THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Musculature ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Slow and fast twitch muscle fibers ................................................................................................... 4
The role of the slow and fast twitch muscle fibers in sport .............................................................. 5
2. Circulatory system .......................................................................................................................... 6
Heart rate........................................................................................................................................... 6
Pulse volume ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Cardiac output ................................................................................................................................... 7
Cardiac output during sub maximal and maximal effort .................................................................. 7
Blood distribution ............................................................................................................................. 8
RBCs and blood quantity .................................................................................................................. 8
Capillaries ......................................................................................................................................... 8
Blood pressure .................................................................................................................................. 9
3. Respiratory system ......................................................................................................................... 9
Oxygen consumption and sport performance ................................................................................. 10
Oxygen debt .................................................................................................................................... 11
Vital capacity and lung diffusion .................................................................................................... 11
Breathing and acid-base balance..................................................................................................... 11
4. Energy – metabolism .................................................................................................................... 11
The energy and its origins ............................................................................................................... 12
Energy storage types of the body.................................................................................................... 12
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ....................................................................................................... 12
Creatine phosphate .......................................................................................................................... 13
Carbohydrates ................................................................................................................................. 13
Muscle glycogen ............................................................................................................................. 13
 Liver glycogen and blood glucose .................................................................................................. 13
Fats .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Proteins ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Energy-metabolism: the three stages .............................................................................................. 14
Non-aerobic metabolism ................................................................................................................. 14
Anaerobic metabolism .................................................................................................................... 15
Aerobic metabolism ........................................................................................................................ 16
Citric acid cycle (Krebs-cycle) ....................................................................................................... 16
Electron transport chain .................................................................................................................. 16
The role of oxygen in the aerobic metabolism ............................................................................... 17
Alanine-way .................................................................................................................................... 17
Lipid metabolism ............................................................................................................................ 18
Protein metabolism ......................................................................................................................... 18
Summary of energy-metabolism..................................................................................................... 18
Efficiency of the aerobic and anaerobic metabolism ...................................................................... 18
5. Fatigue causes and effects of training towards delay ................................................................ 19
Fatigue causes at competitions and trainings .................................................................................. 19
Extenuation of ATP and creatine phosphate................................................................................... 20
Insufficient anaerobic metabolism .................................................................................................. 20
Acidosis (low muscle pH)............................................................................................................... 20
Low muscle glycogen level ............................................................................................................ 21
6. Roles of the hormones................................................................................................................... 21
Sexual hormones ............................................................................................................................. 22
The effect of training on the hormones ........................................................................................... 23

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1. Musculature
The human body contains three types of muscle: the smooth muscles found in the organs, the
heart muscle and skeletal muscles. The voluntary movement occurs due to the contraction of
the skeletal muscles.

Skeletal muscles are contracting due to the electrical impulses received from the nervous
system. When the muscle is contracted, it shortens, pulling the two endpoints connected to
the bone towards each other, which are the fixed and the mobile end. In this case the
contraction occurs in only some part of the fibers.

The larger muscles are made of tiny muscle fibers, arranged in bundles that are enveloped by
the fascia. Every fiber is one single muscle cell. The thickness of it is between 10-50 μm, its
length varies from 1-2 mm to 20-40 centimeters. The fibers are arranged in groups called
motor units. Each unit has one motor nerve, which is divided and reaches every fiber of that
unit. In this way every muscle fiber is capable to absorb the messages of the nervous system
to contract or to extend. Any impulse coming through the nerves forces all the muscle fibers
of the motor unit to contract. When the nerve impulse reaches the motor unit, if the impulse
is powerful enough, all muscle fibers found in that unit, will be contracted. If the pulse is
weak, not a single muscle fiber will contract.

The power of the contraction of some muscles, at any moment, is determined by the number
of motor units involved in the contraction. For example, during a light sports movement only
a few muscle fibers belonging to some motor unit will contract the effort is little. During an
intensive run, nearly all motor units contract, because the power requirement is high.

The nervous system regulates the contraction of the corresponding number of motor units at
various efforts. We learn from experience how much effort is needed to carry out a particular
job. To sustain the effort for a longer period of time within the muscle the motor units
alternately will carry out efforts, so at the contraction of some muscle fibers, the others are
resting. When the contracting muscle fibers become exhausted, the resting fibers will
replaced them, so the effort can be maintained to carry out the task.

Within a muscle we probably never use simultaneously all motor units, even at maximum
effort. The nervous system is blocking us on this, because the force would be so great that
could snap the bones. In the successive process of the motor units operation the units are
equally involved in the work.

The speed of fiber regeneration, and their number that can be simultaneously vexed, probably
are an important determinant of the ability of athletes speed. The regeneration model may
also affect the maximum speed. The recovery pattern determines which motor units of which
muscle can contract among the different muscles and different areas of each muscles. The
established order at every moment of the movement is determined to serve is best possible
effort.

The recovery pattern of motor units can also affect endurance. If the pattern is effective, less
motor unit operation is required at a certain speed, and more relaxed fibers would be
available during the later stages of the movement.

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Slow and fast twitch muscle fibers
The human body contains two categories of skeletal muscle fibers. They are known as the
slow twitch a.k.a. red fibers and the fast twitch a.k.a. white fibers.

The fast twitch muscle fibers are capable of rapid contractions (30-50 times per second). The
slow twitch fibers are pulled together at a slower rate (10-15 times per second). The
important differences between the two types of fiber are the strength and the endurance.

The resistance of the slow twitch fibers is greater due to their greater aerobic metabolic
capacity. They contain more myoglobin, 2-5 times more mitochondria, more fat, and they
contain a higher aerobic enzyme concentration than the fast twitch fibers. Consequently, they
have lower non-aerobic and anaerobic metabolic capacity, since they contain lower
concentration creatine phosphate and anaerobic enzymes.

Fast twitch fibers contain more creatine phosphate and anaerobic enzymes. Furthermore, they
contain about 12% more protein (fast twitch fibers are generally larger than the slow twitch
fibers), contain more calcium (the calcium triggers the muscle contraction), and their buffer
capacity is bigger. The non-aerobic and anaerobic metabolic capacity of the fats twitch fibers
is greater. On the other hand, their aerobic metabolic capacity is lower than at their slow
twitch counterparts. The ATP and glycogen content of the two fiber types are similar. A
higher amount of myoglobin in slow twitch fibers gives the red appearance (the myoglobin
has red pigmentation). The fast twitch fibers are white (actually light pink), because they
contain less myoglobin.

Within the fast twitch fibers of the human musculature we can distinguish subcategories: Fa,
Fb and Fc categories.
• In addition to the anaerobic capacity the Fa fibers have greater aerobic capacity than
the Fb and Fc fibers.
• The Fb fibers also have anaerobic characteristics, but their aerobic capacity is still
significant.
• The importance of Fc fiber is not yet fully known and likely they are a transition
towards the slow twitch fibers, and vice versa.

The aerobic capacity of the Fa fibers is larger than the capacity of other two subtypes because
they contain larger numbers of mitochondria and myoglobin, and their aerobic enzyme
activity is greater. In addition, they are enmeshed by more capillaries. These fibers form a
group of the fast twitch fibers that can adapt to endurance training by being capable of
storing more myoglobin and they can increase their mitochondria substance. Training or
physical exercise may convert the Fb fibers to Fa fibers.

Some people believe that the two types of fiber can be converted into each other with
physical exercise. The transformation occurs mostly at the Fc fibers, which may transform
into slow twitch fibers. According to these people, this can be achieved as a result of a long-
term endurance and strength-endurance training. Others say it's not possible.

It is conceivable that due to exercise the fiber ration changes through the phenomenon called
hyperplasia where new muscle fibers are developed. It seems that exercise is not going to
ensure the transition from one type of fiber to another. It is doubtful that the total number of
muscle fibers could be enhanced by training.
Usually our muscles contain a mix of slow and fast twitch fibers. This type of fiber-mixing
can show considerable variation at some individuals, even within the same muscle group. At

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the majority of the population the muscles contain approximately 50% of both types of fiber.
However, some people's muscles contain more either slow or fast twitch fibers. For example,
the ratio of the slow twitch fibers in the deltoid muscle can reach 80% at one athlete and at
the other athletes can reach only 20%. These percentages are likely to be inherited, and do
not change noticeably from birth to death.

The athlete, who has an unusually high fast twitch fibers ratio, has greater potential for a
sprint, because more muscle fibers are able to do non-aerobic and anaerobic work. However,
these people have a disadvantage when working something where endurance is needed. They
have less slow twitch fibers, and therefore their aerobic energy supply capacity is lower. The
reverse is true for athletes, who have high proportion of slow twitch fibers in their bodies,
making their muscles more suitable for endurance competitions. Because most athletes’ body
contains approx. the same proportions of the two types of fiber, they are free to choose which
competitions they favor.

Endurance training can increase aerobic metabolic capacity of the slow and fast twitch fibers,
but the aerobic capacity of the trained, fast twitch muscle fibers can not reach the possibilities
of slow twitch fibers.

The role of the slow and fast twitch muscle fibers in sport
The use of a particular fiber type will depend on the degree of the effort required from the
muscle, not on the speed of the effort and/or the length of given distance.

Fast twitch fibers does not contract until the effort is moderate. The number of contracting
fast twitch fibers will start to intensify, if the energy requirement of the work increases.
Within the fast twitch fibers most of the load is bared by the Fa fibers, while the energy
requirement is not getting closer to the maximum. When the effort reaches the maximum,
each type of fiber performs contraction.

The fast twitch fibers connect to the motion in progressive order, because a greater stimulus
is required for their contraction. At low-intensity the slow twitch fibers are working, while at
high-level efforts the fast twitch fibers join in.

When an athlete is working at the maximum speed, both types of fiber are in an activated
state, but the fast twitch fibers provide much of the energy because they contract at a higher
speed, and anaerobically they are capable of discharging more energy. Therefore, the fast
twitch muscle fibers lose first their glycogen reserves during a high-speed activity. The slow
twitch fibers empty out during the slow, continuous, long-term efforts.

At long-term, 75-90% of effort, the glycogen reserves of the fast twitch fibers empty out first.
The ATP recycling starts in these fibers.

During the lower-intensity exercises the glycogen reserves of more slow twitch fibers than
fast twitch muscle fibers empty out partially, while during high-intensity effort glycogen
reserves discharge almost equally at slow and fast twitch fibers.

An interesting aspect of the fibers’ connection model is that one fiber type is able to support
the other, when exhaustion occurs at one of them. At the fast twitch fiber the potential of
anaerobic metabolism is greater, so acidosis occurs at them before at the slow twitch fibers.
When this happens, more slow motor unit engage in the motion, in order to maintain the

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required effort. But they can not provide the anaerobic energy at the same speed, so some
power loss occurs. When slow twitch fibers become exhausted due to the long-term and
relatively moderate effort, some of the fast twitch fibers are activated to maintain the energy
requirements. However, the pace will slow down over time. As the aerobic capacity of the
fast twitch fibers is lower, the floating rate will slow down for the delay of lactate production,
and acidosis.

2. Circulatory system
The circulatory system (cardiovascular system) ensures the functioning of every cell, and
every organ. The blood carries oxygen, glucose and other nutrients to the tissue and
transports away the lactate and carbon dioxide. The heart is the engine, the arteries and veins
form a pipe system, which are connected with the muscles.

The left part of the heart pumps the blood to the muscles and tissues through the arteries and
arterioles, which divide into smaller pipes until they reach target: the tissues. The major
branches are the arteries from which the smaller arterioles derive. The arterioles end in
capillaries, which are the smallest units, and which surround some of the muscle fibers.

The blood carries oxygen, glucose and other nutrients through the capillaries. From here
these substances diffuse into the muscle cell. Then the blood leaves the tissues through the
same capillaries, after picking up the carbon dioxide and lactate and other fatigue products
produced during the metabolic process. Through the venules and veins the blood reaches the
right part of the heart, from where the heart delivers the blood through the pulmonary artery
into the lungs. In the lungs during exhalation the carbon dioxide diffuses alveolar cells, then,
during inhalation the oxygen from the alveoli enters the blood. Through the venules and
veins the blood flows from the lungs into the left part of the heart, and the process starts over.
The venules start at the capillaries and then flow into larger venules and veins, which returns
the blood to the heart.

Heart rate
The heart rate is the count of heart contractions per minute. The simultaneous contraction of
the right and left parts of the heart (ventricles) mean one heart contraction. The resting heart
rate for an adult is 60-80 contraction per minute. The resting heart rate is usually lower for
trained adult athletes, often varying between 40-55 beats/min-1. As a result of training, resting
heart rate decreases because the heart becomes stronger, so for each beat is capable to pump
more blood. In other words: less heartbeat is necessary to supply the body with blood during
rest. These changes regress when regular and intense exercises are discontinued for a long
lasting period.

The basic heart rate is with 10-15 beats/min-1less than the resting heart rate. Between the ages
of 5-15 continuously decreased with a total of 10-20 beats/min-1. The basic heart rate for girls
starting from the age of 10 is 3-5 beats/min-1 greater than that of boys.
Everyone is characterized by different values for heart rate, but our heart is not able to
produce higher frequency at certain number of heart beat. This is probably the result of a
defense mechanism that protects the heart from beating too fast, and therefore it would not be
enough time to recharge itself with blood. The maximum heart rate for teenagers and young
adults is about 200, usually 180-220 beats/min-1. This does not change significantly with age,
it is similar in the case of young children and well-trained adults.

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Pulse volume
The amount of blood that is pumped by the heart at every heartbeat is called pulse volume.
The average range is 80-120 ml/beat-1. During movement this quantity can be increased to a
range between 160-180 ml/beat-1. The pulse volume values of the athletes are higher than at
non-athletes, which explain the lower resting heart rate as well. Less contraction is needed
for the same blood supply.

The pulse volume increases with age until the beginning of adulthood. This is proportional
with the left ventricle, the body surface, the fat-free body mass and the increase of the body
weight.

After workouts, the decrease of heart rate in case of submaximal efforts is the excellent sign
of increased pulse volume of the athlete.

Cardiac output
The cardiac output refers to the amount of blood that is pumped by the heart (left ventricle)
into the aorta per minute. To calculate this, the heart rate is multiplied by the pumping
volume. 5 liters can be considered the normal resting cardiac output value. During the
movement of untrained individuals, this value can grow up to four times. The trained athletes
can increase 6-7 times their cardiac output values, reaching values of 30-35 l/min-1 that are
not uncommon after workouts. The posture significantly affects cardiac output. At supine
position (eg. swimming), cardiac output can up to 20-30% greater.

Cardiac output referred to body weight starting from childhood is 240 ml/kg-1/min-1 but by
the beginning of adulthood is decreased approximately by half to 110-120 ml/kg-1/min-1.

Cardiac output during sub maximal and maximal effort

The cardiac output of trained and untrained persons is similar during rest and during
submaximal physical exercise. The main difference between the two is that the trained
persons move their blood with lower heart rate and increased blood pumping volume. This
means that during submaximal work the heart of the trained athlete does not have to work
intensively in order to supply the same amount of blood to the body.

During maximal effort trained athletes can produce greater cardiac output than the untrained
persons. As an effect of the adaptation, an increase in cardiac output during maximum effort
results in increased pumping volume. The cardiac output increase that occurs at maximum
effort allows higher oxygen and glucose supply for the muscles and will remove higher
amounts of lactate and carbon dioxide removal allows the muscles.

The maximum cardiac output referred to one m2 of body is called heart index, which does not
change significantly with age. Typically it is between 10-12 l/min-1 per square meter.

Maximum pumping volume can be achieved by low level effort. The reason is that the
recharge time of the heart is reduced when it beats faster. Although at higher speeds the
cardiac output is greater, however pumping volume is smaller.

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Blood distribution
The human body contains about 5 liters of blood. At rest blood flow of the skeletal muscle
system, which forms nearly 50% of the body weight is approx. 15% of the cardiac output.
However, during the movement the distribution changes and more blood will enter the
working muscles. At full intensity effort, the nearly 90% of the 6-7 times increased cardiac
output reaches the skeletal muscles. This means that the blood supply can increase to approx.
30-35 times comparing to the resting position values. The blood supply of the inactive
muscles and other tissues are reduced accordingly. During the change in the blood
distribution the wall of the arteries supplying the active tissues expands, while wall of the
arteries supplying the inactive tissues will narrow. This means that greater amount of blood
flows through the major arteries, where the pressure and the flow resistance become smaller.

There are other aspects to the development of circulatory (cardiovascular) system through
exercise, which can improve the performance potential: this would mean increasing the
number of these red blood cells, the body's total blood volume, and the number of capillaries.

RBCs and blood quantity

The athletes tend to have larger blood quantity and greater number of red blood cells than the
untrained persons.

During the training process it is important to increase the number of red blood cells, because
these contain hemoglobin, which an iron-containing protein material that allows the transport
of oxygen in the blood. This means that increasing the hemoglobin quantity results in an
increase in the amount of oxygen transported in the blood. One of the main reasons why
athletes train at high-altitudes is to increase the amount of hemoglobin.

In the blood the decrease of normal hemoglobin concentration reduces the oxygen
consumption and endurance. This is called anemia.

The fluid quantity of the blood increases relatively better during exercise than as the
hemoglobin. This is advantageous because the greater quantity of fluid prevents the increased
amount of hemoglobin to cause blood thickening (to make it viscous). Higher viscosity
reduces blood flow, which reduces the amount of oxygen and glucose available during the
exercise, as well puts a greater load on the heart.

Endurance training sets up and maintains oxygen need in the tissues, which stimulates the
growth of hemoglobin and blood quantity.

Capillaries
Each muscle fiber is surrounded by capillaries. During the exercise the replacement of
oxygen and nutrients to used substances occurs between the muscles and capillaries. Oxygen
and glucose are diffused from the capillaries into the muscles, while lactate and carbon
dioxide are diffused from the muscle cells into the capillaries. At this point the capillaries are
so thin that they only can take in one molecule at a time from these materials. An increase in
the number of capillaries surrounding the muscle fibers, permits more oxygen to reach the
muscles and more waste materials to be carried away. One of the fundamental endurance
training effects is to increase the overall capillary quantity around the muscle fibers, which
increases the diffusion rate of nutrients and waste materials.

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Blood pressure
The flow of blood in the capillaries puts pressure on the walls. The pressure is measured by
the rise of the mercury column in the gauge. Two types of measurement methods are used:
• when the heart beats and
• when the heart is resting between beats.
The pressure in the capillaries upon heartbeat is called systolic pressure, as the heartbeat is
the systole. The pressure between heart beats is called diastolic pressure, since the relaxation
phase of the heart in diastole. Typical resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure is 120/80-1
mmHg.

Resting blood pressure constantly rises until the age of 15. At birth the value is
approximately 70/55-1 mmHg, at 10 years of age is 100/60-1 mmHg, while at 15 years of age
the value is 115/65-1 mmHg.

The blood pressure, particularly the systolic pressure, can be enhanced to dangerous levels
during exercise, because the quantity of blood flow through the capillaries during unit time
increases excessively. Luckily the walls of the capillaries are elastic enough in order to
reduce pressure on the walls by its prolongation. The systolic pressure during the exhausting
effort can exceed even 200 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure increase is not so dangerous,
because the amount of blood flow in the capillaries decreases slightly between heartbeats. In
normal circumstances, diastolic blood pressure increases to 100-110 mmHg during exercise.

The endurance training creates a reduction in systolic and diastolic blood pressure at rest and
during submaximal effort.

3. Respiratory system
The two most important task of breathing is to provide the body with oxygen and to remove
carbon dioxide. This process makes life possible, since we would not resist more than a few
minutes without oxygen. Another, also important function of the lung is to regulate the acid-
base balance of the blood. The respiratory system includes the mouth and the nose, pharynx,
lungs, bronchi and air sacs, which are surrounded by capillaries.

The inspiration phase of the breathing allows us to send oxygen from the air into our body.
During exhalation carbon dioxide and humidity exists the body. The air is taken in through
the nose and mouth. Then, the air advances to the pharynx, then through the trachea, and
bronchi passage reaches the bronchi of the lungs and finally the air sacs. The air sacs are
surrounded by capillaries. The oxygen from the air sacs diffuses into the blood stream
through the pulmonary capillary, while the carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction.
At resting position an individual consumes 0.25-0.30 liter of oxygen per minute (l/min).

The amount of air exchanged per minute is the minute volume. The quantity of air taken in
during an inhale and exhale is 500-700 ml. We breathe 12-15 times per minute, which
corresponds to 6-10 l/min minute volumes. The number of breaths per minute can be
increased to 40-60 during exercise, and the air exchange can be increased up to 2-4 per
inhaling. For a non athlete this represents 100-140 l/min minute volume. The trained athletes
are able to do even 150-180 l/min of air exchange.

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With training athletes can establish such respiratory rate, which results in the highest minute
volume at the least possible effort. For most of them this develops naturally. They learn how
to breathe slowly and deeply during the exercise, but not too much to increase their breathing
effort unnecessarily. Swimmers in particular learn this skill well because they must adjust
their breathing to the rhythms of their tempo.

Oxygen consumption and sport performance

The amount of oxygen that is used by a person in a minute during exercise is called VO2. The
maximum amount of oxygen that a person can use in one minute during exercise is called
maximum oxygen consumption, or VO2max.

Oxygen consumption of the athletes is calculated from the difference of the exhaled and
inhaled oxygen quantity. The calculation of VO2max is done through the oxygen consumption
measured during exercises series performed at an accelerated rate. The series are continued
by the athlete until reaches a plateau starting from where increasing speed is no longer
associated with further increase in oxygen consumption. When this occurs, the athlete has
reached the maximum capacity of the oxygen consumption.

The difficulty of understanding oxygen consumption often lies in the fact that the athlete
does not perform physical exercise at a maximum speed but he/she has already reached the
maximum oxygen consumption. The anaerobic metabolism phase allows that after reaching
the maximum oxygen consumption the athlete can reach even greater speed. Athletes
continue energy generation by lactate production, even if the oxygen supply is not sufficient.
However, this kind of speed boost can not be sustained for a long time as the accumulation of
lactate eventually leads to acidosis.

Everyone has defined oxygen consumption capability. This capability can be increased a
little by exercising, although its rate is hereditary. The VO2max at women athletes can be even
more than 4 l/min-, while at men athletes a higher value of 5 l/min- is not uncommon. Usually
1 to 3 minutes is required for the oxygen consumption to maximize.

The oxygen consumption given in l/min- can be misunderstood, as it differs in the direction
of larger people. The VO2max values of the larger-bodied athletes are higher because of the
higher per-minute air exchange. However, this does not mean that are able to supply their
muscles with more oxygen. The oxygen supply depends on the amount consumed by the
muscle tissue per kilogram.

Due to this the VO2max is often expressed related to the body size. The person oxygen
consumption is expressed in ml per kg body weight, related to each minute of exercise
(ml/kg/min).

By expressing oxygen consumption to the body weight, the appropriate method is given to
compare the VO2max values at different body size athletes. For example, an athlete who has
75 kilogram body weight and 5 l/min oxygen consumption has relatively lower VO2max value
than the athlete, who has similar absolute capacity but the body weight is only 60 kilograms.
The value of the first person is 66.6 ml/ kg/min (5000 ml/75 kg), while the value of the other
athlete is 83.3 ml/kg/min (5000 ml/60 kg).

The average VO2max values for men and women both fall into the 35-45 ml/kg/min range. At
world-class athletes these values may reach 66-80 ml/kg/min.

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For years, the value of maximum oxygen consumption was considered the most important
factor in endurance performance. Researchers now agree that VO2max is not linked so closely
to the endurance competition as they had previously thought.

Oxygen debt
Instead of the oxygen debt more accurate oxygen deficit expression is used because this
indicates better what is quantified - the oxygen consumed while resting. We measure the
oxygen deficit and not the oxygen requirement.

In the measurement of the oxygen deficit, the oxygen requirement of the exhausting motion
sequences are extrapolated from the oxygen consumption of shorter motion sequences
carried out with the same effort. Then, the oxygen consumption is measured during the actual
movement sequence. Finally, the oxygen deficit is calculated from the difference of oxygen
requirement and oxygen consumed during the exercise.

Vital capacity and lung diffusion

The vital capacity refers to the amount of air that can be replaced by one air intake. The lung
diffusion expresses the oxygen quantity diffused from the alveoli into the blood.

The rapport of vital capacity and VO2max expressed in terms of l/min is high, however, in the
context of performance is low. Generally the larger-bodied persons have increased vital
capacity and oxygen consumption. The rapport of vital capacity and oxygen consumption
related to body weight, however, is also low. This probably explains the fact that great vital
capacity does not have primary role in performance.

The large lung diffusion capacity not necessarily assumes greater oxygen supply. That
depends mainly on how well is trained the athlete's cardiovascular system and muscle system
to transport and use the available oxygen.

Breathing and acid-base balance

The respiratory system plays an important role in the acid-base balance with the help of the
buffering process. The increased rate of breathing permits the removal of more carbon
dioxide, which helps the merging of hydrogen ions with bicarbonate, slowing the descent of
blood pH. Thereby, more hydrogen ion diffuses into the blood from the muscles, so the
degree of the acidosis in the muscles is greatly reduced.

It is not known the effect of the exercise, which increases the role of the respiratory system in
the maintenance of the acid-base balance and the efficient breathing during exercise. Their
regulation is a natural consequence of the exercises.

4. Energy – metabolism
Muscle contraction in the body takes place in a chemical way through the compounds of
energy release. The energy provides the force necessary for physical exercise: without energy
the muscle would not be able to contract. The whole process of energy supply is called
metabolism. The knowledge gained in the last two decades about energy-metabolism has
greatly contributed to the development of training methods.

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The energy and its origins
The basic source of energy is the sun that transmits energy to the Earth. When this energy
reaches the plants, it is transformed through photosynthesis and stored as chemical energy.
When we eat the plants or animals that feed on plants we take in energy into our bodies and
store it for later use. Energy in plants and animals are stored as carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.

In our body energy storage is realized by the combination of certain chemical compounds.
Through nerve impulses the chemical energy is converted into electrical and mechanical
energy, which will transform into work performance through the muscle contractions. The
speed of sprinters, the ability of medium- and long-distance swimmers to maintain a certain
pace is determined by the ability of the body of how the body can release and convert
chemical energy into mechanical energy.

Because the speed and the pace of athletes is determined by how the body can transform the
energy to work effort, the objective of the exercise should be to provide the muscles with
more energy in less time. This is done through the physical exercises in the adaptation
process. When athletes continuously discharge high-energy during exercise, their bodies
store more and more material, which contain energies. These energies are releases at the right
moment during the race. In other words, the body's physiological mechanisms adapt to the
special needs, so that more energy is available to perform the work with less fatigue.

The energy is measured in calorie and calorie content of foods indicates the amount of
energy that our body absorbs from them. The kilocalorie contains 1,000 calories. One
kilocalorie is equal to 426.85 kg/m work effort.

Energy storage types of the body

The storage of energy in the body occurs in the following combination of chemical
compounds: adenosine triphosphate (ATP), creatine phosphate (CP), carbohydrates, fats and
proteins. These substances merge in the combination of chemical molecules.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP contains one molecule of protein - adenosine - and three phosphate molecules. The
energy binds four smaller molecules to a larger ATP molecule. The energy waiting to be used
has chemical origins, and is located in the bindings of the molecules.

In the body the ATP is the only energy source, which can be used for muscle
contraction. All other compounds containing energy are involved in the reuse of ATP.

The amount of ATP in our muscles is so small that they discharge in the first seconds of
exercise. The source of the replacement is the four compounds: creatine phosphate,
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. From the start of the exercise these materials are
immediately broken down by the enzymes, so the energy is immediately available for the
reuse of the ATP. The ATP recycling takes place at different speeds, which is largely
determined by the number of intermediate steps before the release of energy. The order of the
compounds based on the speed of ATP reuse: 1. creatine phosphate, 2 carbohydrates, 3. fats
and proteins.

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Creatine phosphate
This compound means the fastest source of energy in the ATP reuse. The molecules are
connected by the energy. The amount creatine phosphate that can be stored in the muscles is
low. At maximum effort it is able to sustain muscle contraction for only 10-15 seconds.
Then, the creatine phosphate supply is nearly exhausted, and the muscles should cover the
need of energy and phosphate from the rebuilt ATP carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

Carbohydrates
These nutrients are made up of simple sugars and starch, which supply with energy all body
functions, such as movement and thinking. The glucose is a simple sugar, which play a direct
role is the reuse of ATP. Food contains simple sugars and starches, which are broken down
into glucose in the digestive process, then enter the blood stream and reach the body's cells.

Muscle glycogen
Glucose that reached the muscle cells is stored as glycogen. The muscle glycogen is made up
of chains of glucose molecules. When the movement begins, the glycogen stored in the
muscles is converted into glucose. Then, the glucose is then converted through the complex
chain process of glycolysis. At certain point of the chain energy release happens for the reuse
of ATP. Energy can be obtained much faster from the muscle glycogen than from other
carbohydrate variants, as it is stored in the muscles, so it does not require transportation.
Consequently, for the reuse of the ATP the muscle glycogen is the primary energy
source in all swimming competitions with the exception of the shortest distances. After
the creatine phosphate muscle glycogen is the fastest available.

Liver glycogen and blood glucose

The blood and the liver also contain glucose, which can be mobilized and transported to the
muscles when energy is needed. During the digestion of nutrients the blood glucose, also
called blood sugar, enters the blood from the stomach. At rest the glucose enter the muscles
and the liver via the blood, and it is stored there as glycogen. When athletes train, the
glucose, which circulates in the blood, diffuses into the muscle cells and immediately enters
the transformation process without converting first into glycogen.

The glucose entering the liver is stored as glycogen. First, the liver glycogen must be
converted into glucose before transport to the muscles happen. Another important task of the
liver glycogen is to maintain proper blood sugar level, and to supply the brain and other
nerve tissues. The neurons and other cells in the body get their energy from glucose, but they
are not capable of storing glycogen like the muscle cells or hepatocytes, and therefore require
a continuous supply through the bloodstream.

During the competitions, and the blood glucose are liver glycogen hardly plays a role in
energy supply. During physical exercise energy is needed so quickly that the muscles in the
reuse of the ATP must almost entirely rely on the muscle glycogen supply.

The liver glycogen blood glucose participates in the supply of muscle glycogen during the
slower paced endurance exercises. The conversion process of the liver glycogen into blood
glucose and transportation to the muscles is too slow in order to supply energy for the entire
ATP reuse even in the case of fast, or moderate exercise speeds. Thus, the liver glycogen and
blood glucose can only supplement but not replace the muscle glycogen. However, they play
an important role in helping the athlete for longer workouts before the muscle glycogen is
exhausted.

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Another important task of the blood glucose and liver glycogen is replacing muscle glycogen
during rest time between repetition series and exercises.

Fats
Fats are also important energy sources in the reuse of the ATP. One gram fat contains twice
as much energy as the equal amount of carbohydrate. In addition, on the body of most
athletes quantities of fat tissues are located that correspond to the energy needs of various
training days. However, during the physical exercise the carbohydrate is the preferred
“fuel” because the release of energy from fat is a much slower process, which is not
capable of the appropriate ATP replacement pace, except for the slow or moderate
physical exercise speeds.

The conversion of fats can occur only in aerobic way, and the process involves additional
time from storage to delivery to the muscles, where before the fat would convert into energy,
first enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle).

Athletes supply their energy from two type of fat sources during exercise:
• fat tissues stored under the skin and
• fat molecules stored in the muscles.

The adipose tissue means almost half of the free fatty acids used during the exercise. The
other half is supplied by the fat stored in the muscles. The slow and the fast twitch muscle
fibers use the fats with different speeds. The slow twitch muscle fibers are best suited for the
fat storage, because they have more blood supply, and are more suitable for transportation
because here there are more mitochondria within the muscle cells, where the fats from
circulation and muscles can be converted. The fat metabolism in the slow twitch muscle
fibers is approximately ten times greater than in the fast twitch muscle fibers.

Proteins
The proteins are associated with force because they are the elementary components of the
muscles. In addition, they mean the most important buffers of the body. Accordingly, they
play a role in the regulation of acidity and alkalinity of body fluids, and the acid-base
balance.

Another function: to supply energy for the ATP reuse. However, similar to fats, energy
release from proteins is a slow, aerobic process and it is the least efficient.

Energy-metabolism: the three stages

The energy-metabolism is the process of storing chemical nutrient and release of energy. For
the understanding of energy-metabolism the role of exercise type must be understood in the
adaptation process.
The two broad metabolic categories are the aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms. Before
discussing them, the third phase, the non-aerobic metabolism is presented.

Non-aerobic metabolism
This phase of the metabolic process refers to the fast reuse of the ATP resulting from the
break down of the creatine phosphate. The process does not require oxygen, but the non-
aerobic term is used to distinguish it from the anaerobic break down of the glucose, which
also includes the lactate formation.

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The process is quite fast. The magnitude of the force is regulated by the number of the
contracted fibers per unit of time.

The ATP loses a phosphate molecule when releases 30.5 kJ of energy for the muscle
contraction. The material remaining from the ATP breakdown is called adenosine
diphosphate (ADP), as it contains only two phosphate molecules. Part of this is converted
into mechanical energy, which serves muscle contraction and the remainder is converted into
thermal energy.

For the maintaining of the motion the ADP must be built into ATP really quickly. The ATP
content of the muscle cells provides sufficient “fuel” for only a few seconds of effort.

The reuse of the ATP requires the replacement of the phosphate. The fastest implementation
is through the split of the creatine phosphate. If you use this material, the phosphate and
energy necessary for reuse is available in one step. From the breakdown of creatine
phosphate the ATP can be replaced so fast that neither the degree of muscle contraction nor
the speed will decrease. The bond, which connects and creatine and the phosphate, will split
so 43.1 kJ of energy and the phosphate is released. The phosphate and energy merges with
ADP to create new ATP molecule. After 10-15 seconds, when the creatine phosphate supply
is nearly exhausted, the aerobic and anaerobic metabolism processes are the main sources for
ATP replacement.

Anaerobic metabolism
This phase of the metabolic process refers to the breakdown of the glycogen, which is called
glycolysis. The process occurs quite rapidly, and almost as quickly is able to provide energy
for ATP replacement as the creatine phosphate.

In most cases, the process begins with the conversion of muscle glycogen into glucose, which
is catalyzed by the activated phosphorylase enzyme. After this initial step the glucose
metabolism continues through additional sections and ends with the formation of the pyruvic
acid. The entire process takes place in the protoplasm of the muscle cell (cytoplasm), and
does not require oxygen. Another important enzyme is the phosphofructokinase, which
plays the major role in regulating the rate of anaerobic metabolism.

Lactate is the intermediate product of glucose metabolism and occurs when the by-products
of the process are not converted aerobically. Consequently, it is the end product of the
anaerobic phase of the metabolism. Lactate accumulated in the muscles is the primary cause
of fatigue during sporting competition, due to the effect on the pH.

The pH is measurement of the fluids’ acidity and alkalinity. The neutral state is identified
with 7.0. The alkaline fluids’ pH value is higher, while acidity liquids have lower pH. Now
we are dealing with the pH of the muscle cells (intracellular fluid). When one is resting the
acid-base balance of the intracellular fluids is neutral. In this case, the pH value is 7.0. The
balance turns towards the acidity when lactate is produced during the exercise. It is called
acidosis when muscle pH falls below 7.0.

The athlete's speed is affected by the acidity of liquids in the muscles. The ATP reuse will
slow down when the muscle pH drops below 7.0, and the resistance against it will become
increasingly difficult. As the athlete is not capable of maintaining continuously on a long
term high-speed and powerful muscle contraction, speed will begin to decline.

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At high speeds the lactate accumulation suppresses muscle pH below 7.0 in less than sixty
seconds. However, the lactate accumulation creates the acidosis in a way in which the lactate
accumulation in the muscles surpasses the rate of removal.

Fortunately, the body is capable of removing a portion of the lactate, so the acidosis can be
delayed. This happens when the lactate diffuses from the muscles into the blood, from where
reached the other body parts.

Some of the lactate reaches other muscles fibers within the same muscle groups that are not
contracting. This process removes the lactate from the working muscle fibers, where pH is
low, and transports it between other tissues, where the pH is normal. This process will reduce
the fatigue of the active muscle without adversely affecting those tissues, which will host the
lactate surplus.

At rest, the lactate appears from the tissues, and then transforms back into pyruvic acid and
hydrogen ions. It can be stored in the form of glycogen for later use, or it can enter the
aerobic metabolic phase where it is transformed into carbon dioxide and water.

The other way for the body to delay exhaustion is the creation of less lactate. The release of
pyruvic acid and hydrogen ion during the anaerobic phase of metabolism do not necessarily
form lactate. The metabolic process can continue in at least two directions after the formation
of these two substances before they merge into lactate. The main direction leads through the
aerobic metabolism. The second path is the formation of alanine.

Aerobic metabolism
This phase of the metabolic process refers to the remaining steps in glycogen metabolism,
which ends with the formation of carbon dioxide and water. When glycogen is converted
through aerobic way, the step of lactate creating is skipped. Instead, the by-products of
pyruvic acid and hydrogen ions transform into carbon dioxide and water. Consequently, the
delay acidosis occurs because lactate is not formed.

Citric acid cycle (Krebs-cycle)

Some of the pyruvic acid that is formed during the anaerobic metabolism, merged with
coenzyme A (A indicates acetic acid) creates the acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). From
here the acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle, where it is converted to carbon dioxide and
water. In the Krebs cycle the acetyl-CoA merges with oxaloacetic acid, and creates citric
acid. The breakdown of the citric acid is taking place in a cycle, until the acetyl-CoA is not
divided into carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions. The remaining oxaloacetic acid returns to the
starting point where it takes new acetyl-CoA to restart the cycle all over again.

The Krebs cycle is regulated by a large number of enzymes. Endurance training increases the
activity of these enzymes so even more pyruvic acid can enter the Krebs cycle in every
minute of the movement. This means that at competitive speed less lactate is produced.

Electron transport chain

The hydrogen ions generated during the anaerobic metabolism must also be removed to delay
fatigue. The hydrogen ions found in lactate reduce muscle pH. It is therefore important that

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during the movement as many hydrogen ion as possible should be carried away, so they do
not merge with pyruvic acid and muscle pH does not decreases.

In the electron transfer chain the hydrogen ions unite with oxygen and water is created. The
hydrogen ions enter the electron transport chain and unite with other coenzyme, forming
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NADH. Yet another co-enzyme, flavin
adenine dinucleotide (FAD) can also take up hydrogen ions, forming FADH in the process.
Both NADH and FADH enter the electron transfer chain, where the enzymes called
cytochromes catalyze the process. Cytochrome is made up of iron and protein.

The iron portion can remove the hydrogen ions from NADH and FADH, and transport them
to the next cytochromes in the chain. The remaining NAD and FAD return for additional
hydrogen ions. The energy associated with the hydrogen ions is released from the electrons
in several parts of the chain during transport and the ADP is converted to ATP. The
remaining hydrogen and oxygen unite to form water. 90% of the ATP reuse is done in the
electron transport chain.

The role of oxygen in the aerobic metabolism

Since oxygen is the final recipient of the hydrogen in the electron transport chain, it regulates
the energy rate released from the aerobic metabolism. The rate, which allows for the NAD
and FAD the removal of the hydrogen ions from the muscles, depends on the available
oxygen, in which separates the hydrogen molecules from NADH and FADH. When more
oxygen is available, a larger amount of hydrogen detaches from NADH and FADH so more,
free FAD and NAD can return to collect more hydrogen ions.

When there is insufficient amount of oxygen to pick up the hydrogen ions, the total aerobic
metabolism process, such as the entering of the pyruvic acid in the Krebs cycle and the
entering of the hydrogen ions in the electron transport, slows down. When this happens, the
hydrogen ions can not find NAD and FAD molecules with which they can unite, instead they
merge with the excess pyruvic acid and form lactate.

Unlike the anaerobic metabolism of which takes place in the cytoplasm of muscle cells,
the aerobic metabolism can take place only in the mitochondria of the cells. The rod-
shaped mitochondria are embedded in the cytoplasm of the muscle cells.

Mitochondria needs oxygen to function and this oxygen is transported by the protein called
myoglobin. The oxygen passes through the membrane, where the myoglobin is picked up and
transports it to the mitochondria.

The aerobic endurance of the athletes is partially defined by the size and number of
mitochondria. Those athletes, who have a large number and large size of mitochondria
substance, are more capable of aerobic metabolism, so they can delay fatigue.

Alanine-way
This is another path along which the lactate production can be reduced. In this process, part
of the pyruvic acid and hydrogen ions generated through the anaerobic metabolism is linked
with ammonia and forms alanine rather than would convert into lactate. Alanine is then
transported to the liver via the blood, where is converted back into glucose, and enters the
blood, filling up the muscles for energy supply.

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Lipid metabolism
In addition to the glycogen, fat and protein can be converted aerobically so that the energy
and the phosphate derived from them can be used again for rebuilding the ATP structure.
However, first these materials must be converted to an intermediate glycogen metabolism by-
product, which can enter the Krebs cycle. Fats from triglyceride should be converted into free
fatty acids in order to reach the goal.

Triglycerides are the fat storage types of the body. With the help of the lipase enzyme they
fall apart into glycerol and three molecules free fatty acid. Via the blood, the free fatty acids
arrive to the working muscles where they are absorbed and they reach the mitochondria.
With the help of an enzyme, the carnitine transferase they reach the mitochondria. From here
they transform into acetyl-CoA and enter a process called beta oxidation. The conversion of
acetyl-CoA is catalyzed by the acetyl-CoA synthetase. When they are converted into acetyl-
CoA, the free fatty acids are converted to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle just like the
glycogen. In this way, one hundred forty-seven molecules can be converted into ATP from
each free fatty acid molecule.

Protein metabolism
During the exercise certain amino acids are released mainly the alanine, which are delivered
by blood from the working muscles to the liver, where glucose formed. This glucose then
again flows into the blood, from which can be returned to the working muscles. The name of
the process is the glucose-alanine cycle. Other amino acids (glutamate, aspartate) play a
similar, but less important role in the energy supply.

Summary of energy-metabolism
The non-aerobic system provides energy with ATP after the re-use of creatine phosphate.
The anaerobic system breaks the glycogen into pyruvic acid. A part of the pyruvic acid unites
with hydrogen ions, and forms lactate. Part of the lactate remains in the muscles, the major
portion diffuses into the blood, from which reached the heart and the liver.

Some of the remaining pyruvic acid unites with ammonia and forms alanine, while the other
part will enter the Krebs cycle after uniting with coenzyme A, forming acetyl-CoA. The
remaining hydrogen ions are also converted aerobically. NAD and FAD take up the hydrogen
ions, and then form FADH and NADH, and then they enter the electron transport chain.

In the Krebs cycle the acetyl-CoA goes through many steps before finally becomes carbon
dioxide. In the electron transfer chain the hydrogen ions are detached from the NADH and
FADH, and water is formed. The free FAD and NAD molecules return for more hydrogen
ions.

When the swimmer swims at a speed at which loads the aerobic metabolism without
excessive lactate accumulation, we say that the individual is training on the aerobic-
anaerobic edge. According to some, training on the anaerobic edge develops in the best
possible way the aerobic metabolism.

Efficiency of the aerobic and anaerobic metabolism

ATP recycling aerobically is advantageous for two reasons, compared to the anaerobic way:
(a) during aerobic metabolism more ATP is recycled and
(b) during the aerobic metabolic acidosis does not occur.

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In the anaerobic metabolism one glycogen molecule creates only four molecules of ATP.
Two of these “fuel” with energy the anaerobic metabolic process, so two molecules of ATP
serves the energy of muscle contractions. In the aerobic process one glycogen molecule
provides energy which is enough to replace thirty-six ATP molecules. The anaerobic
metabolism creates lactate, and consequence acidosis.

On the other hand, the end product of the aerobic metabolism is carbon dioxide and water,
which can be easily removed without the occurrence of fatigue.

Unfortunately, the aerobic metabolism is unable to fully cover the energy needs pf the
competitions or high-speed exercises. The process is too slow. Hundreds of steps are required
before the release of energy is fulfilled. In these situations the aerobic metabolism can be
supplemented by energy supply of the anaerobic metabolism. The support rate will be lower
in the shorter distances, since high speed is required and the support will be higher for longer
races where the pace is a little slower. Among the most important features of physical
exercise is the increase of aerobic metabolism, so this process will contribute in a greater
portion to the ATP supply during competitions.

5. Fatigue causes and effects of training towards delay

Fatigue causes at competitions and trainings
Fatigue manifests itself by the reduction in the speed. It can not be stopped, but it can be
delayed. The main causes for speed decrease are not the same in every race distance.
Accordingly, for the precise definition of fatigue the competition type must be considered.

Fatigue occurs even for short distances, such as 25 meters, wherein the swimmer is unable to
maintain the maximum speed over the entire distance. They slow down, despite the fact that
it do not suffer from pain, or become exhausted. The long distance swimmers can suffer from
exhaustion when they are unable to maintain the desired pace and they finish the race
distance at a lower speed. Athletes experience other types of fatigue during short and long
course competition events. These forms of exhaustion are different from the heavy, leaden
feeling that the swimmers experience during the prolonged intense training when their energy
supplies are partially discharged.

General and local fatigue can be distinguished. The general fatigue the central nervous
system and regulatory factors play a role, while local fatigue is attributed to muscular factors.

After the muscle work, due to effects of the signals going out from the muscles the activity of
the central nervous system rapidly weakens. Based on experiments, when the muscle from its
nerve is no longer excitable, muscle contraction can be induced by more direct stimulation.
In other words, when the nerve center and than the neuromuscular synapse has been
exhausted, the muscle is still able to contract.

The trained people, like the athletes are better able to mobilize their reserves, so in the fatigue
local factors will play a role. The local causes of fatigue can be divided into four categories:

1. The supply of the depleted ATP and creatine phosphate of the muscles.
2. Insufficient anaerobic metabolism.

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 3. Reduced energy supply resulting from ATPs and creatine phosphate, low muscle
glycogen level, which results due to the low muscle pH. In this case, the exhaustion is
caused by lactate accumulation (acidosis).
4. The reduced degree of anaerobic metabolism is created by the low muscle glycogen
level.

Extenuation of ATP and creatine phosphate

Reductions in the level of chemical energy supply – such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
and creatine phosphate, - in the sprint competitions occur as the contributors of exhaustion.
However, this is only appears in the depletion of the creatine phosphate and only within the
25 and 50 meter distances. ATP substitution is possible until enough glucose, fat and protein
is available. Consequently, ATP supply of the muscles does not stop, even during the long,
exhausting race events, not to mention the sprint.

However, decrease in creatine phosphate supply of the muscles can reduce the rate of ATP
re-use, which slows down the rate and strength of muscle contraction, so the sprint rate level
can no longer be sustainable. Creatine phosphate supply declines in two phases. Rapidly
falling in the first five or six seconds of the effort, and then slowly decreases for the
remainder of the distance. The rate of the contraction is undoubtedly drops after the initial
rapid creatine phosphate fall. The muscles are trying to protect themselves against the
depletion of the creatine phosphate and they turn to glycogen. This is probably an internal
defense mechanism of the muscle to maintain the creatine phosphate supply. After the first
five or six seconds, continuing the sprint, the creatine phosphate supplies continue to fall, and
after ten or fifteen seconds is nearly exhausted. Then, the main source of energy is the ATP
reuse derived from anaerobic glycogen breakdown. This process is slower, since not one but
important step is carried out and due to this more speed loss occurs.

Insufficient anaerobic metabolism

When creatine phosphate supply is nearly exhausted, the anaerobic energy release is the
factor that determines the speed at which the sprinters able to continue the event. The energy
from anaerobic sources is obviously important for the last five-ten meters of the 50-meter
sprints, when the creatine phosphate supply is nearly exhausted. Its significance increases in
the 100-meter distance races. It is less well known the role of the anaerobic metabolism for
last meters of the longer race distances. The anaerobic energy supply capability of the
swimmers largely determines how fast they will be during the competition on the last 30-50
meters. As the end product of anaerobic metabolism is the lactate in athletes’ capability of
energy supply from this source is called lactate-production rate. This prevents them from
maintaining the pace. The lactate production rate can be increased by appropriate training,
although the inherited characteristic can limit the rate of development.

Acidosis (low muscle pH)

According to most experts acidosis is the main cause for the exhaustion of the swimmers
during competition that are more then 50 meters in length and competitions. When rate of
anaerobic metabolism is high, and pyruvic acid merges with hydrogen ions to form lactate,
muscle pH drops below the neutral level of 7.0, thus setting off a chain of events which
progressively reduces the contraction speed of the muscles. This phenomenon causes
decrease in the tempo and slowing of the swimmer’s body. In addition to very low pH values
(6.5 to 6.8) the anaerobic metabolism is hardly working so the swimmer is only capable of
aerobic energy production. Progressive acidosis reduces the anaerobic metabolism due to the
following reasons:

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 1. Muscle contraction has higher calcium requirement. The calcium activates actin and
myosin filaments within the muscle fiber, which creates the contraction. When
demand for calcium increases, it takes longer to activate these enzymes, so the
contraction is reduced.
2. The activity of adenosine triphosphatase enzyme decreases. This enzyme regulates
the energy release from the ATP. When the activity of the adenosine triphosphatase is
reduced, the energy release will be slower and muscle contraction speed will slow
down as well.
3. The activity of phosphofructokinase enzyme is inhibited. This enzyme is considered
to be a major regulator for the level of the anaerobic metabolism. Decrease in the
activity slows down the anaerobic metabolism and the rate of muscle contraction. At
a 6.4 pH level the muscles are almost inactive (26).
4. The increase of lactate lowers the pH, which reduces the rate of removal, and leads to
an even faster lactate accumulation in the muscles, which further lowers the pH (44).
The muscles will undoubtedly try to protect themselves by reducing the rate of lactate
production when that happens.
5. Acidosis gives pain sensation, leading to a slowdown in some athletes. Although the
sharp burning sensation tests most athletes’ willpower, some athletes are able to keep
the pace regardless of the pain. Others may not want to tolerate this and slow down
their speed, preventing further pH descent. Also others might get scared when the
pain is too early during the race and their slow down their pace unnecessarily and just
at the end of the race they realize that they still have strength.

Some coaches and athlete mistakenly believe that fatigue is fully just psychological pain, and
acidosis can be controlled by will. The low muscle pH has both physiological and
psychological effects, which reduce the speed. Pain tolerance in itself is not a guarantee of
success in the competition. Certainly helps the athlete to a greater performance, however, it
should be dealt with the physiological effects of acidosis as well. Regardless of how much
the swimmer wants, he/she is unable to maintain the correct speed when the pH values of the
muscles drop below 6.8. Athletes need to train their body to delay the physiological causes of
acidosis. There is not enough willpower that would allow them to achieve their potential
without it.

Low muscle glycogen level

Glycogen is the only compound that is able to supply with energy the reuse of the ATP when
the muscle creatine phosphate supply is nearly exhausted after the first 10-15 seconds of
effort. According to this the muscle glycogen allows to maintain the pace on races that are
longer then 50 meters in length. When the glycogen supply is low, the muscles have to rely
on their stored fat and protein and also on the glucose and fat carried by blood. More time is
needed for energy production from these materials, which makes it impossible to maintain
the same level of speed during competition.

6. Roles of the hormones

The endocrine glands produce the hormones, which are selected straight into the bloodstream
from where they reach the cells after which they connect to their receptor parts. The
hormones, due to the fact that they are carried by the blood they can reach and affect all
tissues of the body. Numerous receptors are located in the cells, which relate to the specific

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hormones, and exert their effects. During the exercise the glands are supporting the energy
supply.

Hormones are not continuously flowing into the blood. They are released like and explosion
when an event stimulates the glands. The selection of the hormones is mainly regulated by
the nervous system independent of our consciousness. The sympathetic nervous system
controls the energy mobilization for the movements, while the parasympathetic nervous
system controls the replacement of nutrients during rest.

Sexual hormones
The gender differences in height, weight and body fat are not significant until the age of 12-
14 years, until the beginning of puberty.

In earlier stages the similarities among the boys and girls of are noticeable in all sorts of size
and development. For example, the lean body mass (LBM) is not different in the two sexes
before puberty.

After 13 years of age the LBM in case of girls starts to form a "plateau", while in the case of
boys the growth is continuous until at least the age of 18 years. The women tend to have
more body fat at any age, and significant differences can be noticed in adulthood. The reason
for these differences can be explained with the sexual hormones, testosterone and estrogen
regulation.

The selection of testicular testosterone is terminated at birth, but in adolescence it is

reactivated and increases the protein retention of the muscles. Eventually, this causes that
men has noticeably greater bone and muscle mass, which from the potential strength point of
view establishes a clear distinction between the sexes. In the pre-puberty period the frontal
lobe of the pituitary gland is unable to separate any gonadotropins.

However, in the case of women, when the frontal lobe of the pituitary gland begins to
produce sufficient amount folliculus stimulative hormone (FSH), the ovaries will developed
and estrogen secretion begins. Estrogen may significantly influence the body growth:
broadens the pelvis, increase breast size, multiplies fat storage especially on the thighs and
hips. In addition, estrogen increases the rate of bone growth and allows the bones to reach
their final length in 2-4 years after the beginning of adolescence. As a result, girl the first few
years of puberty grow rapidly and after that their growth stops.

Growth period for boys is much longer, which allows them to achieve a greater height. As a
result of hormonal changes in puberty by the time the boys reach their full maturity, they will
be 10-15 cm taller, 15-20 kg heavier and their body fat will be 6-9% less. The relative muscle
mass is constantly increasing from birth through adolescence. It is likely that this change is
caused by the growth of individual muscle fibers rather than their increase in number. At
birth, the total muscle mass for a male is 25% of the body weight, while in adulthood this
value can be 40% or more. Although in the case of females such changes can not be seen,
their muscle mass is growing continuously, but not as much as their male counterparts. The
muscle mass of the girls is the greatest between 16-18 years of age. However, the muscles
mass of boys increase up to the age of 22. The gender differences relate to the average men
and women, and although the muscle mass can be increased with regular workouts, the
differences still stand in the case of well trained athletes.

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Studies on body fat content among athletes show that after puberty the average values for
boys range between 8 and 18%, while for the girls vary between 14 and 26% related to the
body weight. Roughly 80% of the body fat content is stored in cells under the skin, which is
developed in the early stage of fetal development. The number of fat cells is likely to become
fixed at the beginning of life, although their dimensions can increase any time. Also, it can be
presumed that the number of fat cells can increase throughout life. The number of fat cells is
highly influenced by hereditary factors, although the deposition rate depends on the energy
pick-up and drop-off.

The athletes will experience the greatest development, when their muscles grow the fastest
and physiologically develop the most. The noticeably strength growth during puberty in boys
is usually the consequences of the testosterone. The girls experience a more gradual increase
in strength, which at the beginning of adolescence does not show a sudden change because
their bodies do not produce significant amounts of testosterone.

Muscle strength is proportional to the cross-sectional area of muscle, which explains the
greater strength of the boys.

When the arm and leg strength is compared to the lean body mass, it is worth noting that the
leg strength of the girls is similar to that of boys, but their upper body is significantly weaker.

Boys and girls in childhood and adolescent have relatively low androgen levels, and therefore
are not able to utilize all forms of strength training. Along with this boys in childhood and
adolescent can be significantly strengthened due to some kind of strength and power training.
Even though the strength exercises that are put together correctly have low risk of harming
the body or causing injuries, the plan should contain rather small weights and high repetitions
numbers than large weights and low repetition numbers. The strength training exercise
methods for young children should rather be gymnastics that contain basic strengthening
exercises or isokinetic exercises, which has the safest technique and corresponds to the
strength applied, reducing the risk of injury.

The effect of training on the hormones

The overall effect of training on the hormones is that they reduce the secretion during the
exercise. With this effect, the motion can be sustained for a longer period without having to
break up the energy balance. The knowledge of some training method that affect the
hormones can help the cognition of their effect on training and competition performance.

The exercise reduces the drop of insulin levels during the exercise, which allows maintaining
a higher blood glucose level for a longer time period. The effect will reduce glycogen use,
which allows longer and more extreme workout. Similarly, when an athlete becomes well
trained, glucagon, catecholamines, adrenaline and noradrenalin become less active during the
exercise, consequently glycogen use decreases, while fat metabolism will increase.

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