Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines

Prof. Rolf D. Reitz,

Engine Research Center,
University of Wisconsin-Madison
2012 Princeton-CEFRC
Summer Program on Combustion
Course Length: 9 hrs
(Wed., Thur., Fri., June 27-29)
Hour 2

Copyright ©2012 by Rolf D. Reitz.

This material is not to be sold, reproduced or distributed without
prior written permission of the owner, Rolf D. Reitz.
1 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Short course outine:

Engine fundamentals and performance metrics, computer modeling supported

by in-depth understanding of fundamental engine processes and detailed
experiments in engine design optimization.
Day 1 (Engine fundamentals)
Hour 1: IC Engine Review, 0, 1 and 3-D modeling
Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics
Hour 3: Chemical Kinetics, HCCI & SI Combustion

Day 2 (Spray combustion modeling)

Hour 4: Atomization, Drop Breakup/Coalescence
Hour 5: Drop Drag/Wall Impinge/Vaporization
Hour 6: Heat transfer, NOx and Soot Emissions

Day 3 (Applications)
Hour 7: Diesel combustion and SI knock modeling
Hour 8: Optimization and Low Temperature Combustion
Hour 9: Automotive applications and the Future

2 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Turbocharging

Improved

3 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Turbocharging
Purpose of turbocharging or supercharging is to increase inlet air density,
- increase amount of air in the cylinder.

Mechanical supercharging
- driven directly by power from engine.

Turbocharger - connected compressor/turbine

- energy in exhaust used to drive turbine.

Supercharging necessary in two-strokes

for effective scavenging:
- intake P > exhaust P
- crankcase used as a pump

Some engines combine engine-driven and

mechanical (e.g., in two-stage configuration).

Intercooler after compressor

- controls combustion air temperature.

4 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Turbocharging

Energy in exhaust is used to drive

turbine which drives compressor

Wastegate used to by-pass turbine

Charge air cooling after compressor
further increases air density
- more air for combustion

5 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Regulated Two-Stage Turbocharger

Duplicated Configuration per Cylinder Bank

LP stage Turbo-Charger
with Bypass

Compressor HP stage Turbo

Bypass charger

Charge Air Regulating valve

Cooler

EGR Cooler

EGR Valve
GT-Power R2S Turbo Circuit

HP TURBINE Compressor Bypass

EGR Valve

EGR Cooler

Charge Air Regulating valve

Cooler
Compressor
HP stage Turbo
Bypass
charger

LP stage Turbo-Charger
with Bypass Regulating Valve

LP Stage Bypass
LP TURBINE

6 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Variable Valve Timing - IVC control


Q
P V 
Isentropic  IVC 
PIVC V 
Reduced Peak Temp (NOx)
Improved phasing
( 
1)
ln P T 
V 
 IVC 
TIVC V 
ln T

Pressure T ign
/time of Compressor
ignition

Boost Q

TDC IVC TDC IVC

ln V ln V
Boost explains 20% of the improved fuel efficiency of diesel vs. SI
7 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Automotive Compressor
Centrifugal compressor typically used in
automotive applications

Provides high mass flow rate at

relatively low pressure ratio ~ 3.5

Rotates at high angular speeds

- direct coupled with exhaust-driven
turbine
- less suited for mechanical
supercharging

Consists of:
stationary inlet casing,
rotating bladed impeller,
stationary diffuser (w or w/o vanes)
collector - connects to intake system

8 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Isentropic compressible flow theory Anderson, 1990

T0 1 2 P0

1 2 1
1  M1 (1  M1 ) Ex. Flow past throttle plate
T1 2 P1 2

0 P0 1 P=Pb Choked flow for P 2 < 53.5 kPa = 40.1cmHg

reservoir ambient
WOT

s pe
Choked

ed
m
1
Pb
P/P0

0.528
40.1 76
M=1
0 Manifold pressure, P 2 cmHg
x

9 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics
Application to turbomachinery Anderson, 1990

Fliegner’s Formula:
P V
mAV  A RT
RT c
 Variable Geometry Compressor/
P0 AM ( P / P0 ) /(T / T0 ) 1/ 2 turbine performance map
RT0
1
2 2( 1)  Increased speed

mM ( ) P0 A*
1
1
RT0

Choked flow
“Corrected mass m Tref / T0
flow rate” P0 / Pref
A measure of effective flow
Reduced flow passage
area
area

1.0 1/0.528=1.89
P0 /P
Total/static pressure ratio
10 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Compressor Heywood, 1988

(T T )
c  out isen in
(Tout Tin )
P03
T
P3 = Pout
Heywood, Fig. 6-43

P2 Air at stagnation state 0,in accelerates to

inlet pressure, P1, and velocity V1.
Compression in impeller passages
increases pressure to P2 , and velocity V2.
P0 = P0,in
Diffuser between states 2 and out,
recovers air kinetic energy at exit of impeller
P1
V12/2cP producing pressure rise to, Pout and
low velocity Vout

W 
c ma
hout hin 
S  
a 1
m 
c 
Tin pout  a

W  
a Pa
 
Note: use exit static pressure and inlet total 1
c
c   
pressure, because kinetic energy of gas p0, in  
leaving compressor is usually not recovered  
11 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Compressor Maps
Work transfer to gas occurs in impeller via change in gas
angular momentum in rotating blade passage

Surge limit line

Speed/pressure limit line
– reduced mass flow
due to periodic flow
reversal/reattachment in Non-dimensionalize blade
passage boundary layers. tip speed (~ND) by speed
Unstable flow can lead of sound
to damage
At high air flow rate,
operation is limited by
choking at the minimum
Pressure ratio evaluated
area point within compressor
using total-to-static
pressures since exit flow Supersonic flow
kinetic energy is not
recovered
Shock
wave
Heywood, 1988
Heywood, Fig. 6-46
12 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Compressor maps
3.0
GM 1.9L diesel engine Pressure
Ratio (t/t)
2.8
190000
35000 40000 50000 70000

2.6
90000 110000 130000 150000

170000 180000 190000 2.4

2.2
Efficiency
0.8
(T/T)
2.0 180000

0.7 170000
1.8

150000
0.6 1.6

130000
Corrected Air Flow (kg/s) 1.4
0.5
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 110000
1.2 90000

50000 70000 Corrected Air Flow (kg/s)

1.0 35000 40000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Serrano, 2007
13 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Turbochargers
Radial flow – automotive;
axial flow – locomotive, marine

P0 = P0,in
T
2
P1
V1 /2cP T3
  T0
P2 m corrected mg
p3
p0
N out
N corrected 
T3
P03 T0

P3 = Pout

(T T )
t  out in
(Tout isen Tin )

S
14 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Automotive Turbines
Naturally aspirated: Reitz & Hoag, 2007
Pintake=Pexhst =Patm (5-7-8-9-1)
Boosted operation:

W 
Negative pumping work:
P7<P1 – but hurts scavenging t m g ( hin h0,out )
g 1
 
 P0, out  
P

W 
g

3 4 t m c T  1   
g P in t 
 Pin  
 
2 Expansion
Blowdown
5
Compression Available work
(area 5-6-7)
9 1
Pintake 6’’ Turbine
Pexhst 6
Compressor
8 7 6’
Pamb
TDC BDC

V
P-V diagram showing available exhaust energy
- turbocharging, turbocompounding, bottoming cycles and
thermoelectric generators further utilize this available energy

15 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Compressor Selection
To select compressor, first determine engine breathing lines.
The mass flow rate of air through engine for a given pressure ratio is:

= IMP = PR * atmospheric pressure (no losses)

= IMT = Roughly constant for given Speed

16 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Engine Breathing Lines

Engine Breathing Lines
1.4L Diesel, Air-to-Air AfterCooled, Turbocharged

3.8

3.6 Torque Peak (1700rpm)

Trq Peak Operating Pnt
3.4
Rated (2300rpm)
3.2 Rated Operating Pnt

3
Compressor Pressure Ratio

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2

1.8

1.6
Parameter Torque Peak Rated Units
1.4
Horsepower 48 69 hp
BSFC 0.377 0.401 lb/hp-hr
1.2
A/F 23.8 24.5 none
1
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 10.000 11.000 12.000 13.000 14.000

Intake Mass Flow Rate (lb/min)

17 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics a
a 1

  
  g 1


p2   Cp g 
T3  m fuel   p4  g 


  1 
p   Cp  1
   t
 
c 
mech 
1  
p   
1   a T1    3  
  mair 
 


Heywood, 1988

. .
Wt = W c

18 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Ideal Engine Efficiency – Otto cycle

Maximum possible closed-cycle
efficiency (“ideal efficiency”)

State (1) to (2) isentropic

(i.e., adiabatic and reversible)
compression from max (V1) to
min cylinder volume (V2)
Compression ratio rc = V1/V2.

State (2) to (3) adiabatic

and isochoric (constant volume)
combustion,
State (3) to (4) isentropic
expansion.

State (4) to (1) exhaust process

- available energy is rejected
- can be converted to mechanical
or electrical work:

Heywood, 1988
19 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

ηideal Function of only two variables, compression ratio (rc)

and ratio of specific heats (γ)
Increasing rc increases operating volume for compression and expansion
Increasing γincreases pressure rise during combustion and increases work
extraction during expansion stroke.
Both effects result in an increase in net system work for a given energy release
and thereby increase engine efficiency.
Actual closed-cycle efficiencies to deviate from ideal:
1.) Assumption of isochoric combustion:
Finite duration combustion in realistic engines.
Kinetically controlled combustion has shorter combustion duration than diesel or SI
- duration limited by mechanical constraints, high pressure rise rates with audible
engine noise and high mechanical stresses
2.) Assumption of calorically perfect fluid:
Specific heats decrease with increasing gas temperature; species conversion during
combustion causes γto decrease
3.) Adiabatic assumption:
Large temperature gradient near walls results in energy being lost to heat transfer
rather than being converted to crank work

20 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Other Assumptions:
In engine system models, compressors, supercharger, turbines modeled with
constant isentropic efficiency instead of using performance map.
- typically, compressors, superchargers, and fixed geometry turbines have isentropic
efficiencies of 0.7. VGT has isentropic efficiency of 0.65.
Charge coolers - intercooler, aftercooler, and EGR cooler modeled with zero
pressure drop, a fixed effectiveness of 0.9, constant coolant temperature of 350 K.

21 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Zero-dimensional closed-cycle analysis:

Combustion represented as energy addition to closed system

Fuel injection mass addition from user-specified start of injection crank angle
(θSOI) and injection duration (Δθinj).

Pressure and mass integrated over the closed portion of cycle with specified
initial conditions at IVC of pressure (p0), temperature (T0), and composition
(xn,0 for all species considered - N2, O2, Ar, CO2, and H2O) and initial trapped
mass (m0), including trapped residual mass

Post-combustion composition determined assuming complete combustion of

delivered fuel mass.

Minor species resulting from dissociation during combustion not considered

Herold, SAE 2011-01-2216

22 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

First law energy balance: du=dq+pdv

Combustion:

Wall heat transfer:

Combustion model - Wiebe function

Heat transfer model - Woschni

Herold, SAE 2011-01-2216

23 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Engine brake thermal efficiency BTE 70

PMEP FMEP
BTE GIE{1  }
IMEPg
150 bar PCP Limit
BTE*LHV=IMEPg-PMEP-FMEP 60

DOE goal BTE=55% 55

50

BTE [%]
UW Dyno limit
45
Friction model PMEP = 0.4 bar
40 FMEP = 1 bar
Chen-Flynn model ( SAE 650733).
UW RCCI GIE = 55%
FMEP = C + (PF*Pmax) + (MPSF*Speedmp) 30 SCOTE GIE = 60%
results
GIE = 65%
(Exp/Sim)
+ (MPSSF*Speedmp2) 20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Load -- Gross IMEP [bar]
where: C = constant part of FMEP (0.25 bar)
PF = Peak Cylinder Pressure Factor (0.005)
Pmax = Maximum Cylinder Pressure
MPSF = Mean Piston Speed Factor (0.1)
MPSSF = Mean Piston Speed Squared Factor (0)

Speedmp = Mean Piston Speed

Chen-Flynn SAE 650733).

24 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

1-D modeling for engine performance analysis – Lavoie et al. (2012)

Lavoie, 2012
25 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Mid load Lavoie, 2012

26 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Lavoie, 2012

Woshni, 1967

Turbocharger equation

Burn duration Heat transfer

Friction m~0.8, Re increases with Bore and 

(boost)

27 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Effect of combustion phasing on efficiency Lavoie, 2012

Constant volume combustion

10-90 Burn
100%

Cumulative heat release

90%

50%
CA50

10%

Crank angle

Without HT: Best efficiency CA50~TDC

With HT: best efficiency with CA50~10 deg – tradeoff between heat loss/late expansion
28 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics
Energy budget
0  air standard efficiency
63%

Adiabatic

Lavoie, 2012 Decreasing  Incomplete combustion

29 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Effect of dilution Lavoie, 2012

Fuel-to-charge equivalence ratio, ’

Burned gas temperature

ranges from 0.2 to 1 with air, EGR ranges from 0 to 80% with =1
30 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Effect of boost on efficiency Lavoie, 2012

Reduced heat transfer loss

Reduced friction losses

31 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012

 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Potential brake efficiencies for naturally aspirated engines

Increased pumping losses

Lavoie, 2012
32 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012
 Hour 2: Turbochargers, Engine Performance Metrics

Summary

Turbocharging can increase engine efficiency by using available energy in exhaust

and by reducing pumping work

Air standard “ideal cycle” analysis provides a bound on engine efficiency

estimates.

0-D engine system models provide estimates of engine system efficiencies,

if combustion details (e.g., timing and duration) and heat transfer losses are assumed

The goal of multi-dimensional models (to be discussed next) is to predict the

combustion details

33 CEFRC2 June 27, 2012