his plant. It may take some
time for the oilfield operator to cut down the gas production.
During this period the gas is diverted to flare, to avoid any kind of
accident.
Also in a field producing crude oil, the associated gas produced
may be more than the gas demand in the market. Then the excess
gas will need to be flared.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
96
Elevating the flare can prevent potentially dangerous conditions of
Notes
high radiation at the operating area of the plant. The height and
___________________
distance of the flare stack from the plant area is fixed to limit heat
___________________ radiation within acceptable limits.
___________________ Further, the products of combustion can be dispersed above
___________________ working areas. This helps to reduce the effects of noise, heat,
smoke, objectionable odours and limits ground level concentration
___________________
of pollutants from flare.
___________________
In the onshore production facility, a tall flare stack (structurally
___________________
supported) is provided 50 to 100 meters away from the plant area
___________________ as shown in Figure 8.10.
___________________ In offshore production facility, flare is provided in two possible
___________________ configurations:
z An inclined structure directed away from the platform
supports the flare at one edge of the platform. This is called
flare boom.
z A separate flare tripod structure, away from the platform
The configuration of a gas field could be different. Here again there ___________________
will be gathering or collection of gas from various wells to Gas ___________________
Gathering Station (GGS) or Gas Collection Station (GCS) as the
nomenclature may be according to the operating company’s norms.
Normally gas is associated with some amount of condensate in the
reservoir. The processing done at the GGS (Figure 8.11) are:
z The well fluid is gathered from the wells by flow lines into a
manifold at GGS.
98
z Conversion of the gas to LNG if needed for transportation
Notes
purposes.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
Certain amount of processing needs to be done at the oilfield before
the oil and gas are transported to refineries or gas processing
plants. This unit described what are the processing done,
schematics and equipment for such processing.
Typical configuration of an oil field with wells, gathering of well
fluid and processing stations were described for both onshore and
offshore fields.
Keywords 99
Notes
Separator: It is essentially a vessel having some internals to
___________________
facilitate separation.
Crude Oil Dehydration: The process of removal of water from ___________________
Further Readings
Books
Maurice Stewart, Ken Arnold, Emulsions and Oil Treating
Equipment: Selection, Sizing and Troubleshooting, Technology &
Engineering, 2008
Hussein K. Abdel-Aal, Mohamed Aggour, M. A. Fahim, Petroleum
and gas field processing, Technology & Engineering, 2003
Maurice Stewart, Ken Arnold, “Gas-liquid and liquid-liquid
separators”, Technology & Engineering, 2008
Web Readings
www.pennwellbooks.com › Petroleum Books › Production
hw.tpu.ru/en/short-courses/sc/Sc_PTSF/Oilfield/
www.egpet.net/vb/showthread.php?...Oilfield-Processin... - United
States
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
100
www.amazon.com › ... › Engineering › Chemical Engineering
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 9: Offshore Oilfield Processing
Unit 9
101
Notes
Activity
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
102
Both exploration and installation of production/processing facilities
Notes
are more expensive offshore.
___________________
___________________
___________________
103
Process Platform: Process platforms have the complete process
Notes
facilities described earlier. They are the biggest platforms in an
offshore complex, which is equivalent to a GGS onshore. They are ___________________
also referred as Central Process Platform. ___________________
Utilities Platform: For large facilities the utilities like power ___________________
generation, instrument air system, etc. are installed in a separate
___________________
platform.
___________________
Living Quarters Platform: The production and maintenance
___________________
personnel for an offshore facility stay for long periods of shifts (in
terms of weeks) in an offshore platform. For safety, the living ___________________
Flare Tripod: If the flare has a large gas flaring capacity, it is ___________________
installed away from a platform to minimize heat radiation to the ___________________
operating area of the platforms. It is installed in a tripod structure
piled into the sea. Some times flare is put in the platform itself as
an inclined flare boom directed away from the platform.
Several other platforms are installed with the requirement of
Enhanced Oil Recovery as the reservoir pressure depletes. These
could be Water Injection Platforms, Gas Injection Platforms and so
on.
Offshore platforms can be rigid structures that extend all the way
from above the water surface and piled to the seabed. They can be
supported on single leg (Monopod), three legs (Tripod), four legs,
eight legs or multiple legs. In a common type of platform, the legs
are piled into the sea bed. The platforms can be supported by steel
or concrete structure. For a bigger surface area at the top of the
platform, more number of legs are provided.
Some designs of the platforms are not fixed into the sea bed. They
float near the water surface.
104 justification. For example an onshore field can be justified with per
Notes well production rate of even a few hundred bbl/day. But in offshore
___________________ field it has to be in thousands of bbl/day for economic exploitation.
___________________ A well platform in Mumbai high costs anything between US$ 20
___________________ Million to 50 Million. A process platform costs around few
hundreds of Million Dollars. In contrast a GGS onshore (albeit
___________________
with much lower production) will cost around five Million Dollars
___________________ only.
___________________
Configurations of a Major Offshore Field
___________________
Production at offshore requires a fixed or floating facility or a
___________________
subsea production system and means for transportation of oil and
___________________ gas to the consumer at shore. The transportation of oil could be by
___________________ offloading it to an oil tanker or by pipeline. But for gas, pipeline is
normally the only option. Another option that has developed now is
floating LNG Plants to liquefy and transport the gas directly by
tanker from offshore.
In the first phase (Phase-1), when the potential of the field can not
be predicted accurately, a few well platforms and a small
production platform can be installed just to separate the oil and
flare the gas. A storage tanker anchored next to it to store the oil
produced. It offloads the oil to another shuttle tanker.
Later more platforms can crop up due to the changing production 105
profile and EOR requirements. Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
FPSO
Floating Production and Storage Offloading (FPSO) is one of the
most popular systems for offshore production. The first floating
system started production in North Sea in 1975. Its design has
been adopted to wide variety of production situations and
environment. FPSOs are operating today all over the world. It can
operate down to 2000 meters of water depth.
106
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
reaches sea bed. Then piles are hammered through it into the sea 107
bed to fix the legs on the sea bed. Notes
legs to hold them together. Also the platform decks are fabricated ___________________
in the yard, brought by the barge to the location and placed on top ___________________
of the jacket. Process equipment along with piping and ancillaries
___________________
are also fabricated in different shops on shore as modular skid
mounted units. They can be placed on the decks beforehand at the ___________________
yard itself or brought by barge to the location and placed by crane ___________________
on top of the decks.
___________________
108 location, and filled with sea water so that it can sink down to its
Notes
Activity final position on the seabed. Such structures can weigh hundreds
Discuss how the Logistics of
___________________ of thousand tons.
off-shore oilfields is taken care
of. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 9.5: Offshore Construction
Operating Philosophy
Special features of operating philosophy in offshore platform are:
Safety: Being far away in a remote area, operating safety and
emergency planning for containment of disaster and evacuation of
personnel are important features in design and operation of an
offshore platform. This involves:
z Special safety instrumentation for safe shutdown of production
facilities in case of emergency situation, redundancy of
UNIT 9: Offshore Oilfield Processing
Logistics
Logistics management is very important for successful operation of
offshore production facility.
Logistics support requirements are personnel related, maintenance
related and equipment related.
Logistics relate to:
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
110
z Movement of operators and maintenance personnel
Notes
z Movement of divers for sub-sea maintenance and operation
___________________
z Catering, medical and other services for the personnel
___________________
z Supply of maintenance equipment and spare parts as and
___________________ when needed
___________________ z Carrying out work-over operations on the wells in the well
___________________ platforms
To provide for these, the production companies maintain an
___________________
offshore supply base at shore and arrange contractors to operate
___________________
fleet of supply boats and helicopters.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. …………………. relates to Movement of operators and
maintenance personnel.
2. …………………. involves remote transmission of
operating data and computer based data acquisition and
monitoring system by communication with optical fibre
cables, microwave or satellite.
Summary
This unit described what are the processing done, schematics and
equipment for such processing. Typical configuration of an oil field
with wells, gathering of well fluid and processing stations were
described for offshore fields. How the concept of an oilfield at offshore
changes and develops with time was described from real life example.
Keywords
Production Platform: Production platform contains certain
minimum processing facility like separation and stabilization of
crude oil.
Process Platform: Process Platforms are the biggest platforms in
an offshore complex, which is equivalent to a GGS onshore.
UNIT 9: Offshore Oilfield Processing
111
Utilities Platform: For large facilities the utilities like power
Notes
generation, instrument air system etc. are installed in a separate
platform called Utilities platforms. ___________________
Living Quarters Platform: They are the living quarters for ___________________
___________________
Further Readings
Books
Maurice Stewart, Ken Arnold, “Emulsions and Oil Treating
Equipment: Selection, Sizing and Troubleshooting”, Technology &
Engineering, 2008
Hussein K. Abdel-Aal, Mohamed Aggour, M. A. Fahim, “Petroleum
and gas field processing”, Technology & Engineering, 2003
Maurice Stewart, Ken Arnold, “Gas-liquid and liquid-liquid
separators”, Technology & Engineering, 2008
Web Readings
www.pennwellbooks.com › Petroleum Books › Production
hw.tpu.ru/en/short-courses/sc/Sc_PTSF/Oilfield/
www.egpet.net/vb/showthread.php?...Oilfield-Processin... - United
States
www.amazon.com › ... › Engineering › Chemical Engineering
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
112
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 5: Case Study
Unit 10
113
Notes
Case Study
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Southeast Asia Offshore Oil Drilling Problem
___________________
Our client, Petro-Oil, is a mid-sized oil and gas exploration and
production company with major areas of exploration located in ___________________
South America, Gulf of Mexico, Western Africa, China, Eastern
___________________
Europe, and several other countries.
Proven Annual
Reserves Production
Competitor A: PetroChina 15,000 1,500
Competitor B: Petronas 8,000 800
114
z Assume that all competitors continue to seek additional
Notes
reserves in the Pacific region.
___________________
z The current existing production rates in the area are
___________________ significantly higher than the client’s production rate.
___________________ Analysis:
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Questions
115
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
BLOCK-III
Detailed Contents Understanding Oil & Gas Business
116
Notes
UNIT 11: GAS PROCESSING
___________________ UNIT 13: PETROLEUM REFINING
z Introduction z Introduction
___________________
z Characteristics of Natural Gas z Why Refining
___________________
z Overview of Gas Processing z Product Specifications
___________________
z Process Description z Refinery Processes Overview and History
___________________
UNIT 12: LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG)
___________________ UNIT 14: REFINERY REQUIREMENTS
z Introduction z Introduction
___________________
z The LNG Cycle z Refinery Configurations
___________________
z LNG Project Economics z Description of Overall Facilities
___________________
z The Indian Scenario
___________________ UNIT 15: CASE STUDY
UNIT 11: Gas Processing
Unit 11
117
Notes
Gas Processing
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
Physical Properties
Natural Gas is gaseous at any temperature over –161°C (258°F).
Since that is a very cold temperature, we normally consider
natural gas as a gas. Natural gas boils at atmospheric pressure
and a temperature of –161°C, exactly like water turns into a
vapour (steam) at +1000C. Natural gas is handled in a wide range
of operating conditions – as a liquid below -161°C (LNG) and also
as compressed gas at 200 Bar (3,000 psi) for automobile (CNG).
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
118
In its pure state, natural gas is odourless, colourless, and tasteless.
Notes
For safety reasons, however, an odorant called Mercaptan is added,
___________________
so that any leak can be easily detected because of the typical smell.
___________________
Concept of Volume and Weight
___________________
z The volume of natural gas is measured in cubic meters (M3) or
___________________
cubic feet (cu.ft. or cft).
___________________
z Its flow in M3/hr or cu.ft./hr or cfh at operating condition.
___________________
z The production figures are normally given in Standard Cubic
___________________
Meters per Day (SCMD) or Standard Cubic Feet per Day
___________________ (SCFD).
___________________ z Since the quantity of gas per unit volume is highly sensitive to
___________________ pressure and temperature of the gas, the volumetric capacity
is always referred to a standard reference temperature and
pressure. In metric unit 1 SCMD means 1 cubic meter of gas at
a standard condition of 0°C and 1 atmosphere pressure.
Similarly 1 SCFD means 1 cubic foot of gas at 60°F and 1
atmosphere pressure.
z One SCMD equals 37.8 SCFD.
z One cubic meter (SM3) of natural gas weighs roughly 0.8 Kg.
Comparatively one M3 of oil weighs about 800 Kg.
z Because of large volume the gas occupies, its transportation is
more expensive than oil for equivalent weight.
z For transportation across the seas, Natural gas is condensed to
LNG and put into marine tankers. This reduces the volume
more than 600 times.
z That means 600 cubic meters (M3) of gas (which is roughly 480
Kg) is made into 1 cubic meter of LNG.
119
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are often present
Notes
in the gas. CO2 is corrosive to the pipeline and equipment in
___________________
presence of water. H2S is both corrosive and very toxic (hazardous
to health). ___________________
___________________
Important Physical Properties of Natural Gas
___________________
Calorific value of a hydrocarbon is measure of heat released by
___________________
burning unit volume or weight of the hydrocarbon. Heavier the
gas, lower is the calorific value per unit weight of the gas and ___________________
higher the calorific value per unit volume of the gas. ___________________
Chemical Properties
The air-to-fuel ratio (AFR) indicates the amount of air relative to
the amount of fuel used in combustion. The minimum amount of
air relative to fuel for complete combustion is called the
stoichiometric ratio. The stoichiometric ratio for natural gas (and
most gaseous fuels) is normally indicated by volume. The air to
natural gas (stoichiometric) ratio by volume for complete
combustion is 9.5:1 to 10:1. This ratio is approximate only because
of the variations in fuel composition.
The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and the Upper Explosive Limit
(UEL) determine the range of lammability. For natural gas, the
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
120 LEL is 4%, while the UEL is 14%. It means that a natural gas
Notes
Activity mixture ignites within a range of 25:1 to 7:1 air-to-fuel ratio by
Make a chart on the process
___________________ volume. By comparison, a propane mixture ignites within a range
of Gas Processing. 2% LEL to 10% UEL. It means a gas leaner or richer outside the
___________________
explosive limits is not explosive.
___________________
Natural gas has a very high octane number, approximately 130. By
___________________
comparison, propane is approximately 105 and gasoline 92 to 94 at
___________________ best. This means that a higher compression ratio engine can be
___________________ used with natural gas than gasoline. Indeed, many racing cars use
the high octane rating of natural gas to give them more power.
___________________
A gas processing plant may be built to meet one or more of the ___________________
above objectives. Now let us get an overview of the gas processing ___________________
facilities in terms of block diagrams.
Removal of Impurities
The main impurities present in the gas are moisture, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, mercury.
Some of these need to be removed totally (to a few ppm level),
while some need to be brought down in concentration.
Gas Dehydration: The gas need to be dehydrated because:
z Moisture causes corrosion in the pipeline particularly when
carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfides are present. Also any
condensation reduces pipeline efficiency.
z Natural gas forms hydrates during low temperature gas
processing operations. As explained earlier, hydrates tend to
choke or block the equipment.
Gas Sweetening: Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
from gas is called gas sweetening. Gas bearing hydrogen sulfide is
called acid gas.
Why carbon dioxide need to be removed:
z Carbon dioxide corrodes pipeline and equipment
z It forms ice during cryogenic processing
Why hydrogen sulfide need to be removed:
z It is very toxic
z It is highly corrosive
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
122
Mercury removal: In some of the gas fields, the gases carry
Notes
mercury. Removal of mercury is necessary as it damages the steel
___________________
equipment in gas processing.
___________________
Recovery of Hydrocarbons
___________________
The objective is to recover hydrocarbons like ethane, propane,
___________________
butane by condensing them at very low temperatures and then
___________________ purifying by fractionation. The word ‘cryogenic’ is used for low
___________________ temperature processing.
___________________ The operating conditions for recovery of the hydrocarbons in gas
___________________ are:
Liquefaction of Gas
For liquefaction of gas for transportation purpose (LNG),
temperature below –160°C is required at atmospheric pressure.
During liquefaction normally LPG and ethane are recovered when
temperature levels mentioned above are reached. The remaining
bulk of the gas, mainly methane, is transported as LNG. As
mentioned later, LNG by itself is a large and complex industry.
There could be processing at lower temperatures for helium
recovery or nitrogen rejection for gases containing high amount of
nitrogen.
Essentially to recover any component, the gas needs to be chilled to
a temperature at which the component will condense.
The flow diagram and brief description of the processes are given
later.
An overall block diagram of the processing steps in a gas
processing plant is given in Figure 11.1.
Gas received from pipeline often comes along with ‘slugs’ of liquid
(NGL). This is trapped in ‘Slug catcher’. The liquids are separated
in the slug catcher. The gas is first sweetened to remove H2S (if it
is a sour gas). Some amount of carbon dioxide also gets removed
along with H2S. Normally H2S is not allowed to be discharged into
the atmosphere. It is converted to sulfur in a sulfur recovery plant.
Sulfur comes out as a by-product.
UNIT 11: Gas Processing
123
Gas is then compressed to the desired pressure and dehydrated to
Notes
bone dry (below 1 ppm water) state for cryogenic processing.
Presence of moisture in the gas can create hydrate formation. ___________________
If cryogenic processing is not done, dehydration requirement is still ___________________
there, but less severe.
___________________
Cryogenic processing of the gas is then carried out for separation of
___________________
the hydrocarbons into:
___________________
z LPG for use as domestic fuel
___________________
z NGL for sale to refinery or petrochemical plant
___________________
z Ethane/propane mix as feedstock for petrochemical plant
___________________
z Methane is used to generate power or make fertilizers and ___________________
other chemicals.
___________________
There are two possible ways the methane rich gas after recovery of
heavy hydrocarbons is transported to the user:
z Through pipeline
z Converting the gas to LNG and exporting by marine tankers
124 NGL or condensate which would otherwise drop off in the pipeline
Notes
Activity as liquids, reducing pipeline efficiency and capacity to transport
Find___________________
out using the Internet the gas.
why Dry bed processes are
more___________________
difficult to operate This process of chilling the gas to moderately low temperatures to
compared to the Glycol
___________________ prevent further condensation in the pipeline is called Dew Point
Dehydration process. Depression or Dew Point Control. Literally, it means processing to
___________________
prevent formation of hydrocarbon dews in the pipeline due to
___________________ cooling.
___________________ Condensates from various units of gas processing plant (C5+
___________________ components) are passed through separators to drop the pressure
___________________
and stabilize it. Condensate is sold to a refinery or a petrochemical
feedstock. The refineries distill it as blending stock for gasoline
___________________
and kerosene.
___________________
Condensate could be a good feedstock for the petrochemical plant
also for
z cracking to olefins and
z polymerization of the olefins to plastics.
Thus gas processing plant essentially prepares the feedstock for
further processing at refinery and petrochemical plants.
Process Description
This section talks about the process of Gas processing.
Gas Dehydration
There are two types of gas dehydration processes:
Adsorption Processes: These are solid bed processes using
reagents like Molecular Sieve or Alumina as adsorbents.
Absorption Processes: These use liquid absorbents which absorb
the moisture from the gas.
UNIT 11: Gas Processing
125
Normally Absorption Process using liquid absorbents is used in the
Notes
oilfield dehydration of natural gas. In the oil/gas field gas is
saturated with water vapour. To prevent corrosion in the pipeline ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________ The dry bed processes are not normally used in offshore or onshore
___________________ oilfield due to more complexity of operation and solid handling
___________________
requirement.
___________________ Dry bed processes using molecular sieve granules as drying agent
is used to make the gas bone dry (below 1 ppm moisture) before
___________________
processing at low temperatures.
___________________
Molecular sieves are zeolite granules manufactured under
___________________
controlled conditions to create microscopic pores at its surface.
___________________
These pores have affinity for water molecules and moisture gets
into the surface of the molecular sieve at its pores. This process is
called adsorption.
127
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 11.3: Dry Bed Gas Dehydration
___________________
Normally in oilfields offshore and onshore, where specification of
gas for transportation by pipeline is not as stringent, Glycol
Dehydration units are used.
Gas Sweetening
Hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and mercaptans can be removed
from natural gas by several processes. The various processes for
sweetening used are:
z Amine as absorbents (shown here) utilizing mono
ethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), DGA.
z MDEA (methyl diethanolamine) and MDEA based proprietary
amines (for all three – effectiveness varies for Mercaptans) as
absorbents.
z Molecular Sieves (removes H2S and mercaptans only)
128
z Temperature and pressure of gas
Notes
___________________
z Volume of gas
___________________ Gas sweetening using an amine solution is among the most widely
used method. Figure 11.4 represents a simple amine treating
___________________
facility. Sour gas is introduced in the absorber at the bottom and
___________________
goes up through contactor plates in the column. It contacts lean
___________________ amine solution (amine solution of high concentration, free of H2S
___________________ and CO2) fed at the top of the column and traveling down the
___________________ column.
___________________ The acid gas components, H2S and CO2, are absorbed by the amine
___________________ solution and the sweet gas leaves the absorber for further
processing. The rich amine (amine with dissolved hydrogen sulfide
and carbon dioxide) is drawn from the bottom.
The absorption column operates at high pressure (at pressure of
the gas) in the range of 30 ata to 70 ata while the stripper is
operated at closer to atmospheric pressure. The temperature at the
absorption column is close to the ambient temperature (30-40°C).
The rich amine is sent to a flash tank to drop the pressure and
absorbed hydrocarbons exit as the flash-tank vapour. The rich
amine flows through the lean/rich amine heat exchanger
increasing the temperature to above 100°C.
Fine particles, resulting from wear and tear of the piping and other
equipment, collect in the amine solution, which ultimately lead to
blocking and foam generation in the column. So there is a amine
filtration step before the regeneration in the stripping column.
UNIT 11: Gas Processing
129
The rich amine (amine with dissolved hydrogen sulfide and carbon
Notes
dioxide) is separated (regenerated) in a later step using steam in
the stripping column. From the top of the regeneration column ___________________
mainly hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide mixture with a little ___________________
quantity of hydrocarbons absorbed by the amine come out.
___________________
The hot rich amine is stripped at low pressure removing the
___________________
absorbed acid gases, dissolved hydrocarbons, and some water.
___________________
Considerable amount of energy is required to strip the amine. Heat
is supplied by a firetube type reboiler. The temperature at the ___________________
bottom of the stripping column can be over 200°C. ___________________
The stripped or lean amine is sent back through the lean/rich ___________________
exchanger decreasing its temperature. A pump boosts the pressure
___________________
such that it is greater than the absorber column. Finally, a heat
___________________
exchanger cools the lean solution before entering the absorber. The
lean amine entering the absorber is usually 40 to 45°C.
130
(iii) Processes using a combination of external and internal
Notes
refrigeration.
___________________
A simple conceptual diagram of an external refrigeration process
___________________
for LPG Recovery is depicted in Figure 11.5. The important steps
___________________ in the process are:
___________________ z Natural gas coming from the source at high pressure is first
___________________ dried in molecular sieve dryers.
___________________ z It is then chilled by exchanging heat with the chilled gas
___________________ coming out after LPG Recovery.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
In this unit we learnt about the Physical properties and
characteristics of Natural gas. We also learnt about its Chemical
properties and its composition. The entire process of Gas
Processing is also explained.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
132
Lesson End Activity
Notes
Prepare a chart paper to show the entire process of Gas Processing
___________________
with the help of Diagrams.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Calorific Value of a Hydrocarbon: It is the measure of heat
___________________ released by burning unit volume or weight of the hydrocarbon.
___________________
Dew Point Depression: It is the process of chilling the gas to
___________________ moderately low temperatures to prevent further condensation in
___________________ the pipeline.
___________________ Adsorption Process: These are solid bed processes using reagents
like Molecular Sieve or Alumina as adsorbents.
___________________
Absorption Process: These use liquid absorbents which absorb
the moisture from the gas.
Further Readings
Books
Arthur J. Kidnay, William R. Parrish, Dan McCartney,
Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Second Edition
Dominic C. Y. Foo, Mahmoud M. El-Halwagi, Raymond R. Tan,
Recent Advances in Sustainable Process Design and Optimization
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processing
www.linde-india.com/.../Natural%20Gas%20Processing%20
Plants.pd...
www.bv.com/Downloads/Resources/.../rsrc_ENR_Gas
Processing.pdf
ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/...gas/.../ngprocess/ngprocess.pdf
UNIT 12: Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
Unit 12
133
Notes
Activity
Introduction ___________________
___________________
Natural Gas is a highly desirable energy source: it burns cleanly,
with little pollution, it is often inexpensive to produce and can be
transported easily through pipeline like any other petroleum
product. The demand for natural gas is growing at a fast pace as a
source of energy and petrochemicals.
___________________ N2 → 01.0 %
Methane → 85.1 96.7 % (Lean)
___________________ Ethane → 1.9 8.6 % (Rich)
Propane → 0.68 4.1 %
___________________ i- Butane, nButane Traces
→
Mol. Wt. → 16.8 19.3 (Rich)
___________________
Gross Heating Value → 10.450 Kcal/NM3
___________________ S. G. → 0.455
z Spilled LNG will crack a steel plate like boiling water hitting
frozen glass.
135
This is depicted in Figure 12.1 and is known in the industry as the
Notes
LNG Cycle. This was developed for conceptualizing one of the LNG
projects planned with the LNG Receiving terminal planned in the ___________________
eastern coast of India. This would involve buying of LNG from one ___________________
of the South East Asian countries or Australia Fertilizer plant and
___________________
power plant, which are large consumers of gas was proposed to be
installed near the receiving terminal. The balance gas was ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
136
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
like glass. The storages are made of special nickel steel as normal 137
steel becomes brittle at that low temperature. Notes
They are heavily insulated to minimize heat leakage from the ___________________
atmosphere into the tank. They are often double walled with ___________________
concrete outer shells utilized as additional resistance to tank
___________________
damage and as containment in the unlikely event of tank leakage.
This type of tank with containment of leakage is the most costly, ___________________
and has most often been used for the storage of LNG. ___________________
Some leakage of heat does take place from the surrounding ___________________
atmosphere into the storage tanks. There is some amount of liquid ___________________
vaporization and boil-off. The vapours are compressed, condensed
___________________
by refrigeration and put back into the tank.
___________________
The tankers carrying LNG also have spherical domed storage
___________________
tanks along with refrigeration system for boil-off vapours.
LNG tanks could be on ground or mounded under earth. Figure
12.5 depicts an LNG receiving terminal with an LNG tanker, jetty
and LNG storage facility.
The LNG tankers can have a carrying capacity from 20,000 cubic
metres to 135,000 cubic metres. A large LNG storage tank can be
holding around 100,000 cubic meters of LNG. For this capacity, the
tank would be about 70 meters in diameter. Japan is the world’s
largest importer of LNG and imports 94% of its gas as LNG.
138
LNG Project Economics
Notes
Basic gas price at source for LNG facilities are relatively cheap,
___________________
based on large and easily produced reserves. Processing
___________________ (Liquefaction) and transportation equipment is capital intensive
___________________ and highly specialized, requiring large investment for each new
___________________
facility. For each million cubic feet of gas delivered to end use, less
than 30 percent of the cost is associated with the raw material
___________________
price (gas price at source). The balance is the cost associated with
___________________ processing and transportation.
___________________ Liquefaction is a very energy-intensive process. Typically, about
___________________ 8 to 9 percent of the natural gas delivered as raw material at an
___________________
LNG plant, is used as plant fuel for liquefaction. The number of
tankers required is a function of the distance between the export
___________________
terminal and the import terminal and the number of days it takes
to move between the source of gas and destination. The unit cost of
marine transport is primarily a function of the capital cost of the
tanker, distance, the financing terms and acceptable rate of return
for the tanker owners.
139
z Long-term Contract between LNG supplier and buyer.
Notes
Activity
Long-term Contract between LNG buyer and transporter.
Do ___________________
further research on the
Long-term Contracts between LNG buyer and LNG users reason for the large gap
___________________
between demand and supply
like Power Plant, Fertilizer Plant, etc.
of gas in India.
___________________
Because of enormous effort required on planning and development
___________________
of the project and numerous contracting involved, the gestation
period of an LNG based grass-roots project is normally quite long ___________________
(4 to 6 years). ___________________
Due to the immense costs of each link in an LNG cycle, such ___________________
projects can be undertaken only by large organizations with great
___________________
financial capacity and project management skills. A successful
___________________
project requires cooperation and selling of the idea to:
___________________
z The government of the country having gas source
z The company that owns the natural gas
z The government in the consuming country
z Consuming organizations
z Financiers
___________________
LNG Facility
___________________
There is a large gap between demand and supply of gas in India.
___________________ In the nineties ambitious plans were drawn out by the government
___________________ as well as private sector Indian and Multinational companies to
import LNG and build LNG terminals in India. The government
facilitated formation of Petronet LNG Ltd. in the public sector to
lead the drive to import LNG and boost gas supply in the country.
Most of the plans have not materialized.
As stated earlier, the success of LNG projects depends on a number
of factors: reliable and continuous supply of LNG in large volumes,
constant technological support, reliable long-term market demand
and ability to finance. Many of the companies who intended to
enter into the LNG business, has got into such detailed planning.
As a result, most of the LNG projects planned have failed to take
off.
The first LNG terminal in India was built by Enron for its Dabhol
power plant.
The next LNG projects that are likely to see the light of the day are
the projects of Petronet LNG and Shell. Petronet LNG project at
Dahej is ahead of another LNG project being implemented by Shell
at Hazira.
Dahej LNG import terminal was also completed and Five million
tonne gas (20 million metric standard cubic metres) are supplied to
users along HBJ Pipeline.
The large discovery of gas in 2002 off Andhra Coast by Reliance
and ONGC’s discovery at Vasai and near Surat are expected to
give further boost to the gas supply and gas processing industry.
It should be noted that India being LNG importing country, the
LNG facilities planned fall under the category of LNG upstream.
UNIT 12: Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
For the import of LNG, the long-term tie-ups are with producers in 141
the Middle East. Notes
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. …………………… was formed to transport and
___________________
distribute Natural gas.
___________________
2. The first LNG terminal in India was built by Enron for
its …………………… power plant. ___________________
___________________
Summary ___________________
Keywords
Calorific Value: Calorific Value of a hydrocarbon is measure of
heat released by burning unit volume or weight of the
hydrocarbon.
Specific Gravity of a Gas: Specific Gravity of a Gas is defined as
the weight of a given volume of the gas compared to the weight of
the same amount of air at the same temperature and pressure,
where air weight is taken as reference (= 1).
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
142
Gas Sweetening: Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
Notes
from gas is called gas sweetening.
___________________
Adsorption Processes: These are solid bed processes using
___________________
reagents like Molecular Sieve or Alumina as adsorbents.
___________________
Absorption Processes: These use liquid absorbents which absorb
___________________ the moisture from the gas.
___________________
Molecular Sieves: These are zeolite granules manufactured
___________________ under controlled conditions to create microscopic pores at its
___________________ surface.
___________________
Questions for Discussion
___________________
___________________
1. What are the objectives of gas processing? Name the various
gas treatment or purification processes.
2. Write down a brief description of gas dehydration process with
simple flow diagram.
3. What do you understand by an LNG Cycle? Describe with a
schematic diagram.
4. Describe upstream and downstream of LNG facility.
Further Readings
Books
Arthur J. Kidnay, William R. Parrish, Dan McCartney,
Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Second Edition
Dominic C. Y. Foo, Mahmoud M. El-Halwagi, Raymond R. Tan,
Recent Advances in Sustainable Process Design and Optimization
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processing
www.linde-india.com/.../Natural%20Gas%20Processing%20
Plants.pd...
www.bv.com/Downloads/Resources/.../rsrc_ENR_Gas
Processing.pdf
ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/...gas/.../ngprocess/ngprocess.pdf
UNIT 13: Petroleum Refining
Unit 13
143
Notes
Activity
Petroleum Refining
Do ___________________
further research on
Naphtha and its different uses.
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction
What does a petroleum refinery do? Why do we need refining?
These are some of the questions that this unit will try to answer. It
will also trace the history of development of the various processes
in the refining industry.
Why Refining
In a nutshell the main functions of a refinery are:
Primary Separation: Crude oil is a mixture of around 500
components. They need to be separated into useful products. The
separation is not done to recover individual components but as
products which are mixtures of suitable boiling ranges. This is
done by distillation, where various cuts or fractions are taken out
as gasoline, kerosene, diesel etc. which are essentially raw
material or intermediate products.
Processing to Meet Quality Specifications: Typical examples of
this type of processes are those used for improvement of octane
number to meet gasoline specification. Raw gasoline cut or
naphtha as it comes out of distillation has low octane number (may
be around 40 to 60 ON). But for the market we need octane
numbers of 87 and above. Processes are used to improve the octane
number by converting the low octane components of gasoline to
high octane components. For example, Catalytic Reforming process
converts straight chain paraffin in the raw gasoline to aromatics
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Product Specifications
The product specifications for products to be refined in a refinery
are as follows:
146
Vapour Pressure: It is a very important property of LPG for
Notes
safety and handling, particularly as it is handled at home as
___________________
cooking gas. It restricts maximum pressure a cylinder can develop
___________________ and helps to set the design pressure for the cylinder. Propane
___________________ being more volatile of the other constituent (butane) of LPG, it can
___________________ develop more pressure and hence its content in LPG is limited by
___________________
specification.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Cetane number is defined as the percent by volume of n-cetane in a
mixture of n-cetane and alpha methyl naphthalene that would give
___________________
the same ignition quality and engine performance as that of the
fuel under test.
This test has reverse characteristics of octane number, which gives
low value to fuels which self ignite easily. Unlike octane number,
normal paraffins have higher cetane number followed by
naphthenes, iso-paraffins, olefins and aromatics.
Sulphur: Sulphur is corrosive to the fuel systems and also is a
pollutant to the environment. The specifications on sulfur content
in petroleum products are becoming more and more stringent
world wide. Sulphur specification is applicable to all products.
Considerable investments are taking place every year in the
refineries to improve sulfur related specifications.
Viscosity: Viscosity is the resistance to flow. It indicates
pumpability of the product. Viscosity is an important property for
lube oils because higher viscosity is required to prevent wear and
tear in the moving parts of a machine. For fuel oils, it gives flow
properties which are needed for pump selection for transporting.
Viscosity is measured in several ways. The most common units are
centi-stokes (cst), centi-poise (cp) and SSU (Saybolt Seconds Unit).
Viscosity Index: This specification signifies change of viscosity
with temperature. This is an important specification for
Lubricating oils. In the machinery, friction generates heat. For any
petroleum product, viscosity is lower as the temperature increases.
The lube oil viscosity should not go down too much with heating as
it will lose its lubricating property. Higher the Viscosity Index less
is the effect of temperature on viscosity.
UNIT 13: Petroleum Refining
149
Carbon Residue: Fuel as it burns, forms a carbon deposit. This
Notes
carbon deposits on burner tips or cylinders reduces efficiency. Activity
Carbon residue test gives an indication of the amount of carbon Chart out the evolution of the
___________________
Refinery industry.
that would form when the oil is cracked and burned. ___________________
There are several other specifications like colour, copper corrosion ___________________
test, bromine number etc. all of which have some significance on
___________________
the quality of the products.
___________________
More details about the specifications are given in the annexure at
___________________
the end of this volume.
___________________
Check Your Progress ___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. …………………. test gives an indication of the amount of ___________________
carbon that would form when the oil is cracked and
burned.
2. Viscosity is the …………………. to flow.
Types of Processes
Refining comprises of four types of processes:
z Primary Separation: The first step in refinery is
atmospheric and vacuum distillation of crude oil. Various
product cuts or fractions like LPG and gasoline come out of the
top of distillation column. The medium heavy liquids like
kerosene, ATF and diesel come out next in the lower part of
the column. The residue left is vacuum distilled to separate
heavier liquids, called gas oils. These products do not meet
the specifications. To meet the specifications they require
further processing. For example some of the gas oil from
vacuum distillation form base stock to make lubricating oil for
further processing. Other products are also treated to meet
certain specifications. For acceptance as high-value products,
such as gasoline, much more additional processing is required
as given below.
z Conversion Processes: Conversion processes are essentially
breaking and rearranging of the molecules of the intermediate
products to convert them to high value products meeting
specification. We can put such processes in two sub-groups:
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
150
(a) Product upgradation: Certain products like gasoline are
Notes
processed to meet octane number or other specifications.
___________________ Examples of such processes are catalytic reforming,
___________________ isomerisation, etc. These processes are essentially
restructuring of molecules to improve the specifications.
___________________
(b) Conversion of heavy residues to light products: This is
___________________
done by cracking of the large heavy molecules into smaller
___________________ and lighter molecules under high temperature, and
___________________ pressure with or without a catalyst. The cracking
processes covert residues and heavy gas oils to light
___________________
products like gasoline, kerosene and diesel resulting in
___________________ value addition.
___________________
z Treatment Processes: To meet environment related
___________________ specifications and for giving finish to the products further
treatments are required. This is the final step before the
products are tested to meet quality and dispatched by tanker or
pipeline to the market. Examples of such processes are Hydro-
desulfurization of distillation products to remove sulfur,
sweetening of gasoline to remove traces of sulfides, Hydro-
finishing of lube oil to give right colour with mild
hydrogenation.
z Processing for Lube Oils: Processes to remove wax, asphalt
etc. from the lube oil base stocks to meet the quality
requirement of lubricants.
Processes for making lube oil is made into a distinct category
because lubricating oils can not be produced from all types of crude
oils. When a crude oil is suitable for producing lubricating oil,
specific cuts called lube oil base stocks are distilled during primary
separation step and passes through a series of processes to make
lube oil.
A common terminology used for a refinery, which does not produce
lube oils, is Fuels Refinery. One which produces lube oil is called
Lube Refinery.
History
Let us trace the history of development of the various processes in
the refining industry (Table 13.3).
It can be seen from the table that at first only separation processes
were used. Then came gasoline upgradation processes to meet
motor gasoline specification and conversion of heavies to lighter
UNIT 13: Petroleum Refining
___________________
___________________
___________________
Primary Separation
Let us discuss Primary Separation in greater detail. It is done by
Atmospheric Distillation and Vacuum Distillation. This is
diagrammatically represented in Figure 13.4
Atmospheric Distillation
Atmospheric Distillation is the first step in the refinery processing
to separate out the raw products (cuts) by distillation under
pressures above atmospheric pressures (Atmospheric Distillation).
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
152
Atmospheric Distillation is done to separate the light cuts by
Notes
heating the crude oil to 350-370°C at pressures close to
___________________
atmospheric pressures.
___________________
At these temperatures light and white products like motor
___________________ gasoline, kerosene, Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF), diesel, etc. are
___________________ distilled out as raw products for further processing. Residue which
is left behind at the bottom of the distillation column after
___________________
atmospheric distillation is called long residue. The next step in
___________________ distillation is Vacuum Distillation of the long residue.
___________________
Vacuum Distillation
___________________
The limitation of distilling at higher temperatures is because
___________________
deterioration of crude oil starts at temperatures above
___________________ 350- 370°C. Crude oil starts ‘cracking’ at high temperatures i.e. the
heavier molecules start breaking into smaller molecules.
Uncontrolled cracking process results in coke formation and
production of unstable olefinic (double bonded) hydrocarbon
products.
Vacuum distillation unit yields vacuum gas oil as distillate which
are used as feedstock for cracking to lighter products. Vacuum gas
oil also can form the base oil for processing into lubricating oils.
In vacuum distillation, the residue from atmospheric distillation is
heated to around 350-370°C and distilled under vacuum
conditions.
With vacuum distillations, cuts like vacuum gas oil (feed for
cracking or lube oil manufacture) and bituminous residue etc. are
generated as shown in Figure 13.4. One or more gas oil cuts can be
drawn out of vacuum distillation. The residue which is left after
vacuum distillation is called short residue.
___________________
Gasoline Upgradation
Gasoline upgradation is a typical example of conversion process to
meet specification of the product. Octane Number of gasoline cut
from distillation is low. Octane levels need to be raised to the
desired specification for engine performance requirements.
In the sixties and seventies, Catalytic Reforming was the most
prevalent process to increase Octane Number. The process
essentially converted paraffin in the gasoline cut into aromatics,
which have high ON. For further boosting the octane number, small
dosage of Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL - Octane Booster) was added.
Aromatics generated by reforming process were found to be
carcinogenic and Lead was found to be health hazard.
With lead addition eliminated, new octane boosters (ethers like
MTBE or other oxygenated compounds) were developed.
With stricter aromatics specification in gasoline, use of reformate
gasoline (product from catalytic reforming) as gasoline blending
stock was reduced. New processes were developed for converting
naphtha to high-octane gasoline. Some such processes are:
z Isomerisation to convert straight chain paraffins to branched
chain isomers.
z Alkylation to combine paraffin components with butane to
form isomers.
z Polymerisation to transform some lighter hydrocarbons into
high octane gasoline.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
154
z Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) units also became one of the
Notes
main sources of high-octane gasoline.
___________________
Conversion of ‘Heavies’ to ‘Light Oils’
___________________
Conversion of heavy cuts (e.g. gas oil from vacuum distillation) and
___________________ residues which are dark coloured, low value products to light and
___________________ valuable products are important for refinery economics. This is
done by Cracking Processes.
___________________
Cracking essentially breaks the large heavy molecules into a
___________________
number of smaller lighter molecules. The process generates gases
___________________ and white products by cracking the heavy vacuum distillates and
___________________ residues.
___________________ A typical reaction in cracking process:
___________________
Catalyst and heat (450-500 oC)
C16H34 = C8H18 + C8H16
There are several components of the heavy oils undergoing such
reactions generating light products as well as gases.
The common cracking processes are thermal cracking, fluid
catalytic cracking and hydrocracking.
z Thermal Cracking is done with heat alone at high
temperatures. Depending upon severity of reaction conditions
and nature of feedstock, the thermal cracking processes are
named as
Visbreaking
Coking etc.
z Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is carried out with a fluidized
bed of catalyst. FCC yields gasoline of higher octane number
along with gases, kerosene and diesel fractions. Some heavy oil
is also produced from FCC called cycle oil.
z Hydrocracking is cracking under heat, pressure and presence
of hydrogen. It takes wider variety of feedstock and gives
stable, good quality product.
Treatment Processes
Sulfur Removal
Hydro-desulfurization is one of the processes to remove sulfur by
reaction of hydrogen with sulfur bearing components of oil. This
UNIT 13: Petroleum Refining
156 qualities are met by vacuum gas oils i.e. high boiling cuts distilled
Notes by vacuum distillation of crude oil. These gas oil cuts are called
___________________ lubricating oil base stocks.
___________________ All crude oils do not give good lube base stock. For example waxy
___________________ crude oils like Mumbai High or some South East Asian crude oils
are not good for lube oil manufacture. Yield of suitable lube base
___________________
stocks are lower in these cases (as the oil is light) and wax creates
___________________ a lot of operational problems during lube extraction process. Some
___________________ of the medium heavy Middle East Crude oils give good quality lube
base stocks.
___________________
___________________
The various processing steps are:
___________________ De-asphalting Unit: Here asphalt from the lube base stock is
removed by solvent extraction process because asphalt is not good
___________________
to meet lube oil specifications.
Aromatics Extraction: Aromatic hydrocarbons are removed by
solvent extraction process to improve viscosity.
De-waxing: This is another solvent extraction process which
removes wax from the lube base stock. This is also solvent
extraction process.
Hydro-finishing: After these series of extraction processes, the
lube oil base stock is treated with hydrogen (hydro-finishing
process) to improve colour and give stability.
Summary
Bride oil needs to be separated into useful products. The
separation is not done to recover individual components but as
products which are mixtures of suitable boiling ranges. This is
done by distillation, where various cuts or fractions are taken out
UNIT 13: Petroleum Refining
___________________
Lesson End Activity
___________________
Prepare a presentation on the various types of refining processes.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Flash Point: It is the minimum temperature at which the product
___________________
generates enough vapour to form an explosive mixture with air.
___________________
Octane Number: This signifies ignition quality of the gasoline in
automobile engines.
Octane Number: It is defined as the percent volume of iso-octane
in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane that gives the same
knocking as that of the fuel when tested under defined conditions.
Smoke Point: It is the length of flame in a standard laboratory
test, which produces smoke.
Further Readings
Books
Arthur J. Kidnay, William R. Parrish, Dan McCartney,
Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Second Edition
Dominic C. Y. Foo, Mahmoud M. El-Halwagi, Raymond R. Tan,
Recent Advances in Sustainable Process Design and Optimization
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
158
Web Readings
Notes
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processing
___________________
www.linde-india.com/.../Natural%20Gas%20Processing%20Plants.
___________________
pd...
___________________
www.bv.com/Downloads/Resources/.../rsrc_ENR_Gas
___________________ Processing.pdf
___________________ ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/...gas/.../ngprocess/ngprocess.pdf
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 14: Refinery Requirements
Unit 14
159
Notes
Activity
Discuss in groups about the
Refinery Requirements
___________________
differences in the Refinery
___________________
configuration of the 60’s and
that of modern refineries.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
___________________
Introduction
We will have a look at how the refinery configuration looked in the
sixties. There has been other health and environment related
specifications like limitation of aromatics in the automotive fuels.
As a result, there have been huge investments to meet the product
quality with respect to sulfur and other environment related
specifications, lowering the margins.
A modern refinery has a number of process units. A list of various
types of process units in a petroleum refinery is given in Table
14.1. The refinery may have various combinations of process units
out of the list given here. A detailed description of the process and
plants and technologies are given later. At this point it is
important to know the description of the overall facility in a
refinery complex.
Refinery Configurations
The previous section gave an overview of various types of processes
used in the refinery. The process units in the refinery and their
capacities are determined by:
Product Demand
Product Prices
Product Specifications
Crude Oil Characteristics
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
160
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 14.1: Lube Processing Schematic
___________________
The investor arrives at optimum selection of process units and
their capacities by economic optimization techniques. The
techniques as described later are based on investment and
operating costs of various units and yield and quality of products
from them. The combination of the process units is called refinery
configuration.
161
Fuel oil always fetched a low value, sometimes lower than the
Notes
crude oil resulting in negative return. A part or all of it was
distilled under vacuum to generate vacuum gas oil cuts, which go ___________________
as feedstock for lubricating oil manufacture. In the Lube Plant, ___________________
processes like dewaxing, and other extraction processes like
___________________
de-asphalting were used to produce lubricating oils meeting
specifications. Mild hydrogen treatment of the lube oils in the lube ___________________
plant was done to meet the final specifications and improve the ___________________
colour. ___________________
Gas oil cuts from vacuum distillation unit were also taken to Fluid ___________________
Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCC) to produce more of gasoline. FCC
___________________
unit was designed to produce gasoline as well as kerosene and
diesel. Some gases were also produced as a result of cracking. ___________________
___________________
Residue from vacuum distillation unit was often mildly cracked in
a Thermal Cracking Process called Visbreaker for use as fuel oil.
These units also produced some gases, gasoline and kerosene.
Gasoline, kerosene and diesel were made by blending the stocks
from crude distillation unit, and the various cracking and other
conversion units.
This is a typical configuration, simple and without any integration
with any other kind of facility.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
163
Integration of petrochemical plant to increase margin is quite
Notes
common today.
___________________
Lower sulfur specs increases hydrotreating application and
___________________
generates need for a large hydrogen plant for the refineries.
___________________
Integration with a cogeneration power plant with coke and fuel
___________________
oil produced at the refinery has found favour to increase
margin. ___________________
___________________
A typical configuration of a modern refinery taking into
consideration above trends is given in Figure 14.4. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
164
It is worth noting that the refinery configuration as shown is still
Notes
not economically attractive. The trend today is integration with
___________________
petrochemical manufacture using the aromatics or olefins.
___________________
Later we shall show some examples of such integration done in the
___________________ industry.
___________________
Balancing the Gases
___________________
Some gases come out of the crude during distillation. These are
___________________
mainly ethane, propane and butane, a part of which is taken out as
___________________ LPG. The cracking units generate some olefins like propylene and
___________________ butylenes which become valuable feedstock for making
___________________ petrochemicals like polyproylene, polybutylene, etc. So, recovery of
the olefins becomes important for value addition to refinery
___________________
products. The balance of gas is consumed in the refinery as fuel.
Sulfur plant
Hydrogen plant
UNIT 14: Refinery Requirements
165
Notes
Activity
Utility and offsite facilities
___________________
may cost more than 50%
___________________
of the total cost of the
project.
___________________
Utility and offsite facilities
___________________
occupy more than 60% of
the space in a refinery
___________________
layout.
___________________
Discuss thses two facts, in
Groups.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
168
Storage and Handling of Crude and Products
Notes
This is one of the major operations beyond the process units in a
___________________ refinery. This involves:
___________________
Receipt and storage of crude oil
___________________
Storage of intermediate products, base oils and blending
___________________ stocks.
___________________ Blending and finishing of products.
___________________
Storage and despatch of products.
___________________
A refinery is often located in coastal area. It can also be landlocked
___________________ far beyond coastal areas. In coastal refineries, crude oil is received
___________________ by marine tankers. Depending on the capacity of the refinery,
crude tanker size suitable for draft at the jetty and the size of
___________________
storage tanks are decided. In land- locked refineries, receipt of
crude is normally by pipeline. Road tankers, railway tankers,
marine tankers and pipeline are used for transportation of
products.
Millions of tons of crude and products as well as blending stocks is
handled or transported to several destinations by tankers or
pipeline. The storage and product movement area of a refinery
presents a major logistics and operations management problem in
the refinery.
169
blending operations,
Notes
dozing with ‘additive chemicals’ wherever required and
___________________
storage and analysis of the final blended products to ensure
___________________
quality requirements.
___________________
Control Room ___________________
Each of the refinery processes as well as the utility facilities ___________________
requires a large number of process parameters to be controlled to
___________________
meet the quantity and quality of products. Earlier there used to be
control room in each process unit with analog controllers. ___________________
Summary
In this unit, the history of development of the refining process and
refinery configuration was explained. The process units and
utility/offsite facilities required in a refinery was summarized.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
170
Lesson End Activity
Notes
Visit a refinery and find out how Storage and Handling of Crude
___________________
and Products are done.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Utility: It is the state of being useful, profitable, or beneficial.
___________________
Control Room: It is a room housing any kind of control
___________________ equipment.
___________________ Catalytic Reforming: It is a chemical process used to
___________________ convert petroleum refinery naphthas, typically having low octane
ratings, into high-octane liquid products called reformates which
___________________
are components of high-octane gasoline.
___________________
Further Readings
Books
Arthur J. Kidnay, William R. Parrish, Dan McCartney,
Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Second Edition
Dominic C. Y. Foo, Mahmoud M. El-Halwagi, Raymond R. Tan,
Recent Advances in Sustainable Process Design and Optimization
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processing
www.linde-india.com/.../Natural%20Gas%20Processing
%20Plants.pd...
www.bv.com/Downloads/Resources/.../rsrc_ENR_Gas
Processing.pdf
ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/...gas/.../ngprocess/ngprocess.pdf
UNIT 5: Case Study
Unit 15
171
Notes
Case Study
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Gas Processing at LLC
___________________
Leak Imaging, LLC performed a leak detection survey using an
optical gas imaging camera for a company in East Texas at one of ___________________
their gas processing facilities. The company was aware of the
___________________
new regulations coming and wanted to see what it would entail
and what they should do to prepare for it since they have never
had any leak detection program in place. The results were
amazing.
The gas processing facility was less than a year old and we were
assured that there were no gas leaks to be found. The field
superintendent explained how all the equipment at the location
was new, properly installed and no wearing of the equipment
would have taken place in this short period of time. At the time of
the study, this facility was processing gas at a spot rate of 12,500
mcf per day. After processing the natural gas, the daily
production volume being delivered to market was approximately
95%, with 5% accounted for as line loss and/or fuel use.
In less than 30 minutes, the first leak was detected with several
more following. In all, 6 leaks were detected which were
inexpensively rectified. Using the criteria and emissions factors
from the EPA, they were losing 200 mcf a day in gas. The worst
leak detected was coming from the storage tanks where the valve
was constantly malfunctioning and releasing gas from the vent
stack.
After the repairs were made, the company began seeing an extra
$600/day ($219,000/year) at today’s gas prices which they were
losing at just one facility.
The leak detection study just goes to show that the industry’s
acceptance of 5% for line loss and fuel use just turned the corner
with new technology. Line loss doesn’t necessarily tell the whole
story. It doesn’t matter whether a facility is old or new there is
Contd…
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
172 always the possibility for fugitive gas leaks and the potential to
Notes increase revenues.
___________________ Question
___________________ Critically analyse the case study
___________________ Source: http://leakimaging.com/gas-processing-case-study/
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
173
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
BLOCK-IV
Detailed Contents Understanding Oil & Gas Business
174
Notes
UNIT 16: DISTILLATION IN REFINERIES
___________________ UNIT 18: PRODUCTION OF PETROCHEMICALS
z Introduction z Introduction
___________________
z Optimization of Refinery Operations z Feedstock to Products in Petrochemical Industry
___________________
z Description of Process Units z Production of the Base Petrochemicals
___________________
z Vacuum Distillation z Ethylene Production by Steam Cracking
___________________
z Steam Reforming
UNIT 17: PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
___________________
z Aromatics Production
z Introduction
___________________ z Intermediate and Derivative Petrochemicals
z Polymerization Basics
___________________
z Some Common Polymer Plastics UNIT 19: TRANSPORTATION OF OIL, GAS AND
___________________ PRODUCTS: PIPELINES
z Petrochemicals in Our Lives
___________________ z Introduction
z High Impact Plastics
z Modes of Transportation
z Types of Plastics
z Pipeline Systems
Unit 16
175
Notes
Activity
Distillation in Refineries
Find___________________
out more about LP
Modelling and its use in
___________________
different fields.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
177
z Constraint equations such as product demand and
Notes
specification by blending of components (intermediate products
from the process units) are also used as linear equations. It ___________________
z Product specifications
178
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
Make a chart on the Desalting
___________________
process.
___________________
1. A refinery is a highly …………………. intensive plant.
___________________
Description of Process Units
___________________
179
z Separation and purification of products of reaction. These are
Notes
physical separation processes like distillation, extraction etc.
___________________
The Figure 16.2 depicts the concept in the form of a process where
two raw materials (feedstock) A and B are processed to get ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
180
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Liquid Outlet Heater
___________________
___________________
___________________
Liquid inlet
Motor
___________________
Pumps
___________________ Hot Fluid
___________________
Shell Tubes
Out
Heat Exchanger
With this generic description in mind, let us now get into the flow
diagram and description of some of the important processes in the
refinery.
Desalting
Crude oil arriving from oilfield generally contains around 1%
saline water and organic salts. The salinity of the water could be in
the range of 15,000 to 30,000 ppm. In the refinery, the crude oil is
heated and distilled. Part of the salts contained in the crude oil,
particularly magnesium chloride, tends to undergo hydrolysis at
temperatures above 120°C. Upon hydrolysis, the chlorides get
converted into hydrochloric acid and corrode the distillation
column’s overhead and condenser. A desalter is normally installed
in the preheat section of crude distillation unit of a refinery, before
the distillation column. Its function is to reduce the salt content to
around 20-40 ppm and water content to below 0.1%.
Description
As described in the next section on crude distillation, desalters are
normally integral part of distillation plant.
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
181
The desalter is normally installed in between the heat exchangers
Notes
of the pre-heat section of Crude Distillation Unit to operate at
temperatures between 120-150°C. The desalting operation is ___________________
carried out by flushing the crude with fresh water of low salt ___________________
content. The desalter carries out dehydration of the crude by use of
___________________
electrostatic field to facilitate coalescence of charged particles of
water into large drops. ___________________
___________________
Thus it involves the following steps:
___________________
z Washing of the crude resulting in dilution of saline water
present in the crude ___________________
___________________
Normally saline water is present in emulsion form, so Demulsifier
chemicals (20-40 ppm) are also injected in the crude. This aids in ___________________
breaking the emulsion by changing the surface tension properties
of oil-water interface.
182
Crude Distillation
Notes
Atmospheric Distillation of the crude is the first step in the
___________________ processing of crude oil in a refinery. It is physical separation of oil
___________________ components at slightly higher than atmospheric pressure by
heating to around 350°C + and subsequently distilling into
___________________
fractions (raw product cuts).
___________________
As crude oil starts cracking at temperatures higher than
___________________
370-380°C, the residue from Atmospheric Distillation is
___________________ subsequently distilled under vacuum at similar temperatures. This
___________________ is called Vacuum Distillation. Distillation produces some gases
(LPG, Fuel Gas) and raw cuts of light products like gasoline,
___________________
naphtha, kerosene and diesel.
___________________
The residue from the bottom of the Atmospheric Distillation
___________________
Column is vacuum distilled to produce heavy gas oil, which form
the base stock to produce lubricants. The gas oil is also sent to
Cracking Unit to produce further light products.
Description
The fractionating column where multi-component distillation takes
place is the heart of the process. The crude needs to be heated up
before entering the fractionation column. This is done at first in a
series of heat exchangers where heat is taken from outgoing
products from the column, which need to be cooled before being
sent to storage. Heat is also exchanged against condensing streams
from the top of the column. Optimum design of this heat recovery
train or pre-heat train is extremely important for energy efficient
operation of the column. Typically, the crude will be heated up in
this way up to a temperature of 200-280°C by heat recovery alone,
before entering a furnace.
As the raw crude oil received from oilfields contains water and salt,
it is normally sent for salt removing first, in a piece of equipment
called a desalter. This has been discussed in the preceding section.
The desalter is put midway in the pre-heat train at temperature of
around 130°C.
Downstream the desalter, crude is further heated up with heat
exchangers, and starts vaporizing at about 200-280°C. Then, the
crude enters the furnace where it is heated up further to about
330-370°C. The furnace outlet stream is sent directly to the
fractionation column. Here, it is separated into a number of
fractions, each having a particular boiling range.
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
183
At 350°C, and about 1 barg, crude oil is partly vapourized and the
Notes
vapours rise up along the column through trays. The vapours come
into contact with liquid coming down from the top of the column. ___________________
The different fractions are gradually separated from each other on ___________________
the trays of the fractionation column. The heaviest fractions
___________________
condense on the lower trays and the lighter fractions condense on
the trays higher up in the column. At different elevations in the ___________________
column, with special trays called draw-off trays, fractions are ___________________
drawn out by gravity through pipes, for further processing in the ___________________
refinery.
___________________
At the top of the column, vapours are routed to an overhead
___________________
condenser, typically cooled by water or air coolers. At the outlet of
overhead condenser, vapours are condensed into liquid (naphtha) ___________________
184
All the top and side draw-offs go for further treatment to meet
Notes
Activity product specifications. The residue is vacuum distilled (see section
Find___________________
out about Carbon-to-
on Vacuum Distillation).
carbon bonding. In which all
___________________
areas can you find it?
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Vacuum Distillation
As crude oil cracks above a range of 350-370°C after atmospheric
distillation, it is distilled under vacuum to distillation unit recover
additional distillates from atmospheric residue (also termed long
residue). The objective is to minimize the residual stock and
maximize yield of useful products.
Vacuum gas oil cuts are produced in the vacuum distillation unit
for use as lubricating oil base stocks and/or feedstock for
conversion (cracking). The residue from vacuum distillation
(referred as short residue) can be used as feedstock for to produce
bitumen or as fuel component. It can also sometimes be cracked
further to produce light oils.
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
Description 185
Notes
The process configuration is somewhat similar to atmospheric
distillation. The long residue is first preheated in a heat recovery ___________________
train to recover heat from the outgoing hot products. Then it is ___________________
further heated in a furnace before entering the Vacuum ___________________
Distillation Column. Vacuum Gas oil cuts are taken from top and
___________________
side of the column and cooled before dispatch to storage.
___________________
Vacuum is maintained with vacuum ejectors and sometimes also
___________________
with liquid ring pumps. Lowest achievable vacuum in lower part of
___________________
the column is in the order of 10 milli bar.
___________________
Wet Vacuum Units use steam in the column to reduce partial
___________________
pressure of the oil. Dry Vacuum Units use deeper vacuum with less
or no steam. ___________________
(i) Feed Preparation Units: Takes out deep cuts out of long
residue for cracking in FCC or Hydrocracker. This is done
because most of such cracking units can not take the heaviest
residual part of the crude as feedstock.
(ii) Lube Base Stock Units: These are high vacuum units from
where heavy gas oil cuts are drawn out as lube base stocks.
The lube base stocks are further processed to make lubricating
oils. For Bitumen production, the residue from vacuum
distillation called short residue, is treated to make bitumen or
road tar.
186
Catalytic Reforming
Notes
Catalytic reforming is a high temperature catalytic process to
___________________ convert low-octane naphthas into high- octane gasoline blending
___________________ components called reformates. Most straight run naphthas from
primary distillation of crude comprises of a lot of low octane
___________________
components like normal paraffins and five and six carbon
___________________
naphthenes. Reforming involves:
___________________
z Isomerisation of paraffins
___________________
z Dehydrogenation of naphthenes like cyclohexanes to aromatic
___________________ hydrocarbons
___________________
z Dehydrocyclisation of paraffins i.e. making them to cyclic
___________________ hydrocarbons and dehydrogenating them to aromatics.
___________________ This gives high octane gasoline blending stock. Also hydrogen is
generated as by-product.
Reforming process is also a source for feedstock for petrochemical
plants. Reformates can be produced with very high concentrations
of toluene, benzene, xylene, and other aromatics useful both for
gasoline blending and petrochemical processing. Hydrogen,
produced from dehydrogenation and dehydrocyclisation reactions
is separated from reformate for recycling and use in other refinery
processes like hydrodesulfurisation.
The typical operating conditions are 500-530°C and 20-25 kg/Sq.cm
pressure.
Description
The first step is hydrodesulfurisation of the naphtha feed. Then
the actual reforming process starts.
A typical flow diagram is presented in Figure 16.7. The reforming
process has three sections:
z Reaction section comprising of heat recovery, furnace and
reactors
z Hydrogen separation and recirculation
z Product recovery section (distillation)
In the reaction section, the naphtha feedstock is mixed with
hydrogen generated by reaction process itself, vaporized, and
passed through a heat recovery train from outgoing reaction
products. Then it passes through a series of alternating furnace
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
The effluent from the last reactor is cooled and sent to a separator ___________________
to remove the hydrogen-rich gas stream. Hydrogen is recirculated ___________________
with a compressor and the excess hydrogen product is sent to other
___________________
users in the refinery.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Thermal Cracking
Thermal cracking is used for conversion of residues into more
useful products by cracking the large hydrocarbon molecules into
smaller ones, at a temperature level of 450-500°C. The degree of
cracking can be controlled by controlling temperature and time of
reaction (residence time). Long chain paraffinic hydrocarbon
molecules break down into a number of smaller ones by rupture of
a carbon-to-carbon bond.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
188
Cracking also generates double bonded hydrocarbons (olefins).
Notes
Other side reactions like condensation and polymerization
___________________
reactions of olefins and of the aromatics also take place. Thus
___________________ thermal cracking process leads to undesirable products like
___________________ unstable olefins and tar like polymerization products. The type of
products depends on severity of cracking.
___________________
The olefins tend to polymerize and form gum or resin like polymers
___________________
due to their unstable double bond structure. That is why gasoline
___________________ or diesel blend produced from thermal cracking processes need to
___________________ be treated with hydrogen (Hydrotreating) to make them stable
___________________
usable product.
___________________ The thermal cracking is used either to reduce the viscosity for
blending with fuel oil (Visbreaking Process). Visbreaking, though a
___________________
mild form of thermal cracking, produces some of light liquids like
gasoline and gas oil.
There is a more severe cracking to produce coke, as well as useful
light products like gasoline called Coking Process. Besides a good
yield of light products and gas, it yields good quality coke.
By selection of the type of unit, feedstock and operating conditions,
the yields and quality of the various products can meet market
requirements, of course .with some limitations.
In modern oil refineries Visbreaking and Coking (Delayed Coking)
are extensively used.
Visbreaking
Visbreaking is a mild thermal cracking process. The objective is to
reduce the viscosities and pour points of vacuum distillation
bottoms to meet fuel oil specifications. Refinery production of
heavy oils can be reduced by 30% by Visbreaking. Visbreaker also
produces gas, gas oil stock and gasoline which go for further
processing.
The principal reactions which occur during the Visbreaking are:
z Cracking of the side chains attached to Cycloparaffin and
aromatic rings.
z Cracking of resins to light hydrocarbons (primarily olefins)
z Some cracking of Naphthalene rings under higher
temperatures of operation (500°C).
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
Description 189
Notes
There are two types of Visbreaking operations:
___________________
z Coil Cracking
___________________
z Soaker Cracking
___________________
Coil Cracking uses higher furnace outlet temperatures of around
___________________
500°C. It uses a reaction time of one to three minutes. All the
cracking takes place in a dedicated portion of the coil in the ___________________
furnace itself. Due to high temperature of operation and avoidance ___________________
of soaker drum, it offers the advantage of greater ease of operation.
___________________
The cracked products are separated by fractionation.
___________________
Soaker Cracking is a similar process but uses lower furnace outlet
___________________
temperatures of around 450°C and reaction times of over five
minutes. In this case some conversion takes place at the furnace ___________________
coil but major part of conversion takes place at the soaker drum
after the furnace (see flow diagram). Soaker cracking is more often
used due to its lower energy consumption as a result of less severe
temperatures.
190
Delayed Coking Unit
Notes
Delayed coking is a thermal cracking process in which a heavy
___________________ hydrocarbon feedstock, mainly residue, is converted to lighter and
___________________ more valuable products and coke.
___________________ The main advantage of the process is that it can take residual
___________________ stock from a wide variety of process units in a refinery. Coking
Furnace and Coking Drums are the key elements in the process.
___________________
Cracking is initiated in the furnace tubes where short residence
___________________ time is allowed. Coking of the feed material is “delayed” until it
___________________ reaches large coking drums with longer reaction time, downstream
of the heater. Three physical structures of petroleum coke: shot,
___________________
sponge, or needle coke can be produced by delayed coking. These
___________________
physical structures and chemical properties of the petroleum coke
___________________ determine the end use.
Description
The feedstock gets preheated by exchange of heat from outgoing
products and is partially vaporized in a specially designed coking
furnace. Mild cracking takes place in the furnace where thermal
cracking temperatures of 485 to 505°C are reached. From the
furnace, the liquid-vapour mixture goes to one of the two coking
drums operating in batch. The vapours undergo cracking as they
pass through the coke drum. The heavy hydrocarbon liquid
trapped in the coke drum is subjected to successive cracking and
polymerization until it is converted to vapours and more coke.
The cracked products go to fractionation facilities downstream
where cracked gas, naphtha, kerosene and gas oil are separated.
The petroleum coke is formed in the drum due to high residence
time of cracking in the drum.
The feed stream is regularly switched between drums with one
operating and the other under decoking process. Decoking is done
using high pressure water jets. This generally follows a 12-16 hour
cycle.
191
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 16.10: Delayed Coking
___________________
Description
___________________
Catalytic Reactor and Regeneration systems followed by
Distillation to separate cracked products are the key steps. Hot
feed, together with some steam, is introduced at the bottom of the
reactor via distribution nozzles. Here it meets a stream of hot
regenerated catalyst from the regenerator flowing down the
inclined regenerator standpipe. The oil is heated and vaporized by
the hot catalyst. The cracking reactions take place at 500°C. The
vapour, initially formed by vaporization and successively by
cracking, carries the catalyst up a riser in the reactor. At the outlet
of the riser the catalyst and hydrocarbons are separated. The
catalyst, partly deactivated by coke deposit and the vapour enter
the reactor. The vapour passes an overhead cyclone separator for
removal of entrained catalyst before it enters the fractionators for
product separation. The catalyst then descends into the stripper
where entrained hydrocarbons are removed by injection of steam.
192
Air is supplied to the regenerator by an air blower and distributed
Notes
throughout the catalyst bed. The coke deposited is burnt off and
___________________ the regenerated catalyst passes down the regenerator standpipe to
___________________ the bottom of the riser, where it joins the fresh feed and the cycle
recommences.
___________________
The flue gas leaving the regenerator entrains “fines”, dust formed
___________________
by mechanical rubbing of catalyst particles taking place in the
___________________
catalyst bed. Before leaving the regenerator, the flue gas therefore
___________________ passes through cyclone separators where the bulk of the “fines” are
___________________ entrained catalyst is collected and returned to the catalyst bed.
___________________
Hydrocracking
___________________ As the name implies, hydrocracking is cracking in presence of
___________________ hydrogen. It is a catalytic process at high temperature and high
pressure. The initial development of the process had the limitation
of operation at very high pressures (above 200 bar). The
development of improved catalyst made it possible to operate the
process at considerably lower pressure, about 70-150 bar at
temperatures of 350 to 430°C.
The main advantages of hydrocracking process are:
z Its flexibility with respect to production of gasoline and middle
distillates
z Quality of its products
z Ability to handle a wider range of feedstock like cycle oils from
other cracking units
z Does not yield any coke as by-product
z Better conversion of the gas oil and residues into useful
products.
Although more expensive than other cracking processes, it is
competitive and often advantageous compared to other cracking
processes depending on market parameters.
Hydrocracker Reactions
The main reactions in hydrocracking are:
z Cracking
z Saturation of aromatics by hydrogenation
z And further cracking of it.
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
193
The other reactions occurring are:
Notes
z Saturation of any olefinic material present in feedstock.
___________________
z The reaction of desulphurisation, denitrogenation and
___________________
deoxygenation.
___________________
The latter reactions are essentially treating processes, which are
___________________
used as a separate processing step when other types of cracking
units are used. Thus there are two steps of reactions in ___________________
Hydrocracking: cracking step and treating step. As a result, the ___________________
product quality is superior.
___________________
A combination of catalysts is used. The cracking function is
___________________
provided by Silica Alumina catalyst or Zeolite catalyst.
___________________
Zeolite catalyst permits operation at lower temperatures for the
___________________
same conversion. Tungsten oxide or nickel oxide catalysts promote
hydrogenation reaction.
Description
When the cracking and treating step is combined in one reactor,
the process is called a Single-Stage Process.
This simplest of the hydrocracker configuration finds application in
cases where only moderate degree of conversion (say 60% or less) is
required. The single stage process can also be used for full
conversion, but with a limited reduction in molecular weight. An
example is the production of middle distillates from heavy
distillate oils.
In a multi-stage Process, the cracking reaction mainly takes place
in an added reactor. There could be two stage or three stage
hydrocracker. These processes were developed to overcome the
limitations of single stage process – the limitations of conversion as
well as catalyst poisoning by undesirable components. In the two
stage process, the undesirable compounds are removed from the
unconverted hydrocarbons in the first reactor. In the first reactor,
desulphurisation and denitrogenation occurs besides a limited
amount of hydrocracking. These are exothermic reactions. The
catalyst is arranged in a number of fixed beds. Reaction
temperatures are controlled by introducing part of the recycle gas
as a quench medium between beds. The liquid from the first
reactor is fractionated to remove the product made in the first
reactor.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
194
Unconverted material, with a low nitrogen and sulfur content, is
Notes
taken out from the bottom of fractionation section. After, heat
___________________
exchange with reactor effluent and mixing with heated recycle gas,
___________________ it is sent to the second reactor. Here most of the hydrocracking
___________________ reactions occur. Effluent from the second reactor is cooled and joins
first stage effluent for separation from recycle gas and
___________________
fractionation. Saturation of any olefinic material is present in
___________________ feedstock.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. The objective of ………………. is to minimize the
___________________
residual stock and maximize yield of useful products.
___________________
2. When the cracking and treating step is combined in one
reactor, the process is called a ………………. Process.
Summary
In this unit, the process units and utility/offsite facilities required
in a refinery was summarized. An overview of application of Linear
Programming techniques for refinery optimization was presented.
A generic description of typical refinery process was given
highlighting the basic system and equipment involved. This was
followed by description of some of the important processes used in
the refinery along with flow diagram.
Keywords
Specific Gravity of a Gas: It is defined as the weight of a given
volume of the gas compared to the weight of the same amount of
air at the same temperature and pressure, where air weight is
taken as reference (= 1).
Gas Sweetening: Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
from gas is called gas sweetening.
Molecular sieves: These are zeolite granules manufactured under
controlled conditions to create microscopic pores at its surface.
UNIT 16: Distillation in Refineries
Further Readings
Books
Arthur J. Kidnay, William R. Parrish, Dan McCartney,
Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Second Edition
Dominic C. Y. Foo, Mahmoud M. El-Halwagi, Raymond R. Tan,
Recent Advances in Sustainable Process Design and Optimization
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processing
www.linde-india.com/.../Natural%20Gas%20Processing %20Plants.
pd...
www.bv.com/Downloads/Resources/.../rsrc_ENR_Gas
Processing.pdf
ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/...gas/.../ngprocess/ngprocess.pdf
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
196
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 17: Petrochemical Industry
Unit 17
197
Notes
Petrochemical Industry
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction
Petrochemicals are usually plastic products and chemicals that are
derived from petroleum or natural gas and are made on a large
scale. The petrochemical industry means manufacture, supply and
distribution of plastics, fibres and chemicals which are produced
from one of the petroleum products as starting material or
feedstock. Petroleum products from refinery and natural gas,
supply over 50% of the feedstock for the entire chemical industry
and more than 50% of organic chemicals.
The petrochemical industry can use other organic or inorganic
material as feedstock along with feedstock of petroleum origin. For
example polythene is made only with feedstock of petroleum origin
(naphtha or ethane as feedstock). But PVC, another petrochemical
product, besides having naphtha or ethane as feedstock, also uses
chlorine as another raw material in its manufacture.
It is amazing how much oil and gas has penetrated into our lives
today. Oil is not just petrol or diesel. The toothbrush we use to
start the day, the suit we wear, the fuel we use in our vehicles, the
car interiors, back home with cosy furniture, tapestry, and
mattress of the bed we sleep on - petrochemicals have got into our
lives everywhere.
Petrochemicals consume only a tiny fraction (5 to 6%) of the
world’s oil production to give high value products.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
198
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
Polyester Clothing Nylon Can
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
PVC Pipes Acrylic Carpet
___________________
___________________ As one can see below, petrochemical industry starts with this
feedstock of petroleum origin, undergoes processing to generate
intermediate chemicals. These intermediate chemicals are further
processed mostly through polymerization, but also some times
through other synthesis processes to generate finished products.
A vast majority of the petrochemical products are polymers, whose
molecular size and structure are tailored by reaction process to suit
specific characteristics or properties.
Most of the petrochemical products are polymers, which means
molecules formed by combination of several (in thousands) small
molecules of olefins called monomers. Polymers are essentially
used as plastics or fibres as shown in Table 17.1.
Plastics Fibers
Polythene Polyester
Polypropylene Polypropylene
Polystyrene Nylon
PVC Polyurethane
Polycarbonate Cellulose
Polyester Polyacrylonitrile
Polymerization Basics
Here we will talk about the basics of Polymerization.
molecules are called monomers. Monomers are tiny molecules e.g. 199
ethylene (mol. wt. 28). The end product is a large molecule called Notes
Polymer. A polymer could be of molecular weight of thousands or ___________________
million.
___________________
‘A’ is a monomer that combines to form a polymer. ___________________
Co-polymer
When a polymer is made by linking only one type of small
molecules or monomers together, it is called a homo-polymer.
When two different types of monomers are joined in the same
polymer chain, the polymer is called a co-polymer. Two monomers
A and B can join together in different manner to form co-polymers:
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
200
Alternating Co-polymer: A – B – A – B – A – B – A – B – A – B –
Notes
Activity
Find___________________
out using the Internet Random Co-polymer: A – B – A – A– A – B –B – A– A– A –
which is the thinnest and
___________________
thickest form of Polythene in Block Co-polymer: A – A – A – A – A – B –B – B –B – B –
use ___________________
in our daily lives.
Graft Co-polymer: A – A – A – A – A – A –A – A –A – A –
___________________ | |
B B
| |
___________________
B B
| |
___________________ B B
___________________ Again it creates numerous possibilities to generate polymers with
___________________ different characteristics.
Polythene 201
Notes
Polythene is among the most widely used polymers. It has simple
structure with several ethylene molecules forming a chain. In this ___________________
case ethane or naphtha is cracked to make ethylene, which is then ___________________
polymerized.
___________________
Examples of polythene products are – grocery bags, shampoo
___________________
bottles, toys, and even bullet proof vests.
___________________
Sometimes some of the carbons, instead of having straight chains
___________________
of ethane monomers joining together, have branches of a number of
monomers together. This is called branched, or low-density ___________________
polyethylene, or LDPE. ___________________
PVC
Polyvinyl chloride is the plastic commonly known as PVC. It finds
wide applications in PVC pipes for transportation of water.
PVC is made from vinyl chloride as monomer. Vinyl chloride is a
copolymer of acetylene and chlorine. Acetylene is of petroleum
origin produced by cracking of ethane or naphtha.
PVC is useful because it resists two things:
z It resists water
z It resists fire
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
202
It is used for making water resistant such as raincoats, shower
Notes
curtains, water pipes and floorings etc. It has flame resistance too,
___________________
because it contains chlorine. When PVC catches fire, chlorine
___________________ atoms are released, and chlorine atoms inhibit combustion.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Synthetic Rubber
In the middle of nineteenth century, scientists cracked natural
rubber molecules into oil, tar and a volatile compound– which they
called ‘spirit’. The spirit molecule was identified as C5H8 and
named Isoprene.
Manufacture of Synthetic Rubbers is reverse process of above.
Synthetic rubbers are polymer products from monomers (e.g.
Isoprene) obtained from processing of feedstock from petroleum.
In 1960s, Bayer developed two types of synthetic rubber by
polymerizing Butadiene and named ‘Buna’:
z Buna S – styrene butadiene rubber, SBR
z Buna N – butadiene acrylonitrile rubber, NBR
The other major elastomers (polymers with elastic properties like
rubber) developed during mid-twentieth century are poly-
chloroprene and butyl rubber (poly isobutylene). Development of
new elastomers is taking place continuously.
UNIT 17: Petrochemical Industry
203
TREAD OF TYRE: Notes
made of random copolymers
of styrene and butadiene. ___________________
SIDE WALLS:
made of polyisoprene. ___________________
INNER LINER:
___________________
made of polyisobutylene.
___________________
___________________
___________________
Polyisoprene
___________________
___________________
___________________
Automobile Parts
Auto body parts are made of polymer like acrylonitrile-butadiene-
styrene plastic, called ABS.
204
Polymers being good insulators, cables are insulated with polymers
Notes
like polyethylene and polyisoprene.
___________________
For wires that get heated up, insulation made from a fireproof
___________________
polymer called polyvinylidene fluoride is used.
___________________
These are other examples of how polymers are tailor made to suit a
___________________ particular application.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
206
Foam
Notes
Fast food often comes in boxes made of polystyrene foam.
___________________
Napkins are made of paper, which is a form of a polymer called
___________________
cellulose.
___________________
Polystyrene again comes from aromatics as starting material.
___________________
Each of such petrochemicals passes through transformation into
___________________ other intermediate chemicals and then polymerization into final
___________________ products. Aromatic called ethyl benzene is one of the starting
materials to make polystyrene.
___________________
___________________
Polypropylene
Polypropylene as the name suggests is a polymer of propylene.
Propylene is made by cracking petrochemical feedstock like
propane, butane or naphtha. The usefulness of propylene comes
from its ability to stand rain and humidity.
It is used for carpeting indoor and outdoor, making containers,
water pipes, stationary and file covers.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 17.12: Kitchen Countertop
Capsule Tray
and
Capsules
208
Pharmacy and Cosmetics
Notes
Activity
Petrochemicals have invaded in this industry also in the form of
Give some examples of waste
___________________ numerous products like:
from manipulated Polymers
___________________
being reclaimed and z Capsule shell
remolded.
___________________
z Disposable syringes
___________________
z Containers for medicines
___________________
z Packaging for medicines
___________________
Types of Plastics
Now having identified plastic materials let us look at broad
classification based on its thermal (transformation by heat or
moulding) properties:
Thermoplastics
Organic long chain polymers that can be soft when heated are
suitable for moulding. As explained earlier, the polymers can have
different properties and application by manipulating molecular
weight. Typical examples below are of polythene (also called
polyethylene):
z LLDPE (Linear Low Density Polyethylene): Used to make
thin films
z LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene): Films, sheets, moulded
articles
z HDPE (High Density Polyethylene): Bottles, moulded
containers, pipes
z Polypropylene: Moulded articles, coarse fibres
z Polystyrene: Car interiors, disposable food containers
z PVC: Table cloth, shower curtain, shoes, auto upholstery
Waste from these can be reclaimed and remolded.
UNIT 17: Petrochemical Industry
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. …………………….. is used to make bottles, moulded
containers and pipes. ___________________
___________________
2. …………………….. is used to make Car interiors and
disposable food containers. ___________________
Summary
It is amazing how much oil and gas has penetrated into our lives
today. Oil is not just petrol or diesel. The toothbrush we use to
start the day, the suit we wear, the fuel we use in our vehicles, the
car interiors, back home with cosy furniture, tapestry, and
mattress of the bed we sleep on - petrochemicals have got into our
lives everywhere.
Keywords
Petrochemicals: They are usually plastic products and chemicals
that are derived from petroleum or natural gas and are made on a
large scale.
Monomers: They are organic molecules with double or triple bond
which have a tendency to join together several times to form a
large molecule.
Propylene: It is made by cracking petrochemical feedstock like
propane, butane or naphtha.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
210
Questions for Discussion
Notes
1. What are Monomers, polymers and Co-polymers?
___________________
___________________
2. List the different kinds of Polymers in use.
___________________ 3. What are High impact plastics? Explain the different types.
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________ Books
___________________ Arthur J. Kidnay, William R. Parrish, Dan McCartney,
___________________ Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Second Edition
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processing
www.linde-india.com/.../Natural%20Gas%20Processing%20Plants.
pd...
www.bv.com/Downloads/Resources/.../rsrc_ENR_Gas
Processing.pdf
ftp://ftp.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/...gas/.../ngprocess/ngprocess.pdf
We
UNIT 18: Production of Petrochemicals
Unit 18
211
Notes
Production of Petrochemicals
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
\ Petrochemicals ___________________
\ The various feedstock and products – overall configuration of a ___________________
petrochemical complex
\ Base petrochemicals, intermediates and derivatives ___________________
___________________
Introduction
This unit summarizes various feedstock of petroleum origin,
intermediate step of processing the feedstock and the end product.
This is further elaborated in the form of a macro-level diagram of
the whole petrochemical industry.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
213
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
produce BTX (Benzene, Toluene and Xylenes). The BTX forms the 215
intermediate product to manufacture synthetic fibres. Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure18.4: Production of the Base Petrochemicals
Steam Reforming
Takes natural gas, methane or naphtha as feedstock and produces
synthesis gas (CO+H2), which become precursors to urea fertilizers
and other petrochemical products. Methanol is an intermediate
product from which other petrochemical products like
formaldehyde and acetic acid are manufactured.
The next section describes how the base chemicals lead to
products.
Effect of Feedstock
The effect of feedstock on the yields of intermediates is shown in
Table 18.2. As stated earlier, naphtha and gas oil yield a wider
range of intermediates including aromatics compared to ethane.
UNIT 18: Production of Petrochemicals
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Steam Reforming
Methane or naphtha is steam reformed to produce synthesis gas,
which is essentially a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide. CO and H2 form the basic material from which urea
fertilizer and methanol are made.
Natural gas is first treated to remove traces of H2S. Then, a
mixture of purified natural gas and steam is superheated to 850ºC
in a furnace (reformer), where it is converted to synthesis gas
consisting of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
The reactions involved in steam reforming are:
z CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2
z CO + H2O = CO2 + H2
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
218
When hydrogen is the desired product, the reforming reaction is
Notes
followed by the well-known water gas shift reaction to convert
___________________
essentially all of CO to CO2. This is done when the process is
___________________ meant for manufacture of ammonia, which is an intermediate step
___________________ for making urea fertilizer.
Methanol Synthesis
There are two main chemical reactions which occur in this process
step:
z CO + 2H2 = CH3OH
219
Flue Gas
Notes
Activity
Find___________________
out what the
H2O
CH4 Reformer To hydrogen comsumption of BTX in India
Natural Gas Steam To Burner consumer
is. ___________________
CO+H3 ___________________
CO+H
2 2 Methanol H2 Methanol
Converter
Synthesis Gas Purge Gas ___________________
CHOH/HO
3 2
___________________
Methanol/Water Distillation
___________________
___________________
Water
___________________
Figure 18.6: Methanol from Synthesis Gas
___________________
Aromatics Production
220
Composition of Reformate and Pyrolysis Gasoline
Notes
Pyrolysis gasoline comes from the steam cracking of naphtha for the
___________________ production of ethylene, propene and higher olefins. As indicated in
___________________ Table 18.3, pyrolysis gasoline is quite rich in aromatics.
___________________ Table 18.3: Composition of Reformate and Pyrolysis Gasoline
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Aromatics Recovery Process
The first process unit for production of aromatics is Catalytic
Reforming of naphtha. As described earlier, this unit is normally
located in a refinery. To produce the key components (BTX), a
naphtha cut is prepared in the refinery which is in the boiling
range of BTX and then it is sent for reforming process. Reforming
converts paraffins and naphthenic components of naphtha to
aromatics.
The next step is Aromatics Extraction. Benzene, toluene and
xylenes are taken out of the reformer product by solvent extraction
process.
A series of distillation columns follow to separate out the benzene,
toluene and xylene components.
Benzene and toluene are distilled out in the first three columns.
Xylenes fraction, which is a mixture of the isomers ortho-xylene,
meta-xylene and para-xylene are sent to the next series of columns
to separate them.
Let us see some typical examples. The ideal example is the ___________________
ethylene derivatives or intermediate petrochemicals based on ___________________
ethylene.
___________________
A simple configuration of petrochemicals based on ethylene is
___________________
presented in Figure18.7. Here the primary processing of cracking
generates the base petrochemical (ethylene).
From base petrochemical, the intermediate petrochemicals are
synthesized, e.g. Vinyl chloride monomer and styrene.
The final products in the block diagram polythene, VCM are
ethylene derivatives.
222
Processing for End Products – Polymerization
Notes
So far we looked into the various methods to produce the base
___________________ petrochemicals. The base petrochemicals pass through a number of
___________________ processing steps to produce the end products.
___________________ The products are numerous. So are the processes. Let us look at a
___________________ few examples to understand the various steps leading to end
products.
___________________
___________________ Polymerization
___________________ Polymerization is the final step in getting commercial grade
plastics or fibres. Polymerization processes are carried out in the
___________________
presence of a catalyst. There are various techniques of initiating
___________________
and controlling the polymerization reaction. Polymerization could
___________________ be in vapour phase or liquid phase or with suspension of catalysts
in a liquid medium. The operating temperatures and pressures
vary widely from process to process.
Generally the reaction is highly exothermic. Hence removal of heat
during the reaction is important in controlling the reaction.
Polymers are formed as granules in the reactor. They are
separated, dried and finally packed as bulk product.
Polythene Production
Ethylene is fed to the reactor bed reactor where polymerization
occurs. The temperature is controlled by circulation of the contents
of the reactor through a cooler. The polyethylene are withdrawn
from the reactor, and treated to stop residual catalyst activity.
Depending on the requirement of the polyethylene grade and end
product application, the polyethylene is either conveyed to the
extruder systems where additives are combined to produce natural
pelletised grades or to the compounding facility, where the product
is combined with dedicated colour master batches to form fully
formulated compounds.
The resins are then dried, homogenized and bagged for delivery.
UNIT 18: Production of Petrochemicals
223
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
___________________
Polyvinyl Chloride is a chlorinated hydrocarbon polymer. It is
produced from vinyl chloride monomer (chemical formula
CH2=CHCl). The monomer is called VCM.
It is one example where besides feedstock of petroleum origin, an
inorganic compound also is one of the raw materials. Vinyl
Chloride Monomer (VCM) is produced from the raw materials of
ethylene and chlorine.
For the production of PVC, VCM need to be produced first. VCM is
produced in three steps in figure 18.11
Direct chlorination: Ethylene and chlorine are combined in a
continuous process to form Ethylene Dichloride (EDC).
EDC cracking: EDC is thermally decomposed into VCM and
hydrogen chloride.
The hydrogen chloride is recycled as feedstock to a further stage,
the oxychlorination. Unconverted EDC is separated and recycled.
The VCM is purified for use in PVC production.
Oxychlorination: Recycled hydrogen chloride is reacted with
further ethylene feedstock in the presence of copper chloride
catalyst and oxygen. This produces further quantities of EDC,
while excess hydrogen is oxidized to form water.
VCM thus produced is taken to the next step, which is
polymerization to PVC.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
224
Hydrogen Chloride Recycle
Notes Ethylene EDC Recycle
Oxychlorination
___________________ Oxygen
EDC Purification EDC Cracking VCM
Ethylene
___________________
Direct Chlorination
Chlorine
By Product
___________________ Water
___________________
Figure 18.11: Process for VCM
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
In this unit, an overview of the processing steps in the
petrochemical industry was presented with macro-level block
diagram, defining the feedstock and the final products. The steps
were further elaborated for each of the major feedstock like
naphtha and ethane.
The primary petrochemical units like steam cracker, steam
reforming and aromatics unit were described with flow diagram.
UNIT 18: Production of Petrochemicals
___________________
Lesson End Activity
___________________
Make an integrated block diagram of a petrochemical complex with ___________________
both naphtha and ethane as feedstock.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Petrochemical Industry: Means manufacture, supply and
___________________
distribution of plastics, fibres and chemicals which are produced
from one of the petroleum products as starting material or ___________________
feedstock.
PVC: Polyvinyl chloride is the plastic commonly known as PVC. It
finds wide applications in PVC pipes for transportation of water.
Polyethylene terepthalate (PET): They are glass like material
used to make transparent bottles.
226
9. Describe thermoplastic and thermosetting resins with
Notes
examples.
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
___________________
Books
Albert V. Hahn, Roger Williams, Herman Zabel, “The
___________________
petrochemical industry: market and economics”, Technology &
___________________
Engineering, 1970
___________________
Alain Chauvel, Gilles Lefebvre, 1989, Petrochemical Processes:
___________________ Major Oxygenated, Chlorinated and Nitrated
___________________ Klaus Weissermel, Hans-Jürgen Arpe, Industrial organic
___________________ chemistry, Science
Web Readings
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical
www.cci.in/pdf/surveys.../chemical-petrochemical-industry.pdf
www.chemtech-online.com/.../01/indian-petrochemical-
industry.php
info.shine.com › Industry Information
UNIT 19: Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Pipelines
Unit 19
227
Notes
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Basic configuration of pipeline and its hardware components
\ Special technologies used in pipeline like SCADA, Intelligent Pigging, ___________________
etc.
___________________
\ Salient features of offshore and on-land pipeline
___________________
Introduction
Hydrocarbons need to be transported from the place where it is
produced, to the different users. This unit talks about the different
forms of transportation of such Hydrocarbons through pipelines.
Modes of Transportation
Hydrocarbons, liquid or gas can be transported from the source of
generation to the bulk user in different ways depending on the
location of the source and the user; whether they are located at
land or sea, the distance and terrain between the two and the
quantity to be transported.
Bulk transportation is done by:
Pipeline
Marine Tankers and Barges
Road and Railway Tankers Pipeline
Pipeline is used for transportation on land (onshore pipeline) and
also along the bed of sea (subsea or offshore pipeline), up to a few
hundred meters of water depth. For bulk movement of hydrocarbon,
pipeline is often the most economical way of transportation. Long
distance pipeline is also termed as cross country pipeline, since the
pipeline crosses through several hundred kilometres of land across
the country or covering a number of countries. Land based pipeline
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
228 is far more economic. Subsea pipeline is used where either pipeline
Notes has got to cross the sea or the land is inaccessible due to unfriendly
___________________ terrain or other reasons.
___________________
Marine Tankers and Barges
___________________
Marine tankers and barges are used for bulk supply across the sea,
___________________ where for some reason transport by subsea pipeline is either not
___________________ economical (e.g. due to depth of sea) or technically or politically not
feasible. Supply of the cargo is effected in batches and not continuous.
___________________
229
Check Your Progress
Notes
Fill in the blanks: Activity
Find___________________
out using the Internet
1. For bulk movement of hydrocarbon ………………… is which are the Major Gas
___________________
often the most economical way of transportation. pipelines in India.
___________________
2. Long distance pipeline is also termed as ……… pipeline.
___________________
___________________
Pipeline is the most preferred option to transport oil, gas or
products in bulk. It could be thousands of km long, branched and ___________________
networked. ___________________
Configuration of both oil and gas pipeline are very similar. A cross
___________________
country oil or gas pipeline system normally starts with pumping of
oil or compression of gas to develop the requisite pressure to travel ___________________
230
An SPM (Single Point Mooring) connecting the subsea pipeline
Notes
to a tanker, if oil is transferred from a tanker instead of
___________________
platform.
___________________
Pig Launcher.
___________________
Subsea pipeline reaching shore at what is called Landfall
___________________ Point.
___________________
A Receiving Terminal at the landfall point. It has equipment
___________________ like pig receiver, filter, storage for oil, pumping for gas,
___________________ processing of gas, compression and dehydration. The
description of the various equipments is given in later part of
___________________
this unit.
___________________
From the receiving terminal oil or gas is sent through cross
___________________ country pipeline, which could be hundreds of kilometres in length
to several customers along the route. There could be several
customers along the routes like power stations, fertilizer plants or
other industries.
For distribution to each customer, there will be a Distribution
Terminal having filter, meter, etc.
Normally, there are booster stations with booster compressors for
gas and booster pumps for oil after every few hundred kilometres
to compensate for the pressure loss in the pipeline.
The entire facility is monitored and managed by SCADA system.
SCADA is a central monitoring system, which monitors the entire
pipeline parameters over several hundred kilometres by telemetry
and telecontrol.
Normally, LPG and petrochemical feedstock like ethane/propane
are taken out before giving the gas to the industrial consumer. The
bulk of the remaining gas is mainly methane (above 90% by
volume).
232
PLEM and SPM
Notes
Figure 19.4 shows offshore platform linked to a PLEM, from where
___________________ the pipeline starts. PLEM means Pipeline End Manifold, which is
___________________ essentially a set of valves and flanges along with pipe header
supported by steel structure, from where the pipeline carrying oil,
___________________
gas or any other material starts. Piping from the platform carrying
___________________
oil or gas is joined at the PLEM, which is fixed at the sea bed by
___________________ piling.
___________________ PLEM also has pig launcher, the function of which will be
___________________ explained later.
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 19.4 also shows a tanker being loaded with the oil produced
in the platform. For this a floating manifold called SPM (Single
Point Mooring) is utilized. A more detailed picture of an SPM is
given in Figure 19.5.
It essentially is a floating manifold in a buoy, connected by flexible
hose to the PLEM, and permanently anchored in the seabed. An oil
tanker can be anchored near the SPM, get connected to the
manifold at the SPM and receive the oil through the PLEM.
SPM (also known by various trade names like SBM i.e. Single
Buoy Mooring) can also be used to unload from a tanker and take
UNIT 19: Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Pipelines
oil and product to storage terminal at shore. In such cases where 233
product or oil is imported by tanker, the tanker anchors near the Notes
shore, as near as it can come with available draft in the sea. An ___________________
SPM is anchored at that point connected to a PLEM. PLEM has
___________________
pipeline leading to the shore terminal.
___________________
Pigging and Pig Launcher/Pig Receiver ___________________
Long distance pipelines need cleaning and monitoring from time to
___________________
time, which is done by Pigging. A pig is a cylindrical or spherical in
___________________
shape, made of metal or plastic with or without brushes at the edge
and having diameter close to the pipe diameter. It is pushed inside ___________________
pipeline through a pig launcher normally at the pumping or ___________________
compression station. Originally it was developed for cleaning and
___________________
pushing the condensate out of pipelines.
___________________
Pigging is primarily the processes or activities of sending a Pig
through a pipeline. It may also include defining the purpose of
pigging, selection of suitable Pig, launching and receiving the Pig
and tracking the Pig as it passes through the pipeline. The main
purpose or functions of pigs are:
To clean and remove debris.
For pre-inspection and certification of newly built pipeline.
To maximize efficiency and ensure continuous operation by
removing pipeline deposits.
To monitor corrosion and damage on the internal surface of
the pipeline.
Today intelligent pigging is an accepted way of pipeline monitoring
and maintenance. Intelligent pigs have electronic device that scans
and monitors pipeline inner surface and thickness and records the
data. They are also known as smart pigs.
Pictures of various types of pigs are presented in Figure 19.6.
234
Pig Launcher is used for launching and despatching pigs to the
Notes
outgoing pipeline. The launching station is located at oil/gas
___________________ source. The launching station comprises of a pig launcher. After
___________________ the pig is launched into the pipeline, it is trapped at the other end
of the pipeline by Pig Receiver.
___________________
___________________ Along with the meter to measure the quantity of oil or gas being
transferred, there has to be an instrument for online measurement
of quality. For example, for oil it is important to measure water
content. Also temperature and pressure need to be measured for
volume standardization.
For gas, the temperature and pressure are measured to quantify
the gas under standard conditions. The composition is measured
online for the quality of gas in terms of calorific value and
contaminants.
235
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 19.7: Oil Storage and Pumping ___________________
Filter/Coalescer ___________________
In gas pipelines, Gas Filter Coalescer is used for the cleaning of the ___________________
arriving gas from dust particles and for removal of any entrained ___________________
liquid from the gas. Normally, there will be two filters arranged in
parallel in the system – one in operation and the other in standby
condition.
236
It should be noted that protection against dragging anchors from
Notes
large ships, particularly in soft soils, requires significant burial
___________________
depths.
___________________
Special Features and Systems for Pipeline Installations
___________________
sites on the body of the pipeline. Anodic and cathodic sites form for 237
many reasons: Notes
___________________
Grain size or composition differences
___________________
Discontinuities on the surface
___________________
Differences in local environments (e.g., temperature, oxygen,
or salt concentration) ___________________
___________________
Cathodic protection is a procedure by which an underground
metallic pipe is protected against corrosion. A direct current is ___________________
impressed onto the pipe by means of either a sacrificial anode or a ___________________
rectifier (DC Source). Corrosion will be reduced where sufficient
___________________
current flows onto the pipe.
Pipeline Coating
All buried pipelines are coated externally (Figure 19.9) by a
suitable anti-corrosion coating, supplemented by cathodic
protection which covers any damaged or deteriorated area of the
coating. For each specific pipeline system the selection of the
coating material is based on the specific corrosion problems to be
encountered. Coating material used for the external protection of
oil and gas transmission pipeline systems are:
Hot applied asphalt or coaltar enamels
Polyethylene coatings (PE)
Fusion bonded epoxy coatings (FBE)
Plastic tape wrappings
Asphalt mastic coatings
Cold applied epoxy coal tar coatings.
238
Flare and Venting
Notes
___________________ The pipeline system is provided with flare and venting system,
which handles the relief and blow-downs of the contained
___________________
hydrocarbon in the system.
___________________
___________________
Control and SCADA
239
The use of SCADA system facilitates:
Notes
Activity
Operation and Maintenance
Using the Internet, find out
___________________
Planning more about Right of Way
___________________
(ROW).
Safety Management ___________________
Accounting ___________________
SCADA is also used for Leak Detection along with flow modelling ___________________
software. Dynamic Fluid Dynamic models for pipeline flow of oil
___________________
and gas can monitor the flow measurements at various locations in
___________________
the pipeline, match them with the supply volumes and consumer
withdrawals and predict leakages and approximate location of the ___________________
leakage. ___________________
___________________
240 like any other industry, there are certain special aspects that need
Notes to be taken care of in a pipeline project.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Basic Parameters
The pipeline is designed taking into consideration the operating
conditions and requirements over its entire projected life cycle
including final abandonment, i.e.
The maximum planned throughput and turn-down
The characteristics of the fluids to be transported
The pressure and temperature requirements
The mode of operations
The geographic location, and the environmental conditions.
UNIT 19: Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Pipelines
For a given pipe size, fluid properties and flow rate, the hydraulic ___________________
analysis should provide the pressure and temperature profiles all ___________________
along the pipeline for steady state and transient conditions.
___________________
Full account should be taken of possible changes in flow rates and
___________________
operational modes, over the complete operational life of the
___________________
pipeline.
___________________
The hydraulic analysis should provide information on: surge
pressure during shutdown of a liquid line, turn-down limitations ___________________
242
Actual pressure drop should be less than available pressure
Notes
drop
___________________
Pipeline Routing
The selection of the route is done by taking full account of the
associated risks, particularly safety and environmental risks, the
UNIT 19: Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Pipelines
___________________
Pipeline Construction
___________________
Pipeline construction is performed in accordance with the relevant
sections of the ANSI/ASME Codes, and has to comply with any ___________________
244
Before a pipeline is constructed, ROW is obtained to secure the
Notes
land rights necessary to construct, operate and maintain the
___________________
pipeline. The ROW agreement restricts the landowner’s rights
___________________ within the ROW corridor to uses that are compatible with the
___________________ operation and maintenance of the pipeline.
Stringing
The pipelines themselves are fabricated from 12 metre pipe
lengths. They are then welded into 250 metre lengths, known as
strings. The pipe is then lowered into the trench. Backfill material
is added beneath and around the pipe to secure it in place.
When the pipe is covered to a depth of at least one meter,
restoration of the area begins.
If necessary, the pipe is bent to follow the natural contour of the
land. Welds are stringently tested to ensure their integrity. This is
done while laying the pipeline in a string (see Figure 19.14).
___________________
Liquid Penetrant Testing
___________________
2. Hydro-Testing: After full length of the pipeline is laid, the
Hydrotesting of the pipeline is normally conducted from end to ___________________
end. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
246
Operating and Monitoring of Pipeline
Notes
There are three important features of operation and monitoring of
___________________ pipelines:
___________________ (1) Overall control and monitoring of pipeline by SCADA
___________________ system from a Master Control Station (MCS) as described
___________________
earlier.
___________________
The types of instrumentation in a pipeline system can
comprise the following:
___________________
Flow, pressure, temperature measurements (Flow
___________________
indicators, Pressure indicators, Temperature indicators)
___________________
Quality measurements
___________________
Safety systems
___________________
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
systems.
Leak detection systems.
The data is transmitted from various locations in the cross
country pipeline system to the MCS from where the whole
pipeline operation is monitored.
The SCADA system is also used for leak detection by
comparing mass flow rates through the pipeline at various
locations along the route. It can detect leak up to 0.5-1.0% of
the total flow and locate it .
Other applications of SCADA system are:
Pipeline efficiency monitoring
Monitoring movement of pigs
Pipeline integrity monitoring and leak detection
Gas quality monitoring
Early warning of adverse operating condition
(2) Inspection and Surveillance all along the Route (ROW)
Inspection and maintenance of the pipeline and accessories all
along the ROW is carried out at regular intervals.
The pipeline can be swiftly shutdown if control centre
operators observe abnormal conditions. Automatic shutdown is
also prompted by the SCADA system when preset safety limits
are exceeded.
UNIT 19: Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Pipelines
247
Surveillance and protection along ROW is carried out by:
Notes
Using aircraft, land vehicle or foot patrol, to look for
___________________
potentially damaging activities such as unauthorized
digging and construction. ___________________
___________________
Using high resolution satellite imagery for outside
intervention and sabotage attempts. ___________________
248
Cathodic Protection by Impressed Current System
Notes
___________________
Placement of Route Markers
___________________
Line Pipe
Summary
In this unit, the various modes for bulk transportation of
hydrocarbon resources were described at the beginning. This was
UNIT 19: Transportation of Oil, Gas and Products: Pipelines
design and optimization of a pipeline was given. Also various steps ___________________
in implementing pipeline projects and construction of cross country ___________________
pipeline was described. This was elaborated with an example of a
___________________
cross country pipeline project. Various factors taken into
consideration for a grass roots project example (HBJ Pipeline) were ___________________
elaborated. ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
Write a short essay on Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems.
Keywords
SCADA: It is a central monitoring system, which monitors the
entire pipeline parameters over several hundred kilometres by
telemetry and telecontrol.
Pipeline End Manifold(PLEM): It is essentially a set of valves
and flanges along with pipe header supported by steel structure,
from where the pipeline carrying oil, gas or any other material
starts.
Pig: A pig is a cylindrical or spherical in shape, made of metal or
plastic with or without brushes at the edge and having diameter
close to the pipe diameter.
Pigging: It is primarily the processes or activities of sending a Pig
through a pipeline.
250
3. Explain the configuration of a Cross-country pipeline.
Notes
___________________
4. Explain the following terms:
Web Readings
www.hoovers.com › Hoover's Directories › Industry Overviews
www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuvvaZrUDe4
reaccess.epu.ntua.gr/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket... tabid=579&mid
www.careersinoilandgas.com › ... › Occupational Summaries
UNIT 5: Case Study
Unit 20
251
Notes
Case Studies
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing these cases, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
___________________
Case Study 1: Loading Arm
___________________
As one of the few Australian companies with Loading Arm
experience, Camco was contracted by a major gas producer to ___________________
refurbish their Condensate Loading Arms. The Loading Arms
___________________
were removed by our team and transported Perth for
refurbishment. The overhaul of the Loading Arms required a
significant commitment of workshop facilities and available
engineering disciplines.
Problem:
Question
252
Case Study 2: LNG Unloading Arm Installation at Kochi
Notes Seashore
___________________ The project site, LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) receiving and regas
(regasify) terminal, is a part of newly created Special Economic
___________________
Zone located on the sea shore of south-western India. To meet the
___________________ civil and industrial demand of natural gas in this deficit area
___________________ where no piped natural gas is available, the first LNG terminal in
south India was formed in 2007 using reclaimed land with
___________________
dimensions of 840 m X 400 m and a 330m long x 5m wide jetty
___________________ trestle extending from the land at the south side.
Questions
253
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
BLOCK-V
Detailed Contents Understanding Oil & Gas Business
254
Notes
UNIT 21: TRANSPORTATION OF OIL, GAS AND
___________________ UNIT 23: IT APPLICATIONS IN HYDROCARBON
PRODUCTS: OTHER MODES INDUSTRY
z ___________________
Introduction z Introduction
Unit 21
255
Notes
Activity
Name one Indian Crude
Transportation of Oil, Gas and
___________________
Carrier and one Clean
___________________
products carrier with the help
Products: Other Modes of the Internet.
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Overview of transportation by road and railways
\ Overview of Transportation by marine tanker ___________________
___________________
Introduction
In the earlier unit, you learnt about transportation of Oil and Gas
through pipelines. In this unit, you will learn about transportation
through Marine Tankers and by Road and Rail transport.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Oil and products are also loaded or unloaded by SPM connected to ___________________
a pipeline to the shore termina. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
258
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
Make a presentation on Road
___________________
Transportation of Oil and Gas. 1. Oil, LNG and products are normally loaded and
___________________
unloaded with the tanker berthed alongside a
___________________ ………………., having loading arms and unloading arms.
___________________
2. Once the tanker berths, the ………………. arm is
___________________ connected to the tanker.
___________________
z A flow meter
259
z The earthing connection (combined with overfill protection
Notes
connection) to discharge the static electricity which is
generated during loading ___________________
z The interlock system in order to check if all conditions for safe ___________________
The system is also relatively simple; the personnel can follow the ___________________
loading operation through the open manhole and fill to a level ___________________
indicator in the tank compartment. For bottom loading, level ___________________
sensors are necessary.
However, increasingly the trend is towards bottom loading, due to
environmental legislation on vapour emissions both at loading
terminals and retail outlets. Bottom loading should be employed
for solvents and common white oil products from safety
considerations.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Railway Tankers
The railway tankers are similar in design as road tankers except
that several rakes together form one train. Hence loading or
unloading facility should have several loading arms or unloading
arms in a row along the railway line inside the battery limit of the
plant or storage terminal.
261
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
262
From safety considerations the following rules are followed:
Notes
Activity
Create models of different
___________________
z Tank wagon should be loaded and dispatched within one
liquid storage tanks. calendar day.
___________________
z Overnight stay at the depots is generally not permissible by
___________________
the industry.
___________________
z The loading system has automation with a lot of system safety
___________________
features.
___________________
z There are vapour losses during loading/unloading operations.
___________________ To minimize such losses modern refineries have got vapour
___________________ recovery system.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
1. Tank wagon loading gantries are available at
……………….. facilities only.
2. Size of the wagon is such that it can be fitted on a
standard ……………….. .
Liquid Storage
Normal liquid petroleum and product storages are made of steel.
But depending on the nature, corrosivity and operating conditions,
special steel or alloys can be used. Various types of storages used
in the petroleum industry are summarized below:
Rectangular Tanks
The rectangular tanks are the simplest tank for atmospheric
pressure service of non-hazardous liquids like water.
___________________
Dome Roof Tank
___________________
Used for highly volatile liquid, that can boil at normal ambient
___________________
pressures and temperatures e.g. pentane, Condensate, NGL, etc.
Operating pressures of such tanks is slightly higher than conical ___________________
roof. ___________________
___________________
Storage of Gas
Gases occupy very large volume and it is uneconomic to build
storage for very large volume of gases. Existing caverns or depleted
reservoirs are often used as underground storage of gas.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
264
A long distance pipeline over several hundred kilometres has very
Notes
large hold-up of gas. Compressing the gas above required pressure
___________________
along the pipeline can create a large hold-up of gas. This is called
___________________ packing the line with gas.
___________________ In view of the fact that building a gas storage is not economic,
___________________ normally gas is stored either under high pressure or in liquefied
form. For very large volumes, liquefied gas storage is more
___________________
economic.
___________________
Ethane, Propane, Ethylene or LPG can be stored under pressure.
___________________
The storages are either cylindrical (bullets) or spherical in shape
___________________ (spheres).
___________________
Storage of Liquefied Gas
___________________
The same gases mentioned above are also stored in liquefied form.
Choice of type of storage is a matter of economic evaluation. As a
thumb rule, larger the storage requirement, more economic is the
liquefied storage.
As described in Gas Processing, LNG is transported and stored in
liquid form at below –160°C. LNG storage is made of special Nickel
alloy to withstand such low temperatures where most metals
become brittle. Also special insulation and safety features put into
an LNG tank makes it very expensive.
Liquefied gas storages are often buried under the ground with just
the roof protruding out of the earth for safety reasons. Such buried
storages are called mounded tanks. Many operating companies
have preference for mounded tanks for liquefied gas storage.
265
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ………………… are atmospheric tanks improved over
normal cone roof tanks. ___________________
…………………°C.
Summary
The unit included description of transportation system by marine
tankers and brief description of road and railway wagon as means
of transportation.
Also, the various types of storages used for petroleum and
products, both liquid and gas were described.
Keywords
SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Bottom Loading: In bottom loading the product is loaded by
connecting the loading arm/hose to a dedicated self-sealing
coupling at the bottom of the vehicle.
Cone Roof Tanks: These types of tanks are very widely used for
storing oil, products and chemicals at atmospheric pressures.
266
2. What are road tanker loading systems?
Notes
___________________
3. How are gases and liquids stored?
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
___________________ Books
___________________ Petroleum economics, Jean Masseron, Technology & Engineering
___________________ Petroleum economics and engineering, H. K. Abdel-Aal, Bakr A.
___________________ Bakr, M. A. Al-Sahlawi – Technology & Engineering – 1992
___________________ Oil economics and policy, Alberto Clô – Business & Economics –
2000
___________________
___________________
The economics of petroleum supply: Papers by M.A. Adelman,
1962-1993 Morris Albert Adelman – Technology & Engineering –
1962
Economics of petroleum production: A compendium, Volume Ian
Lerche, Sheila Noeth – 2004
Web Readings
www.hoovers.com › Hoover's Directories › Industry Overviews
www.youtube.com/watch?v=AuvvaZrUDe4
reaccess.epu.ntua.gr/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket... tabid=579&mid
www.careersinoilandgas.com › ... › Occupational Summaries
UNIT 22: Health, Safety and Environment
Unit 22
267
Notes
Activity
Make a presentation on the
Health, Safety and Environment
___________________
different kinds of hazards in
___________________
Hydrocarbon processing.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
___________________
Introduction
Hydrocarbon (oil and gas) and petrochemical products pose hazard
to the environment if not handled in a safe manner. Health, safety
and environment considerations start from conceptual stage of a
project to operation and abandonment stage.
Oil and gas are highly flammable material that can cause
explosion if not handled properly. Also a lot of toxic chemicals are
handled during processing, particularly in the downstream
facilities.
That is why a lot of importance is given today on learning and
implementing methods to take care of Health, Safety and
Environment (HSE) all over the hydrocarbon industry. HSE norms
and practices are followed at every stage of the plant life cycle. A
lot of investment in hardware and services is essential today to
take care of HSE.
Definitions of Hazards
Dictionary meaning of hazard is danger, risk or peril either to
health, safety or to environment. In the process industries, the
following terms are used:
Hazards: These are defined as having the potential to cause
harm, including ill health and injury, damage to property, products
or the environment, production losses or increased liabilities.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
268
Threats: These are possible causes that could potentially release
Notes
the hazard and produce an incident.
___________________
Incidents: These are defined as an unplanned event or chain of
___________________
events, which have caused or could have caused injury, illness and
___________________ or damage (loss), to assets, the environment, or third parties.
___________________
Causes and Types of Hazards
___________________
The hazards encountered in a hydrocarbon process plant are
___________________
primarily due to loss in containment (i.e. leakage) of the hazardous
___________________ material, which may then lead to hazard. Resulting hazard can be
___________________ divided into three categories:
269
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 22.1: Refinery Tank Fire
___________________
Obviously the methods of prevention of fire and explosion hazard is
___________________
elimination of one or two of the items in the fire triangle or
preventing all the three being present together. For example, if a ___________________
source of ignition can be excluded or oxygen levels surrounding can ___________________
be kept below certain limits as explained below, a fire or explosion
___________________
cannot occur.
Flammable Material
Mixtures of hydrocarbon vapours and air will ignite only if the
hydrocarbon to air ratio is within certain limits. If the mixture is
too lean (too low concentration of hydrocarbon) nor too rich (too
high concentration of hydrocarbon and shortage of air), then the
ignition does not occur. The Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) and the
Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) for most hydrocarbon mixtures are
typically at about 1% and 10% by volume hydrocarbon vapour in
air respectively. However, ‘rich mixtures’ (above the UFL) may be
locally diluted to within the flammable limits by air entering the
tank at tank openings, such as manways, hatches, vents, etc.
Similarly, lean mixtures may be enriched locally due to a pocket of
hydrocarbons, or application of heat. If a source of ignition is
present in such areas, explosion and/or fire is likely to occur.
270
Chemical Hazards
Notes
271
Table 22.1: Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide Concentration
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Causes of Accidents
The various causes of accidents are:
Defect in Design
Defect in Construction
Defect in Material of Equipment
Faulty Operation or Maintenance
Lack of Monitoring
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
272
Defect in Design: Sometimes adequate design factors have not
Notes
been provided while doing the design. Design factors are essential
___________________
component in order to give a margin of safety in the design. Design
___________________ factors may be appropriate in either the mechanical engineering
___________________ design or in the process design where factors are often added to
allow some flexibility in process operation. For mechanical and
___________________
structural design the magnitude of design factors should allow for
___________________ uncertainties in material properties, corrosion, design methods,
___________________ fabrication and operating loads. It is also possible that appropriate
material for equipment and piping has not been specified leading
___________________
equipment failure or piping failure resulting in the release of
___________________
hazardous or flammable or toxic material.
___________________
Defect in Construction: Defect in material for equipment and
___________________ piping, defect in manufacturing, fabrication and defect in
construction or installation including improper inspection and
testing may lead to equipment or piping failure. Release of
hazardous or flammable or toxic material can occur as a result.
The “Sinking of P-36 Platform”, depicted in Figure 22.2 is one of
the examples which could be due to defects both in the design and
installation. Considerable cost reduction was done for P-36 during
design and construction stage.
273
An example of accident due to not following the procedure during
Notes
maintenance is the collapse of a storage tank shown in Figure 22.3.
The tank collapsed because a plastic bag with which the tank vent ___________________
was covered during painting of the tank was not removed before ___________________
operation. When the product was pumped out of the tank during
___________________
operation, vacuum was created as the vent was blocked with the
plastic bag. The steel tank collapsed but the plastic bag did not ___________________
break. ___________________
Covering of the vent valve during tank painting is fairly standard ___________________
practice. Unfortunately leaving it covered when drawing out of the ___________________
tank is very non-standard practice. This was an expensive,
___________________
embarrassing mistake that could be entirely preventable. For
some, it is hard to believe that the plastic over the vent valve is ___________________
stronger than the steel tank under the vacuum conditions that are ___________________
created when drawing product out of the tank.
274
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
276
Minimizing the risk of escalation in case a hazardous event
Notes
occurs.
___________________
Once the hardware has been installed, retroactive implementation
___________________
becomes relatively more difficult and considerably more expensive.
___________________ It is crucial therefore that the opportunities available for
___________________ minimizing risk in the design and engineering phase are not lost.
___________________
Concept Development
___________________
It is during this phase that most of the major hazards and effects
___________________ will be identified and an initial assessment of their importance will
___________________ take place. In this phase there is considerable scope for removing
potential hazards. As an example, even site selection is important
___________________
for HSE.
___________________
HSE Aspects of Site Selection
The importance and vulnerability of various components in the
existing environment should be assessed. These include:
People living in the vicinity who could be exposed to noise,
vibrations, dust and gaseous contaminants, or other health
effects associated with water and food contamination.
The potential consequences of accidents (fire, explosion, escape
of toxic materials) must be considered.
Wildlife and natural habitats which could be damaged during
the clearance and construction stages or later when the project
is operational. Examples are forest damage by air pollution
and death of fish or other aquatic organisms by effluents. A
key component is consideration of the amount of damage that
may be tolerated by the habitats and species concerned.
Resources (agricultural and others) which may be susceptible
to damage from the project in a similar manner to natural
habitats.
It is necessary to use environmental specialists to conduct a
baseline study to describe the physical and biological status of
environmental components which are likely to be affected.
In less industrialized areas, where local restrictions may still be
limited, it is important to be aware of potential future
developments. In industrialized areas, local regulations
determined by authorities often define the environmental
conditions for the project during construction and operations.
UNIT 22: Health, Safety and Environment
277
The project should consider various operations and the predicted
Notes
flow rates of pollutants in gaseous emissions and aqueous
discharges, together with physical nuisances such as noise and its ___________________
impact on health, safety and environment in the neighbourhood. ___________________
The tragedy at Bhopal due to toxic gas leakage from Union Carbide ___________________
What is HAZID?
HAZID (HAZard IDentification) is a technique for early
identification of potential hazards and threats. The technique has
two styles, Conceptual and Detailed and should be applied at the
very outset of a new venture or during the early stages of the
project. It is therefore likely to be the first formal HSE related
study for any new project. The major benefit of HAZID is that early
identification and assessment of the critical HSE hazards provides
essential input to project development decisions. This will lead to
safer and more cost-effective design options being adopted with a
minimum cost of change penalty.
HAZID study addresses the layout and operation of the entire
system under review. A HAZID study uses a guideword driven
methodology based on a comprehensive list of typical hazards. The
installation or subject of review is divided into areas of a similar
nature (e.g. process area, utilities) based on the location of these
areas and their function. The broad nature of the guide words help
in the identification of the hazard. For each identified hazard the
potential consequences are described and the control/mitigation
measures are listed.
278 (e.g. design concept and location). HAZID is the first opportunity to
Notes collect experienced line and HSE staff together to address, in a
___________________ short time frame, the issues surrounding a new venture or
development.
___________________
279
Detailed HAZID
Notes
The detailed study is conducted later in the engineering design
___________________
process, once design options have been identified but before any
final decisions have been made. A significant number of additional ___________________
___________________
Process description including all planned operating cases
___________________
Project description including all options, life cycle issues and
planned plant flexibility
Safety philosophy
Operating philosophy
Raw material and product handling
Environmental assessment
280
They show outcomes in all possible situations and tell how likely
Notes
they are to occur. What this means for the decision makers is that
___________________ they finally have, if not perfect information, the most complete
___________________ picture possible. They could see what could happen, how likely it is
to happen, and therefore be able to judge accordingly which risks
___________________
to take and which ones to avoid. Design need to be modified as per
___________________ outcome of the process (Figure 22.5).
___________________
The essential features of a HAZOP study are:
___________________
It is systematic and detailed. A series of guide words is
___________________ repeatedly used to ensure consistency and repeatability.
___________________ It is conducted by a team who know most about the project or
___________________ facility, typically those who designed and those who must
___________________
operate it.
It concentrates on exploring the consequences of deviations
from the usual operating conditions.
It is an audit of the completed part of a design.
Traditionally the HAZOP procedure examines process equipment
on a system by system basis, reviewing the process parameters
using a checklist of guide words, which suggest deviations from the
normal operating conditions.
281
Operating /maintenance procedures-degraded with time
Notes
Training methods, adequacy and implementation
___________________
Preparedness for handling emergencies
___________________
In summary, safety audit is a systematic independent review to
verify conformance with established guide lines or standards. It ___________________
282
Gas Detection, Smoke Detection and Fire Detection
Notes
Systems are installed which can not only detect but also
___________________ trigger alarm system or shutdown system as per design
___________________ specifications of the plant.
___________________
Fire Fighting Facilities are provided which include Fire
Water System, Foam Tenders, Halon System, etc.
___________________
It is imperative that an operating company develop its own safety
___________________ philosophy, which can form the basis of safety considerations in
___________________ the design stage itself.
___________________
Construction Safety
___________________ The duration of the construction phase for a typical process plant
___________________ such as oil, gas processing or refinery complex is much shorter than
___________________
the facility’s subsequent operational life. But the nature of the
activities involved and the total manhours spent in a typical
construction project can expose the construction workforce to a level
of risk higher than that of the personnel involved in the subsequent,
longer operational phase. In addition a high proportion of
construction activities take place on ‘brown field’ sites (meaning sites
where plant is already operating), where hydrocarbons are likely to
be present, thus increasing the potential consequences of incidents.
The difficulty in implementing HSE norms in construction phase is
due to the nature of the circumstances under which construction
contracting is carried out:
High turnover of personnel, often new to the country and not
familiar with the work culture.
Communication difficulties between people from countries
with language and cultural differences.
Pressure to work in short time horizons and comply with the
“fast-track” approach.
Diversity of parties involved (contractors) and resultant long
communication lines and frequent use of subcontractors.
This in turn can result in the following effects:
Low priority on construction planning at an early
enough stage: There is often a perception that all
construction activities are similar. There is therefore a
tendency to believe that the next project can be treated like
the last one with much of the planning work done once
contracts are awarded and site work commences.
UNIT 22: Health, Safety and Environment
283
Use of inappropriately qualified contractors: Often this is
caused by a change to the management and/or workforce of a Notes
284 Instrumented Systems (SIS) are built in which cause shut down of
Notes the plant in unsafe situations.
___________________
SIS is a system composed of sensors, logic solvers, and final control
___________________ elements for the purpose of taking the process to a safe state when
___________________ predetermined conditions are violated.
___________________ But 100% safety is not possible and failures do occur. There are
multiple independent safety layers and SIS in the plant as shown
___________________
in Figure 22.6.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
The other waste in oilfield is mainly drilling waste i.e. wastes that ___________________
come out of the well during drilling before completion of well. The ___________________
drilling waste is mainly mud with oil and chemicals used during ___________________
drilling. These are often discharged in a pit at the well site.
___________________
Toxic drilling wastes fill an open reserve pit is shown in
___________________
Figure 22.9. Such pits are often abandoned by oil companies
without treating or cleaning it. ___________________
288
Removal of dissolved solids by ion exchange, precipitation,
Notes
reverse osmosis, evaporation and biological process.
___________________
Wastes from refinery include free and emulsified oil from leaks, 289
spills, waste caustic, caustic and acid sludge, tank bottom sludge, Notes
Crude oil storage tanks also are a large contributor to refinery waste. ___________________
It includes oily water, organic sulfur compounds, suspended matter, ___________________
insoluble and soluble salts, asphaltic compounds, H2S and Co2.
___________________
Most of the refinery waste come into the drainage headers along ___________________
with the waste water in various parts of the refinery and are
___________________
collected for treatment in the effluent treatment plant.
___________________
Petrochemical plant wastes are more complex due to wide range of
raw materials, intermediate chemicals and products. The design of ___________________
the Effluent Treatment Plant has to tailor made to suit the ___________________
effluent characteristics and discharge specifications. Wide range of ___________________
effluent processes are available to treat different types of effluents.
290
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary 291
Notes
Health, Safety and Environment aspects have gained tremendous
___________________
importance in the entire plant life cycle. A plant can be made safe
if safety aspects are looked into and managed from conceptual ___________________
In this unit, at first the types of hazards, both fire/explosion and ___________________
release of toxic material were identified. Some accident cases were ___________________
presented to highlight the importance of management of safety at ___________________
all stages of plant life cycle.
___________________
This was followed by hazard identification techniques. Overview of
___________________
techniques like HAZOP were presented.
___________________
Safety aspects during plant operation and maintenance were
___________________
highlighted.
Keywords
Hazards: These are defined as having the potential to cause
harm, including ill health and injury, damage to property, products
or the environment, production losses or increased liabilities.
Threats: These are possible causes that could potentially release
the hazard and produce an incident.
Incidents: These are defined as an unplanned event or chain of
events, which have caused or could have caused injury, illness and
or damage (loss), to assets, the environment, or third parties.
Benzene: Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon, which can be
present in very low concentrations in some crude oils.
HAZID (HAZard IDentification): It is a technique for early
identification of potential hazards and threats.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
292
Questions for Discussion
Notes
___________________
2. What is a fire triangle? Give example from an actual plant.
___________________ 3. Name two very toxic chemicals that oil and gas processing
industry has to handle and identify with block diagram at
___________________
what stages of processing there are likelihood of hazard from
___________________ these chemicals.
___________________
4. What is HAZOP? For what purpose it is used? Briefly describe
___________________ the technique.
___________________ 5. Explain with block diagram various sources of solid, liquid
___________________ and gaseous pollutants from the entire chain of hydrocarbon
industry from oil field to petrochemicals.
Further Readings
Books
Fundamentals of Oil & Gas Accounting, Charlotte J. Wright,
Rebecca A. Gallun – Business & Economics – 2008
Introduction to the Global Oil & Gas Business, Samuel Van Vactor
– Business & Economics
Oil and gas production in non-technical language, Martin
Raymond, William L. Leffler – Technology & Engineering – 2005
Web Readings
ww.api.org/ehs/
www.touchoilandgas.com/health-safety-c7.html
www.ogp.org.uk/pubs/254.pdf
www.ogj.com/blogs/health-safety-and-environmental.html
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
Unit 23
293
Notes
IT Applications in Hydrocarbon
___________________
___________________
Industry ___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Plant life cycle in the Oil and Gas Industry
\ Overview of the application of Information Technology during various ___________________
phases of project
___________________
\ Types of software used and their capabilities
___________________
Introduction
Like most of the other industries, the hydrocarbon industry is also
facing the pressure and challenges from expanding global
competition. Further, there have been huge investments and
expenditure arising out of the stringent environment and pollution
regulatory controls and greater concerns for safety. This is driving
the hydrocarbon industry towards more consistent higher quality
products involving stricter requirements on the traditional plant
operation.
___________________
improvement of operating efficiency, information generation,
information management and overall management skills.
___________________
Information technology and use of computers plays an extensive
___________________
role in the design, operation and management of hydrocarbon
___________________ industry.
___________________
Substantial developments have taken place in the application of IT
___________________ in Process Industries, due to the collaborative efforts from process
___________________ engineers, professionals from all engineering disciplines and
___________________ software program developers. Use of IT during various phases of
plant life cycle is summarized in Figure 23.1.
FEED allows for accurate sizing and layout of the equipment and
facilities in the plant and get more accurate and detailed cost
estimate from past data on similar equipment or fresh quotations
on the equipment and facilities.
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
295
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
297
It is possible to use these programs along with design or flow-sheet
Notes
simulation programs to optimize and estimate. Thus by use of
modern cost estimate software, design and costing can be brought ___________________
together. There is an immediate feedback on information on ___________________
improved design and lower costs.
___________________
Table 23.1: Major Cost Heads for Process Plant
___________________
Some of the major cost heads for capital cost are:
___________________
z Equipment and Material Cost
z Land Development Cost ___________________
z Infrastructure Cost
z Construction Cost ___________________
z Commissioning Cost ___________________
z Project Management Cost
z Engineering and Design Cost ___________________
z Cost of Financing
___________________
z Contingency Allowance
Some of the cost heads can be factored based on equipment cost.
298
There is a straightforward objective to arrive at optimized
Notes
Activity
solutions: the profit. The operations of the refinery are intrinsically
Write a report on Autocad
___________________
Software.
interconnected: it is a sequential process with one decision
___________________ affecting the other; for example, choosing to process one crude
___________________ means that you have less processing capacity available for others.
Thus the problems which a refinery faces have the characteristics
___________________
of a LP solution.
___________________
A typical structure of LP software for optimization of a refinery
___________________ (conceptual stage) as well as optimization of operation of existing
___________________ refinery is shown in Figure 23.2.
___________________
___________________
___________________
299
Two of the most important drawing documents in this stage are:
Notes
A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) shows all equipment in the process
scheme like pumps, compressors, heater, reactor and distillation ___________________
column that is required for processing, and links them up in the ___________________
form of a flow diagram showing materials flow and heat flow ___________________
through each of the equipment.
___________________
Simulation and optimization of the flow diagram is carried out by
___________________
making use of process simulation software available from reputed
software companies like SimSci, Aspentech, Hyprotech and others. ___________________
These enable the Process engineers to design new processes, ___________________
evaluate alternative plant configurations and arrive at the
___________________
optimum design.
___________________
The other most important drawing is Piping and Instrumentation
Diagrams (P&IDs) showing all interconnecting pipe sizes, pipe ___________________
300
Detailed Engineering Using 3-D Model
Notes
Once the process design is over, a multi-disciplinary engineering
___________________ team starts what is known as detailed engineering. While
___________________ mechanical engineers carry out the mechanical design and
___________________ drawings of the equipment, electrical engineers estimate the power
requirement in the plant and start making drawings for cable
___________________
layout and power distribution. Similarly piping engineers make
___________________
piping layout drawings and civil engineers start foundation and
___________________ structural drawings. For each discipline, there are specific design
___________________ tools (software).
301
z Visualization of the 3-D model, which helps in better
Notes
judgement in design and operability. In the specialized world
of plant design, it is called “immersive group visualization”– a ___________________
theatre style system enabling a group of engineers and their ___________________
customers to take a big-screen ride through a proposed new
___________________
plant.
___________________
Figure 23.4 presents typical networking for a global engineering
___________________
design operation.
___________________
With the improvements in software system and communication,
engineering services outsourcing is gradually getting as common ___________________
as outsourcing in the IT industry. ___________________
___________________
___________________
IT Application in Operation
Nowadays computer and software application are extensively used
for operation, control and monitoring of a process plant.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
302
First let us understand what kinds of functions are required for
Notes
optimum and safe operation of a plant. The main functions to be
___________________
carried out in a plant are:
___________________
z Local plant control and management
___________________
z Plant optimization functions.
___________________
z Communication system between plants and between plant and
___________________
a central control station and management of the
___________________ communication
___________________ z Plant maintenance functions
___________________ z Overall production planning, monitoring and control
___________________
z Management functions.
___________________
To do all these functions a lot of plant operating data and other
parameters need to be collected and processed. Let us understand
what kind of data is collected:
z Normally, an oil gas related plant is a complex of several
process units spread over a large area.
z In each process unit, there are numerous measurements of
operating conditions in various equipments which affect the
plant operation. Some of the parameters are pressure,
temperature, flow rate, level of liquid, composition of
feedstock, composition of products, properties of feed and
products and numerous other information.
z For optimum and safe operation of the plant many of the above
parameters need to be monitored and controlled.
Also in each plant numerous equipment oriented data are collected
such as:
z Equipment status (on-off, in line, isolated, on maintenance)
z Equipment health parameters (vibration, bearing
temperature, corrosion status)
For all these functions to be effectively done a lot of measurement
and recording of data, data processing, optimization and control of
operating conditions to meet the production are required. Till 1960
it was done either manually or through local control. Later with
increasing computer application, a completely centralized control
system was developed. But after mid-seventies, with the
development of powerful micro-processors, Process Control System
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Notes:
APC: Advance Process Control
DCS / DDCS: Distributed Control System / Digital Distributed Control System
304
In a large storage terminal with a number of storages, pumps,
Notes
loading racks, tanker movements, it becomes a complex operation
___________________
and may have logistics problems. Today the whole operation is
___________________ carried out by DCS system using software to manage the logistics.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
For monitoring and control of facilities laid over long distances and
integrated together (e.g. pipeline) SCADA system was developed.
Enterprise Resource Planning software (ERP) now sits above DCS
and other software for overall planning and asset management.
Description of some of these IT applications is given below.
305
z Production planning and plant management is located closer
Notes
to the relevant plant management staff.
___________________
As shown in Figure 23.7, the operator’s console in the control room
___________________
is connected through a shared communication facility to several
distributed local control units. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 23.8: Monitor Imprint from Control Room
___________________
SCADA System
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It
refers to the combination of the fields of telemetry and data
acquisition. It is extensively used in facilities covering very large
area (e.g. cross country pipeline or a complex of offshore platforms)
monitoring, control, operations, maintenance and management.
SCADA encompasses the following:
z Collection of the information
z The method of measurement and transfer of the information
from the remote site by telemetry and telecommunication.
z The analysis and control of the system and display of the
received information. SCADA facilitates the capability to
monitor and control network operations in real time.
SCADA systems are distinguished from traditional control systems
by their extensive use of telemetry to link physically isolated
measurement and control points. SCADA systems are
predominantly used in Oil, Gas and Petrochemical Processing and
pipeline industries. Basic SCADA structure comprises:
z Master Terminal Unit (MTU) or Master Control Station (MCS)
for processing of the data and presenting it to console
operators.
z Communication System for transmitting remote data to the
MTU and control commands to the remote sight for device
controlling.
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
308
z Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) for acquisition of device status
Notes
and data at remote sites.
___________________
The communication could be through optical fibres, radio, cable or
___________________
satellite. But for its functioning extensive range of software are
___________________ used. Besides Operating System Software, the following are
___________________ essential for SCADA system:
___________________ Application software related to a specific application. For example,
___________________ for a typical pipeline SCADA system, the application software will
be transient model of pipeline dynamic flow operations including
___________________
real-time leak detection and location software.
___________________
The modules to be included are:
___________________
z Flow measurement
___________________
z Meter proving
z Batch tracking
z Interface detection/composition tracking
z Pig tracking
z Over or under pressure protection module
z Pipeline efficiency module
z Predictive module
SCADA software comprises System and database configuration:
z Generation of current raw database and processed data base
(telemetered information)
z Generation of historic data for trending and archival
z Alarm handling including information display and print out
z Generation, storage, presentation of mimic diagrams with
dynamic information (presented on VDUs)
z Display management for alarm, mimic diagrams, analog and
digital values, trend graphs, bar charts in high resolution
colour graphic modes
z The calculation software package
z Free format report generation storage and print out
z Transmission of control commands and configuration
parameters to out stations in system with fast update of
related information on Man Machine Interface (MMI).
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
309
Check Your Progress
Notes
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
Make a presentation on the
___________________
1. ………………… Unit in SCADA is for acquisition of different Maintenance
___________________
device status and data at remote sites. Management Software
available.
___________________
2. ………………… Unit is for processing of the data and
presenting it to console operators. ___________________
___________________
___________________
Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS)
___________________
CMMS integrates routine maintenance, preventive maintenance,
work orders, inventory and purchasing in an intuitive interface.
Specifically designed to be easy and powerful, minimizing operator
input during startup and normal operations.
Planned as well as Preventive Maintenance Tasks are scheduled
by Days, Shifts or Meter readings. Any maintenance tasks that are
not completed are rescheduled for the next week. A critical
preventive maintenance work order is never missed because they
are automatically regenerated until completed.
Field condition and process information data are accumulated and
passed on to Computerized Maintenance Management System
(CMMS) software for analysis. However, this information can’t tell
the user what actually went wrong or how severe the problem is.
Specialized condition-monitoring equipment e.g. corrosion
monitoring to identify corrosion problems in piping and vessels,
vibration monitoring to identify rotor dynamic and bearing faults,
and performance monitoring to identify performance degradations,
are needed.
310 occurs. There are diagnostic software to actually carry out the
Notes diagnosis of the problem and recommend preventive actions.
___________________
The program reduces overall maintenance costs and increases
___________________ process uptime by providing advanced warning about potential
___________________ equipment failures. Automating work order creation and
eliminating manual data entry further reduce the chance for human
___________________
error in handling maintenance information. By combining these
___________________ important maintenance tools, the user can establish a predictive
___________________ maintenance environment to keep the plant running at top
efficiency. Potential problems are corrected before serious damage
___________________
occurs, and the cost of maintenance is reduced significantly.
___________________
Direct interfaces between the Computerized Maintenance
___________________
Management System (CMMS) and other diagnostic and monitoring
___________________ systems such as compressor and pump automation, predictive
maintenance, and product quality testing equipment can assist
greatly in streamlining the maintenance process. It allows
maintenance personnel to respond to early warning signals before
they escalate into critical repair problems. CMMS build upon these
types of interfaces to automatically create work orders and update
equipment histories based upon alarms and test results received
through these interfaces.
CMMS provides maintenance professionals with:
z An easy-to-use library of possible problems for major capital
expenditure assets and critical patient care items
z Problem diagnosis techniques
z A recommendation to repair the cause of the problem and
avoid repeated wasting of money treating its symptoms rather
than the actual cause.
312
z Integration of customer order information: ERP systems
Notes
manages all information from enquiry to ordering, shipping,
___________________
delivery and payment. By having this information in one
___________________ software system, rather than scattered among many different
___________________ systems, companies can keep track of orders more easily, and
coordinate production, inventory and shipping. It helps in
___________________
reducing inventory.
___________________
z Standardize HR information: Especially in companies with
___________________ multiple business units, ERP can provide a unified, simple
___________________ method for tracking employees’ time, utilization, and
___________________
communicating with them about benefits and services.
Project Management
Discussion on IT application is incomplete without mention of
project management software like Primavera, MS Project etc. Such
software are extensively used to meet specific objectives to make
the project on time, within budgeted cost and meeting quality.
Such software have both text and graphic interfaces to carry out
functions like:
z Planning and scheduling: Gantt Chart, PERT Chart, Bar
Chart
z Cost control: Ordering, purchase order, budget vs. actual
z Resource Management
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
313
z Progress Monitoring: Engineering progress, ordering
Notes
progress, vendor shop status, delivery schedules, construction
progress, projected and actual progress curves (S-Curves). ___________________
Such software have the capability of integrating the project related ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Summary
This unit gave a complete overview of IT application in the
hydrocarbon industry. The entire operation in a project life cycle
from conceptualization of the project to the project feasibility
study, design, construction, operation, maintenance and
management has extensive application of IT.
The project life cycle and application of IT in various phases of
plant life was at first identified. This was followed by description of
software application in each of the above phases. Examples of IT
application in design, operation and maintenance were explained
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________ SCADA: It stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It
refers to the combination of the fields of telemetry and data
___________________
acquisition.
___________________
Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS):
___________________
CMMS integrates routine maintenance, preventive maintenance,
work orders, inventory and purchasing in an intuitive interface.
Enterprise Resource Planning-software (ERP): It combines
information, data and reports from all departments together into a
single, integrated software program with a single data base, from
which all can share information and communicate with each other.
(a) ERPLP
(b) P&ID
(c) PFD
(d) DCSAPC
(e) SCADA
(f) FEED
(g) DFRDPR
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
315
4. What is Condition Monitored Maintenance (CMM) and how is
Notes
it used for the purpose?
___________________
5. What is SCADA? Explain a SCADA system for a cross country
___________________
pipeline.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Books
___________________
Applied homogeneous catalysis with organometallic compounds:
A ..., Volume 1 Boy Cornils, Wolfgang A. Herrmann - Science – ___________________
1996 ___________________
Web Readings
www.geosocindia.org/Goldenjubilee/lucknowseminar.pdf
vinci.celuga.net/images/contenu/documents/Rock%20Eval% 206.pdf
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
316
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 24: Economics and Technology Trends
Unit 24
317
Notes
Activity
Make a presentation on
Economics and Technology
___________________
FEED.
___________________
Trends ___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Trends on prices and business cycles
\ Strategies being adopted by major companies for competitiveness and ___________________
to overcome Troughs in the business cycles
___________________
\ Trends on innovation and emerging technologies
___________________
Introduction
Oil and natural gas dominate as main source of energy due to low
cost and ease of handling compared to other commercially viable
energy sources.
Coal is cheaper as raw material but more difficult to transport.
Coal has lower calorific value, lower efficiency of combustion and
greater environment pollution problem.
Technology of non-conventional sources of energy like solar energy,
wind energy, ocean energy or fuel cells are getting more attractive
but still a far cry for bulk production. At currently prevailing
prices of oil and gas, any major shift towards other sources of
energy is not expected in the near future.
Between oil and natural gas, the latter is cleaner and more
efficient fuel. But it is difficult to transport, difficult to store and to
fill in automobiles. Till now gas played second fiddle to oil as a
resource. Natural gas being a clean and efficient fuel and due to
improvements in the economics of liquefaction and re-gasification
technology, natural gas is gradually increasing its share in the
world energy supply.
Price fluctuation, competitiveness and changing business cycles
are characteristics of hydrocarbon industry. The huge turnovers
often in billions of dollars by major players and large profits during
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
___________________
Natural Gas Trends
___________________
The emergence of natural gas as fuel had been slow mainly due to
___________________
transportation costs. For example gas pipelines are 3 to 4 times
___________________ more expensive than oil. Improvements in economics of
___________________ liquefaction and transportation have created large market for
___________________ LNG. Also very large reserves of gas have been discovered in
places like Qatar, Indonesia and elsewhere, substantially
enhancing the availability of gas. Also stricter environmental
regulation both for product specification and effluent discharge has
made use of gas more attractive.
The price of gas at the source varies from place to place. Earlier
the stress was on exploration of oil. The gas fields found in course
of exploration were capped and not exploited. These are called
stranded gas in the USA. Such gases are often given negligible
value at source. The netback or profit comes after the gas is
exploited and distributed to the consumer through pipeline
network. As a result, gas has always been valued at a price much
lower than crude oil for equivalent amount of energy value.
In the early nineties, the price of LNG has been high compared to ___________________
the price of gas in the United States. Costs of delivery were around ___________________
$2.50 to 3.00 per MMBTU (not including the netback price to the ___________________
owner of the stranded gas reserves). Assuming a US$
___________________
1.00/MMBTU netback to the producer, a total deliverable gas price
___________________
of around $3.50 to $4.00/MMBTU could possibly be attained on a
cost basis. ___________________
___________________
Now due to competition and improvements in technology, the total
cost of LNG production and re-gasification has been reduced. ___________________
The other fuel used for these purposes are fuel oil and naphtha
from the crude. There are impacts of crude price variation on the
naphtha and fuel price. Natural gas for power plant needs to be
priced so that it is competitive with the naphtha price.
320
Figure 24.1: Relationship – LNG Price and Oil Price at Japan
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
been the most accurate rule of thumb over the past 10 years as ___________________
evidenced by the below figure: ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
322 natural gas pricing yielding parity with residual fuel at the burner
Notes tip, and the price at Henry Hub adjusting to whatever is necessary
___________________ to achieve burner-tip parity.” Since a barrel of residual fuel has an
energy content of 6.287 BTU, and historically residual fuel is
___________________
priced at 95% of WTI, the burner tip parity rule would suggest that
___________________
a $50 price per barrel of WTI would result in a $7.06 per million
___________________ BTU price for natural gas.
___________________ In addition to the above three rules for describing the correlation
___________________ between oil and natural gas prices, Brown and Yucel also discuss
other factors that impact the oil-gas price relationship. One little
___________________
discussed influence on U.S. natural gas prices is the worldwide
___________________
price of petrochemical products. The authors point out that since
___________________ the U.S. petrochemical industry relies heavily on natural gas as a
___________________ feedstock, while a significant portion of the international
petrochemical industry uses oil as a feedstock in its manufacturing
processes, a pricing arbitrage exists during periods of low gas
prices in the U.S. Therefore, should U.S. natural gas prices
remain below their historical norms for an extended period,
petrochemical imports into the U.S. will decline and domestic
manufacturing will expand and increase demand for natural gas.
Another factor influencing the oil to gas price relationship in the
U.S. is the price of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). With an
increasing percentage of the world LNG pricing linked to world oil
prices (exporters are now demanding oil linked pricing), LNG
imports into the U.S. will remain at very depressed levels unless
natural gas prices rise substantially. Imports into the U.S. are
currently approximately 1 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d) despite
approximately 12 bcf/d of import capacity. However, if we look at
gas prices in the U.K., a country which has seen domestic gas
production fall and now relies more heavily on LNG imports, we
see a much closer link between oil and gas prices. On 1/26/2011
spot natural gas in the U.K. was priced at $8.64 per million BTUs
and Brent crude priced at approximately $95. Therefore, the
current gas-to-oil ratio in the U.K. is approximately 11:1. Since
the U.S. imports virtually no natural gas via LNG on a long-term
fixed contract basis and the UK will likely continue to offer the
best terms for spot cargoes in the Atlantic Basin due to further
declines in domestic production, there will be no increase in LNG
imports into the U.S. until spot prices are well over $8.00US per
million BTUs.
UNIT 24: Economics and Technology Trends
323
Brown and Yucel’s final reason oil prices drive natural gas prices is
Notes
the reallocation of drilling funds by natural gas producers away
from natural gas projects and towards oil projects. In today’s ___________________
world of approximately $89US per barrel WTI oil prices and ___________________
$4.35US per thousand cubic feet (mcf) natural gas prices, operators
___________________
are aggressively redirecting funds towards oil projects. It comes
as no surprise that most independent operators are now ___________________
concentrating on their oil projects given that oil and gas wells cost ___________________
about the same to drill and oil wells generate nearly three times ___________________
the revenue on a barrel of energy equivalent basis. The focus on
___________________
oil projects and liquid rich natural gas projects has led to a drop off
in the natural gas directed rig count in recent months and a ___________________
concurrent increase in the oil directed rig count. We see the ___________________
preference for oil drilling over natural gas drilling displayed very
___________________
clearly in the weekly Baker Hughes rig counts. The below graph
shows the large upswing in both gas and oil directed drilling over
the past two years as well as the recent fall off in natural gas
directed drilling:
There are two important reasons oil directed drilling will continue
to rise and natural gas directed drilling should continue to fall.
First, a significant portion of today’s natural gas directed drilling,
as much as 25%, is being conducted to hold soon to be expiring
leases. Many leases in the Haynesville and Fayetteville shale were
signed with terms stipulating that to maintain the lease in good
standing; a well must be drilled within three years of lease
signing. With much of the prospective acreage already held by
production (HBP) in these two shale plays, operators have begun
reducing operations in these areas until economics improve.
According to Baker Hughes, Louisiana and Arkansas, home to the
Haynesville and Fayetteville shale plays, have fewer rigs operating
than at the same time last year due to declines in shale directed
drilling. While rig efficiency gains, such as pad drilling will reduce
drilling time per well and will certainly offset fewer rigs active in
natural gas shale plays, drilling more shale wells closer together
will not grow shale gas production enough to offset an expected
10% decline in conventional US natural gas production this year.
A final reason oil prices are now driving natural gas prices is that
inflation in oilfield services, especially pressure pumping, have
driven up drilling costs to the point where most natural gas wells
are uneconomic at today’s prices. Pressure pumping is the
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
324 pumping of water and sand into a wellbore that has been
Notes perforated to prop open fractures to allow hydrocarbons to flow to
___________________ the wellbore. With new unconventional oil plays coming online in
___________________ the past year and operators drilling more and longer lateral wells
___________________
requiring more fracture stimulation jobs than ever before, demand
for pressure pumping services has risen dramatically.
___________________
With such a large gap between coal and gas pricing parity, we have
already seen a substantial amount of switching by utilities from
coal to natural gas. According to CS, in October 2010, natural gas
usage for electricity generation was up 6% year over year while
consumption of coal for electricity generation was down 4% year
over year. More importantly, CS sees even more switching to
natural gas in the months and years ahead as tighter
environmental rules make coal usage increasingly expensive. For
UNIT 24: Economics and Technology Trends
Despite the all of the evidence that today’s natural gas prices are ___________________
326
India and China are going to become major buyers of LNG.
Notes
European countries which do not have major gas resources and
___________________
USA will also be the major players in LNG downstream.
___________________
___________________
Indian Scenario
327
Natural gas from these two sources would have cost structures
Notes
quite different from that for the existing sources of supply. The
supply from these sources would also be of substantial volume ___________________
exceeding the current availability of gas. This would lessen ___________________
government control on gas pricing and would force changes in the
___________________
pricing mechanism.
___________________
Perhaps in the long run, the market forces will settle the gas price
___________________
in India.
___________________
Energy Source – Trends
___________________
Hydrocarbon will continue to maintain its base as prime energy
___________________
source for at least the next 20 years. Between oil and gas, their will
be substantially increased share of gas as energy source for two ___________________
reasons: ___________________
328
z Steam reforming at 800°C: CH4 +H2O = CO + 3H2
Notes
___________________
reaction between the carbon atom of CO and H2.
___________________
Fuel Cell
___________________
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device, similar
___________________ to a battery.
___________________ It provides continuous DC power, which converts the chemical
___________________ energy from a fuel directly into electricity and heat.
___________________ When operated directly on hydrogen, the fuel cell produces this
___________________
energy with clean water as the only by-product.
___________________
There is a set pattern. Most operating companies in the
hydrocarbon process industry study the business cycle and trends ___________________
thoroughly and expand the petrochemical business, matching the ___________________
construction of new facilities during the lean period. As a result,
___________________
the new projects start-up during peak period. This results in over
saturation. Consequently, supply exceeds demands resulting in ___________________
refinery to make the petrochemicals and then to oil and gas 331
production. In India the PSUs also are trying to integrate into Notes
their non-traditional areas. For example, companies like IOCL and ___________________
BPCL are planning to get into both petrochemicals and oil/gas
___________________
exploration. Similarly, ONGC is investing in refineries.
___________________
Mergers and Acquisitions ___________________
Integration of operation between upstream and downstream and ___________________
mergers have been the major consolidation done by many major
___________________
organizations in order to get a competitive edge. Some examples of
merger are: ___________________
Future Developments
Given below are the future developments that have been planned
in this area.
Hydrates as Energy Source
Hydrates are unstable compounds of hydrocarbons like methane
and water. They are solid and look like ice. In natural gas, the
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
Toubro has carried out some work in this direction and proposed 333
integrated approach for co-production of methanol and acetic acid Notes
along with power generation. ___________________
Smart Chips ___________________
Till the recent past, oil and gas have generated politics, power ___________________
struggle and war. But in South Asia, diplomatic moves are on to ___________________
overcome the politics that divides the subcontinent with gas as the ___________________
driving force behind it.
India is hungry for energy supply, with current annual average
growth, expected to go up. Turkmenistan and Iran have huge
reserves of gas, which they want to transmit to India by pipeline
through Pakistan. But 50 years of quarrel and suspicion is the
obstacle towards its implementation.
Bangladesh and Myanmar have gas and India is their nearest
market. But politics in Bangladesh is trying to prevent sale of gas
to India. A pipeline from Myanmar through Assam (a gas rich
state) makes good business sense.
Major multinationals have their eyes on these potential
mega-projects. They are also beneficial to each of the participating
countries. To quote “The Times of India”, “The great game– or the
potent mix of oil, gas and diplomacy in Central Asia – has reached
India. ......The three pipelines have the potential to metamorphose
the geopolitical and economic topography of Central and South
Asia...”
The economic need of the countries involved, pressure from the
multinationals and vested interest of some major countries is
generating business diplomacy, which could spur growth in
Central and South Asia and give peace a chance in the Indian sub-
continent.
South East Asia had set the trend of looking into business as the
driving force giving politics a back seat. China is following the
same path. Could the Indian subcontinent be the next?
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
334
Check Your Progress
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. ………….. are unstable compounds of hydrocarbons like
methane and water.
___________________
2. Experimental studies in Norway and Russia have shown
___________________
that natural gas hydrates are stable for up to two years
___________________ when stored at …………..°C at atmospheric pressure.
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________ We started with the description of history and trends in the prices
___________________ of oil and natural gas. Emergence of natural gas as a source of
energy in the immediate future was noted. The growth in LNG
___________________
trade for supply of natural gas to both developed countries and
emergent economies of China and India was described.
Hydrocarbon resources being limited, major companies are
working towards developing new sources of energy. Gas to Liquid
technology, Hydrates and Fuel cells as a future source of energy
was identified.
The economics of the refining industry was discussed and low
margins in the industry were identified. This was followed with
description of the business cycle in the petrochemical industry was
described.
The strategies adopted by major companies to be competitive and
overcome the low periods of business cycle were stated with
examples.
Keywords
Synfuel: It is essentially natural gas converted to light oil by
reaction processes with gasoline and diesel as products.
Fuel Cell: It is an electrochemical energy conversion device,
similar to a battery
Personal Protection Equipment (PPE): Equipment/clothing
which offers protection against risks to health and safety.
UNIT 24: Economics and Technology Trends
335
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC): It is gaining
Notes
ground for the utilization of refinery residues to generate power.
___________________
Injury Frequency (IF): Number of injuries per million man hours
worked. ___________________
___________________
Injury Rate (IR): Number of injuries per one hundred employees.
___________________
1. What are the factors that affect crude oil price? ___________________
___________________
2. Why is natural gas emerging as major source of energy
supply? ___________________
3. What are hydrates? What are the new ideas coming up with ___________________
respect to the hydrates? ___________________
Further Readings
Books
May 2003 An Outlook for Natural Gas Market in the APEC Region
- Symposium on Pacific Energy Cooperation(SPEC) 2003, Tokyo,
Yonghun Jung, Ph.D, Vice President, Asia Pacific Energy Research
Centre,
LNG Projects & Gas Transportation Infrastructure in India- Dr U
D Choubey, General Manager, Gas Authority Of India Ltd. , Indo-
US Conference, April 17th2002
Web Readings
www.plugpower.com
www.indialpg.com
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
336
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UNIT 25: Case Study
Unit 25
337
Notes
Case Study
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
___________________
Case Study: BP Oil Spill
___________________
The Gulf of Mexico is bordered by five of the United States:
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. It is also ___________________
bordered by Mexico and is the location of Cuba. The gulf itself
___________________
covers an expanse of 600,000 square miles and has a developed a
circulation pattern for the waters (General Facts about the Gulf of
Mexico, 2011). Water enters the Yucatan Strait, flows through the
Loop Current, and exits through the Florida Strait (2011). The
way in which the water flows creates the well-known current, the
Gulf Stream. The Gulf Coast acts as a major drainage pool for the
thirty-three major rivers and two-hundred and twenty-seven
estuaries from the United States alone (2011).
The states that line the Gulf have excellent opportunities to take
advantage of the resources the gulf has to offer. With 16,000 miles
of coast in the United States alone, the Gulf provides easy access
to fishing, natural resources, and recreation opportunities (2011).
The population of the Gulf is expected to hit 61.4 million by 2025
with Florida and Texas expected to house most of the new
population (2011). Tourism boosts the economy by $20 billion each
year and seven of the top-ten seaports are located along the Gulf
Coast (2011). The Gulf “yields more finfish, shrimp, and shellfish
annually than the south and mid-Atlantic, Chesapeake, and New
England areas combined,” and is home to about 45,000 bottlenose
dolphins (2011).
On April 20, 2010, a tragic disaster hit the Gulf Coast. British
Petroleum’s (BP) Deepwater Horizon rig exploded spewing crude
oil into the ocean from the three major cracks in the rig. It rivaled
the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill within days of exploding (Gerstein,
2010). A few years earlier, BP was fined $20 million for neglecting
to prevent leaks in a pipeline in Alaska’s Prudhoe Bay (2010).
From June 5, 2010 to June 14, 2010, BP had collected 127,000
Contd…
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
339
If large marine animals are not affected directly as a result of the
oil spill, their dietary needs will eventually harm them as an Notes
indirect consequence of the oil spill. Plankton will likely ingest ___________________
the oil and as one of the lowest organisms on the food chain, the
___________________
oil they ingest will find its way up to the top of the food chain; and
linchpins (organisms that act as the garbage collectors ___________________
underwater) will fail to clean up the dead organisms that will pile
___________________
up on the ocean floor, therefore, depriving other creatures of
nutrients that are by-products of the disposal of the dead ___________________
organisms (2010). The list of marine-life that could potentially be ___________________
affected by the oil spill goes on and on, anything from coral reefs
___________________
to fish to crustaceans to tube worms (2010).
___________________
The costs of the spill are overwhelming: 12,000 people from
Louisiana alone have applied for unemployment since the spill, ___________________
most from the southern part of the state; the cost of the spill for
___________________
BP as of June 14, 2010 was $1.6 billion; it is estimated that the
spill will cost taxpayers $1.5billion because the government had
put a $75 million cap on oil company liability for oil spills (though
this cap may be raised to $10 billion); and as of June 14, 2010,
26,500 Gulf residents have been paid $62 million in tax claims
due to the oil spill (Gerstein, 2010). It is estimated that four
hundred species are going to be affected by the spill; at least
thirty species of birds will be affected due to the spill also
coinciding with breeding season; 25 million migrating birds could
potentially be scarred by the spill (2010).
Questions
1. For the states affected by the oil spills, what would be some
ideas on how to invigorate their tourism numbers? What types
of strategies could be employed?
2. Has BP done enough to help the Gulf Coast? Why or why not?
Source: http://www.castonline.ilstu.edu/hurd/KNR378/Articles/BP%20Oil%20Spill%20case_class.pdf
Understanding Oil & Gas Business
340
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Glossary
Glossary
341
Notes
___________________
342
Crude Oil: It is predominantly made of hydrocarbons. It is
Notes
composed of three main hydrocarbon groups: Paraffins,
___________________
Naphthenes, and Aromatics.
___________________
Demulsifier Chemicals: Are used to break emulsions of water in
___________________ oil or oil in water.
___________________ Dew Point Depression: It is the process of chilling the gas to
___________________ moderately low temperatures to prevent further condensation in
the pipeline.
___________________
___________________
Dry Bed Adsorbent: is a process, where moisture is adsorbed on
the porous surface of the drying medium, which are solid particles.
___________________
Enterprise Resource Planning-software (ERP): It combines
information, data and reports from all departments together into a
single, integrated software program with a single data base, from
which all can share information and communicate with each other.
Ethylene: It is made by cracking ethane.
Exploration Costs: include the cost of seismic surveys and
exploratory drilling and varies between US$ 1 per bbl in prolific
oilfields to more than US$ 12 per bbl, where the environment is
difficult and production per well is low.
Flare System: An important facility plant processing oil or gas. It
is essentially a tall stack made of steel pipe along with a flare tip
(burner) at top and ancillary equipment.
Flare Tripod: If the flare has a large gas flaring capacity, it is
installed away from a platform to minimize heat radiation to the
operating area of the platforms and is installed in a tripod
structure piled into the sea.
Flash Point: It is the minimum temperature at which the product
generates enough vapour to form an explosive mixture with air
Fuel Cell: is an electrochemical energy conversion device, similar
to a battery
Gas Sweetening: Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
from gas is called gas sweetening
Glossary
343
Hazards: These are defined as having the potential to cause
Notes
harm, including ill health and injury, damage to property, products
or the environment, production losses or increased liabilities. ___________________
344
Natural Gas Liquids (NGL): It is formed during production or
Notes
transportation of gas, when the heavy components such as pentane
___________________
or hexane, condense due to natural cooling and separate out as
___________________ liquids.
___________________ Octane Number: It is defined as the percent volume of iso-octane
___________________ in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane that gives the same
knocking as that of the fuel when tested under defined conditions.
___________________
This signifies ignition quality of the gasoline in automobile
___________________ engines.
___________________
Oilfield Processing: The well fluid is processed in or in the
___________________ vicinity of the oilfield.
___________________
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): It is
___________________ an organization formed in 1961 to administer a common policy for
the sale of petroleum.
Personal Protection Equipment (PPE): Equipment / clothing
which offers protection against risks to health and safety.
Petrochemical Industry: means manufacture, supply and
distribution of plastics, fibres and chemicals which are produced
from one of the petroleum products as starting material or
feedstock.
Petrochemicals: They are usually plastic products and chemicals
that are derived from petroleum or natural gas and are made on a
large scale.
Petroleum: It essentially comprises of naturally occurring
hydrocarbons i.e. compounds made of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Pig: A pig is a cylindrical or spherical in shape, made of metal or
plastic with or without brushes at the edge and having diameter
close to the pipe diameter.
Pigging: It is primarily the processes or activities of sending a Pig
through a pipeline.
Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM): It is essentially a set of valves
and flanges along with pipe header supported by steel structure,
from where the pipeline carrying oil, gas or any other material
starts.
Polyethylene terepthalate (PET): They are glass like material
used to make transparent bottles.
Glossary
345
Primary Production: It is the kind of production of oil on its own
Notes
pressure.
___________________
Process Platform: Process Platforms are the biggest platforms in
an offshore complex, which is equivalent to a GGS onshore. ___________________
___________________
Reservoir: A large formation of rocks of bearing hydrocarbons
___________________
SCADA: It stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.
It is a central monitoring system, which monitors the entire
pipeline parameters over several hundred kilometres by telemetry
and tele-control.
Separator: is essentially a vessel having some internals to
facilitate separation.
Smoke Point: It is the length of flame in a standard laboratory
test, which produces smoke.
Specific Gravity of a Gas is defined as the weight of a given
volume of the gas compared to the weight of the same amount of
air at the same temperature and pressure, where air weight is
taken as reference (= 1).
Synfuel: It is essentially natural gas converted to light oil by
reaction processes with gasoline and diesel as products.