Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Governor Pablo Borbon Main II, Main Campus II, Alangilan, Batangas City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND FINE ARTS

CIVIL & SANITARY ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CE 411

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

THE INFLUENCE OF ROAD GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

ON HIGHWAY SAFETY

SUBMITTED BY:
DE GUZMAN, MONALISA G.
GOYO, JAZZY M.
LUARCA, MARIA SHALAINE ROSE D.
SALADA, ANGELA D.

GROUP 3
CE - 4105

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGINEER MARIO G. BUKAS

(Instructor)

NOVEMBER 05, 2018

 ABSTRACT

Roads are necessary to our everyday lives. The whole world use it in some way

through driving, walking, riding or travelling, unfortunately, this comes at a price which

includes people being killed and injured. However, road safety is a concern of crucial

importance in all motorized countries. The road accident results a serious social and

economic issues. The research was focused on geometric design and safety aim to

improve highway design and to eliminate hazardous locations. Some of the topics on

safety that was discussed are the effects of design elements such as horizontal and

vertical curves, lane width, shoulder width, superelevation, median width, curve radius,

sight distance, etc.

In this report, road geometric design elements and characteristics are taken into

consideration, and the details are given on how to which extent they affect highway

safety. The correlation between highway safety and road geometric design are observed

through results of the different findings made in different countries and summarizes

existent international knowledge of the relationship among safety and principal non-

intersection geometric design parameters. Overall, there is a comprehensive international

understanding on these relationships.

i
 OBJECTIVES

The main focus of this technical report was to discuss the influence of the road’s

geometric design elements on its safety.

This report aims to discourse the different geometric design elements of highway. It also

deals with how the highway’s safety was greatly affected by the geometric designs applied.

Through this paper the spectators who were future civil engineers and the presenters themselves

will be knowledgeable about the highway design elements.

ii
Table of Contents

I. Abstract .…...………………………………………………..…………………………………. i
II. Objectives …………………………………………………..………………………………… ii
III. Table of Contents …...………………………………………………………………………. iii
IV. List of Figures .……...………………………………………………………………………..
v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................
1
CHAPTER 2: SAFETY DESIGN ................................................................................................
2
2.1: Road Surface ...............................................................................................................
2
2.2: Road Alignment Considerations .................................................................................
4
2.2.1: Some Physical Problem ...........................................................................................
4
CHAPTER 3: SAFETY EFFECTS OF ROAD GEOMETRY ....................................................
12
3.1: Safety Effects of Cross-section ...................................................................................
12
3.1.1: Lane Types ...............................................................................................................
13
3.1.2: Width of the Travel Lane .........................................................................................
13
3.1.3: Shoulder ...................................................................................................................
13
3.1.4: Lateral Offset ............................................................................................................
14
3.1.5: Medians ....................................................................................................................
3.1.6: Cross Slopes ............................................................................................................. 15
3.1.7: On-Street Parking ..................................................................................................... 15
3.1.8: Sidewalks .................................................................................................................. 16
3.1.9: Bike Lanes ................................................................................................................ 16
3.2: Safety Effects of Alignment ........................................................................................ 16
3.2.1: Horizontal Alignment ............................................................................................... 17
3.2.2: Vertical Alignment ................................................................................................... 17
3.3: Intersection ................................................................................................................ 2119
3.4: Sight Distance ........................................................................................................... 22
3.4.1: Stopping Sight Distance ......................................................................................... 22
3.4.2: Decision Sight Distance ......................................................................................... 23
3.4.3: Passing Sight Distance ........................................................................................... 23
3.4.4: Intersection Sight Distance .................................................................................... 24
3.5: Road Side Condition ................................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................
25
REFERENCE …………………………………………………………………………………...
26

iii
List of Figures

1. Figure 2.1: Poor Road Surface with Depressed Manhole Lid ...……………………..….. 2

2. Figure 2.2: Poor Road Edge …...………………………………………………………… 3

3. Figure 2.3: Poor Design and Delineation of Curve ……...………………………….…… 5

4. Figure 2.4: Lost Control on Curve ...………………………………....………………….. 5

5. Figure 2.5: Extreme topography results in small radius curves ..…….………………….. 6

7
6. Figure 2.6: Trees Obstructing Sight Distance ..……………………….………………….
7
7. Figure 2.7: Poor Vertical Alignment Approaching a T-Intersection ...…………………..
8
8. Figure 2.8: Poor Intersection due to Lack of Channelization …...……………………….
9
9. Figure 2.9: Small (5m radius) Roundabout in Balayan Town ……………………...……
9
10. Figure 2.10: Horizontal Curve at the End of a Steep Downgrade ……...……………..…
10
11. Figure 2.11: Poor Vertical Sag ….……………………...………………………...………
10
12. Figure 2.12: Reverse Curves ….……………………...……………………………..……
11
13. Figure 2.13: Poor Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ……...…..…...…. 12

14. Figure 3.1: The Urban Road Kerbed Dual Carriageway ...…………………………...….. 18

15. Figure 3.2: Effect of Horizontal Curve Radius on Accident Risk……..………………… 19

16. Figure 3.3: The Horizontal Curve System of Force with the Superelevation ……..…….. 21

17. Figure 3.4: Intersection Road ……...………………...…………………..………….....… 22

18. Figure 3.5: Stopping sight distance ………...……………...…………………..……..….. 23

24
19. Figure 3.6: Passing sight distance …………………………………………………..……

20. Figure 3.7: Intersection sight distance .………………………………………………...…

iv
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

According to the “Impact Recovery Systems” (n.d.) that geometric design of

highways is the most efficient way that planners can design a highway to ensure that it is

as safe as possible. When utilizing geometric road design, planners will decide the best

way to position the road in response to physical elements and barriers to ensure that it is

safe. For instance, they will look at how to incorporate curves and straightaways so that

the road is built according to the required standards, as well as water flow and other

factors to ensure that those environmental risks and hazards are adequately dealt with.

The main purpose of geometric road design is to create a roadway that encourages

the smooth flow of traffic and a crash-free zone. This can be achieved through methods

like the ones mentioned above; however, it is also essential to integrate elements like

barriers and delineators when necessary. These elements help drivers to better

comprehend the natural curvature of the road and its intended design, and thus, barriers

and delineators help to make the road safer (“Impact Recovery Systems,” n.d.).

To see how the integration of elements like curves, water drains, barriers and

delineators will affect the end result, planners create a geometric highway design that can

be broken into three basic parts: an alignment (or route of the road), a profile (or vertical

view of the road), and a cross-section. The cross-section is a particularly important part

of the design because it allows the designers to look at the number of lanes, the

intersections with pedestrian pathways, the drainage features, and other elements which

are sometimes considered beyond the scope of the geometric design (“Impact Recovery

Systems,” n.d.).

When creating their design, planners need to consider how the roads will be used,

how fast the cars will be driving, how busy the roads will be, and which types of vehicles

will be using the roads. After they have carefully considered all of these things, they can

finally create a geometric road design with an eye toward making the road as safe as

possible (“Impact Recovery Systems,” n.d.).

1
 CHAPTER II

SAFETY DESIGN

2.1 ROAD SURFACE

DPWH (2012) stated, well drained and good textured road surface can maximize

safety on the road and prevent traffic accidents occurring. For example, pot holes can

make drivers turn sharply or lose control. In addition, poor skid resistance can cause

drivers to lose control or increase the distance that a vehicle will require to stop in an

emergency. The level of manhole lids for drainage pits or utilities can also be

important for maintaining vehicle control. These factors are particularly important in

relation to motorcycle safety.

Source:http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.1: Poor Road Surface with Depressed Manhole Lid

According to DPWH (2012), the areas where the state of the road surface

condition and good texture of the road surface is particularly important are where

vehicles are required to brake or maneuver suddenly such as:

2
  On the approach to traffic signals
 At roundabouts
 Around tight
 On downhill slopes.

The shape of the road surface and good skid resistance are also important in

ensuring that water drains from the road surface. Areas with depressions or where the

pavement is very flat can result in ponding or surface flow of water that can cause a

vehicle to skid or aquaplane. Surface shape and levels need to be checked during design

and construction (DPWH, 2012).

In rural areas, loose gravel on a paved major road can result from traffic

movement at gravel intersecting roads. This can be minimized by paving the adjacent

area of the side road (6 to 10 meters from edge of through lane). Vehicles then have a

firm surface from which to accelerate when turning (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.2: Poor Road Edge

Figure 2.2 shows the edge of a road with a level difference on the adjacent

shoulder. If a driver lost partial control of a vehicle on this curve and a wheel went over

the edge of the road, it could be difficult for the driver to regain control due to the large

3
 drop off at the road edge. The driver could then lose total control and run into a roadside

hazard such as the pole in the photograph (DPWH, 2012).

The objective of providing an even, well drained and good textured road surface

is aimed at keeping traffic safely on the road. Maintenance of the road surface is also

essential to maximize safety and prevent traffic accidents occurring (DPWH, 2012).

2.2 ROAD ALIGNMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Also DPWH (2012) stated that designers will be faced with competing demands

from different sections of the community as they endeavor to design safe, operationally

efficient roads. The horizontal and vertical alignment and the cross section of a road

should be designed so that a driver or rider can travel safely at an appropriate operating

speed and have adequate sight distance of the road ahead. If constraints require a tighter

alignment, then it is imperative that the driver or rider be provided with the necessary

visual and physical features to enable the driver to perceive the changed conditions

accurately and to select an appropriate lower speed.

2.2.1 Some Physical Problem

DPWH (2012) lists the some physical problems encounter in the Philippines that

leads to accident.

Problems arise if the alignment changes suddenly and unexpectedly. A horizontal

curve over a short vertical crest is shown in Figure 2.3. The three photographs show the

drivers view as the crest is approached. The sequence of pictures shows that the curve is

not visible until the driver can see over the crest (DPWH,2012).

Although this road has a centerline it does not give the motorist sufficient advance

warning that the road will change direction. Some chevron hazard signs may improve

delineation in this situation (DPWH, 2012).

4
 However, in new design situations the curve should be commenced before the

crest to ensure the curve is visible to drivers. This would improve safety to drivers. This

would improve safety and may avoid the need to use additional signs (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.3: Poor Design and Delineation of Curve

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.4: Lost Control on Curve

5
 A horizontal curve at the end of a steep downgrade can mislead a driver or rider

and they can find themselves approaching the horizontal curve too quickly. This can lead

to loss of control of the vehicle and the possibility that the vehicle could run off the road

and collide with a roadside hazard (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.5: Extreme topography results in small radius curves

The road alignment in Figure 2.5 changes quickly due to the extreme

topographical terrain resulting in a number of small radius curves. At night, particularly

with the headlight glare of an oncoming vehicle, it would be very difficult to visualize the

road alignment. A centerline and edge line pavement markings would assist the motorists

considerably. Strategically placed curve markers and guideposts would also help

(DPWH, 2012).

6
 Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.6: Trees Obstructing Sight Distance

Trees or vegetation as shown in Figure 2.6 can often hide the road alignment.

During daytime, dangerous corner culling will be encouraged because the pavement

markings are not adequate. If the vegetation cannot be trimmed, the alignment would be

improved by providing strategically placed chevron signs or guideposts. The center line

markings should be barrier lines where visibility is poor (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.7: Poor Vertical Alignment Approaching a T-Intersection

7
 Poor vertical alignment through an intersection can obscure the layout of an

intersection. For example in Figure 2.7, it is not possible to see the intersecting cross road

surface. This could cause vehicles to stop in the wrong place, for instance in the path of

cross traffic (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.8: Poor Intersection due to Lack of Channelization

Lack of channelization in Figure 2.8, leads to poor driver behavior such as corner

cutting or lane blocking. If vehicle movement is unpredictable a collision is more likely

to occur. Installing a centerline, edge-line marking and a stop or holding line would

improve the intersection considerably. If an intersection like this one had a poor accident

record, then a splitter island could be considered to give a clear indication of alignment

and where the driver should stop (DPWH, 2012).

This would be an ideal location for a small radius roundabout. This would

improve safety as well as improving traffic flow to become orderly and predictable.

Figure 2.9 shows a small radius (5m) roundabout operating very well in Balayan town,

Batangas (DPWH, 2012).

8
 Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/
highway_safety_design_standards_manual
Figure 2.9: Small (5m radius) Roundabout in Balayan Town

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/
highway_safety_design_standards_manual
Figure 2.10: Horizontal Curve at the End of a Steep Downgrade

It is difficult to determine the nature of the horizontal curvature at the end of the

steep grade due to poor sight distance. The motorist may approach too quickly and lose

control. Improved sight distance could be achieved by cutting back vegetation by

providing a sight bench. A centerline, guideposts and chevron road signs would also

improve awareness (DPWH, 2012).

9
 Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.11: Poor Vertical Sag

The short vertical sag curve in Figure 2.11 can hide a vehicle. Motorists may try

to overtake thinking the road ahead is clear without realizing that a vehicle is hidden from

view in the sag. A good treatment would be to delineate the road with no overtaking lane

markings. Lane widening over the short crest would provide extra width for maneuvering

vehicles (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.12: Reverse Curves

10
 Closely spaced reverse curves as in Figure 2.12 have a short straight between the

two curves. Closely spaced reverse curves without a length of straight alignment between

the two curves is undesirable as the standard rate of change of cross-fall (super-elevation)

is always exceeded. This can lead to loss of vehicle control when the road is wet. It is

also very hard for the motorists to determine the road alignment in advance. It is desirable

to have the length of the tangent between reverse curves not less than 50m.ln no case

shall the tangent length be less than 30m. Centerline and lane markings should be

provided as well as chevron signs (DPWH, 2012).

Source: http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/

highway_safety_design_standards_manual

Figure 2.13: Poor Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

A poor combination of horizontal and vertical alignment is shown in Figure 2.13.

The poor alignment is coupled with a structure at the lowest section of the vertical

alignment. Notice the small vertical curves provided at the approaches to the structure to

keep the structure on a level position (DPWH, 2012).

Traffic coming from both directions cannot pass this section of the road at the

same time due to the acceleration needed by the vehicle to negotiate the steep gradient in

both directions (DPWH, 2012).

11
 Provision of a Give Way sign on one approach and information signs on both

approaches of the bridge would help motorists to traverse this section of road. This would

provide the traffic management needed to control vehicles in the course of traversing this

section of road. It is a situation that should not be provided in a new road design

(DPWH,2012).

CHAPTER III

SAFETY EFFECTS OF ROAD GEOMETRY

‘Transport and Communications Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific” (2013) stated

that the geometry of the roadway plays a significant role in road crash frequencies as well

as the crash severity level. Different elements of the road design are important. However,

a few parameters are considered to be more prominent and are discussed below. The

highway design elements that must be consider in ensuring the safety of the highway for

motorists and even the pedestrians are as follows:

3.1 SAFETY EFFECTS OF CROSS-SECTION

Source:https://www.mainroads.wa.gov.au/BuildingRoads/StandardsTechnical/RoadandT

rafficEngineering/GuidetoRoadDesign/Pages/MRWA_Supplement_to_Austroads_Guide

_to_Road_Design___Part_3.aspx

Figure 3.1: The Urban Road Kerbed Dual Carriageway

12
3.1.1 Lane Types

According to Coakley (n.d.), lane Types (conventional, transit‐only, HOV,

bicycle) is heavy use by specialized users, special purpose lanes may be desirable.

Providing bike lanes or wide curb lanes encourages their use and makes travel by bicycle

more safe and comfortable. There is no trend that shows one is safer than the other.

Transit‐only lanes help buses move through traffic, providing service that is more

reliable. Providing lanes for specialized users reduces conflicts between vehicles

decreasing the crashes that result from those conflicts. Transit only lanes may have

increased conflicts where buses enter general travel lanes.

3.1.2 Width of the Travel Lane

In the research of Zegeer et al. (1988), the width of the travel lane does not only

influence the comfort of driving and operational characteristics of a roadway, but is also

an important parameter affecting the road crash frequency as well as crash severity. For

any functional classification of roadway, whether it is an arterial road or a local road, and

for any environment of the roadway, whether it is an urban road or a rural road, when the

lane width reduces, the probability of crashes increases drastically. For example, a study

which looked at safety risks on a two-lane undivided highway, found that when the lane

width was increased from 2.75 meter to 3.65 meter, the probability for head-on or other

related crashes was reduced by fifty percent (50%).

When the traffic volume is higher and the lane width is less, the probability for

crashes, especially crashes like head-on or run-off the road, are greater. For example, in a

multi-lane rural highway where the average annual daily traffic volume is greater than

2,000, the probability for a crash on a narrow lane i.e. 9 feet (2.75 meters) increases by

more than thirty percent (30%) (Zegeer et al., 1988).

3.1.3 Shoulder

Another research of Zegeer et al. (1981) stated that a shoulder is the portion of the

roadway contiguous with the travel lane that accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency

use etc. Generally, the shoulder width varies from 0.6 m to 3.6 m but there are places

13
 where no shoulder can be accommodated. While it is desirable that a shoulder be wide

enough for a vehicle to be driven completely off the travelled way, narrow shoulders are

better than no shoulder at all. One study found that the probability for a road with a 60

cm wide shoulder on each side, has thirty percent (30%) more crash risk than a road

having a 1.8 metre wide shoulder on each side.

Regardless of the width, a shoulder should be continuous and intermittent

shoulders are better than no shoulders. The importance of wider shoulders is more acute

in two-lane two way roads. For a two-lane two-way road, if the daily average traffic

volume is greater than 2,000, the probability of crashes for a very narrow width or no

shoulder increases drastically, and if no shoulder is present the chance of a crash

increases by fifty percent (50%) (Zegeer et al., 1981).

The shoulder type also governs the crash frequency. The shoulder material and

thus the surface condition have at least some impact on the recovery of an errant driver

going out of the travel lane. A paved shoulder is the best type of shoulder in terms of road

safety and better than gravel shoulders. A gravel shoulder is better than a composite

shoulder (combination of different types). However, a turf shoulder is considered to be

the worst in terms of road safety and can lead to ten percent (10%) more crashes (Zegeer

et al., 1981).

Literature shows that skidding crashes are a major concern in road safety. When

the surface friction is not adequate to help stopping a vehicle, a vehicle goes out of

control and crashes occur. Vertical and horizontal alignment, pavement types and texture

affect a roadway’s skid resistance. Different pavement distresses or faults like rutting,

polishing, bleeding and also dirty pavements cause poor skid resistances of road surfaces

(Zegeer et al., 1981).

3.1.4 Lateral Offset

Coakley (2015) said that the lateral offset is the distance from the edge of traveled

way to an obstruction such as a utility pole light pole, bridge pier, or sign structure on the

roadside. For safety the lateral offset to should be great enough that any obstruction does

14
 not affect the driver’s speed or position in the lane. Lateral offset is not clear zone, but

clear zone should also be considered. A clear zone is an area adjacent to the traveled way

that is clear of obstructions and has a traversable slope that allows an errant driver to

safely return the vehicle to the roadway after departing from the travel lane. Traversable

side slopes are free of fixed objects and flat enough that a vehicle can be driven back to

the travel lane. The width of the clear zone should be based on the speed and traffic

volume on the roadway.

3.1.5 Medians

Medians separate traffic flowing in opposite directions and provide an area for

left‐turn lanes that allow for speed change and removal of turning vehicles from the

through lane. The width of a median varies widely depending on the type of facility. In

urban areas, medians can be as narrow as 4 feet plus the required left‐turn lane width. In

rural areas, the median may also serve as an area for stopping in an emergency and to

facilitate drainage. Providing a median separates opposing traffic flows, reducing the

incidence of head‐on crashes. Medians that provide an area for left‐turn lanes keep the

alignment straighter for through traffic, reducing crashes resulting from lane departures.

Medians can help with access control reducing the number of opportunities for left turns

through opposing traffic (Coakley, 2015).

3.1.6 Cross Slope

The cross slope drains the water from the roadway. Removing the water from the

pavement helps with maintenance and reduces the formation of ice on the pavement.

Both maximum and minimum criteria are set for cross slope. The cross slope should be

enough to drain the water from the pavement but not so steep as to cause drift to the side

or slide transversely in snowy or icy conditions. The cross slope should not be so great as

to cause heavy vehicles with high centers of gravity to lose control when crossing the

crown to change lanes. In superelevated sections, the break between the superelevated

lane and the shoulder cross slope should not exceed 8 percent. The designer should pay

15
 attention to the combination of longitudinal grade and cross slope to ensure there are no

flat sections (Coakley, 2015).

3.1.7 On‐Street Parking

On-street parking helps businesses that do not have land available for off‐street

parking lots. Parking maneuvers have an impact on the capacity and safety of the

adjacent travel lanes. Providing on‐street parking tends to increase conflicts between

through traffic and vehicles attempting to park, which leads to increased crashes. Parking

normally is provided only on low speed streets, where crashes would tend to be low

severity. Parking can have a traffic calming effect by reducing speeds, and also signals to

drivers that they are entering an urban area and should slow down. But parking at

intersections may reduce sight lines and lead to more angle crashes. Parking can obstruct

the view of pedestrians, reducing driver awareness and the risk of a pedestrian crash.

Even at low speeds, angle and pedestrian crashes can be severe (Coakley, 2015).

3.1.8 Sidewalks

Sidewalks are needed for pedestrian safety and mobility. To be effective,

pedestrian facilities need to be continuous. A successful transit system requires that

sidewalks connect transit stops and destinations. Pedestrians are extremely vulnerable

road users, and crashes with vehicles predominantly result in injuries to pedestrians.

Pedestrian facilities help to reduce such crashes when the facilities are continuous.

Crosswalks must be provided in logical places to make sidewalks safe and useful

(Coakley, 2015).

3.1.9 Bike Lanes

On urban bike routes, on‐road bike lanes are usually provided. On higher‐

volume/higher‐speed rural routes with significant volumes of bicycles, a path separate

from the road usually is included within the right‐of‐way. On rural routes with a low

volume of bicycles, they are usually accommodated on a paved shoulder. Since crashes

16
 involving a vehicle and a bicycle are often severe, the provision of bicycle facilities

provides a significant safety benefit (Coakley, 2015).

3.2 SAFETY EFFECTS OF ALIGNMENT

3.2.1 Horizontal Alignment

Adjustments in horizontal alignment can help reduce the potential for generating

roadway sediment. The objective in manipulating horizontal alignment is to strive to

minimize roadway cuts and fills and to avoid unstable areas. When unstable or steep

slopes must be traversed, adjustments in vertical alignment can minimize impacts and

produce a stable road by reducing cuts and fills. The route can also be positioned on more

stable ground such as ridge tops or benches. Short, steep pitches used to reach stable

terrain must be matched with a surface treatment that will withstand excessive wear and

reduce the potential for surface erosion.

The main objective of horizontal alignment should be to ensure consistency and

uniformity along the alignment, in order to avoid the creation of sections demanding an

important adjustment of travel speed. In general, uniformity on the alignment is achieved

by avoiding steep changes of alignment features.

The horizontal curve affects the safety of the road because of the limited sight

distance and the probability of skidding. Research shows that the road accident account

tends to rise on horizontal curve that has smaller radii. Furthermore a large central angle

is associated with sharp horizontal curves in having insufficient sight distance. Therefore,

designers should use small angles but with sufficient sight distance so that the safety of

road is not forfeited.

17
Source:https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/road/getting_initi

al_safety_design_principles_right_en:

Figure 3.2 : Effect of Horizontal Curve Radius on Accident Risk

In a transition curve, the road will gradually curve more and more. The design

standards recommend that a transition curve should be constructed in horizontal curves,

designed as a clothoide. A clothoide is a curve where the radius of curvature decreases

linearly as a function of the arc length. When driving in this type of curve, the driver will

follow the curve by turning the wheel at a constant rate in the direction of the curve.

Consequently, the need for abrupt movements, in order to negotiate the curve, is

eliminated.

If a sharp curve is located on a road with low average curvature, accident risk

increases significantly. Moreover, accident risk increases significantly with curve

frequency.

Horizontal alignment sequences should reduce operating speed variations along a

route. A sharp or lower radius curve after a long tangent or after a sequence of

significantly more gentle or higher radius curves may increase accident risk.

Superelevation is a road's transverse incline toward the inside of a horizontal

18
curve. It slightly reduces the friction needed to counter the centrifugal force and increases

riding comfort. The laws of physics specify the relationship between speed, radius,

superelevation and side friction. These laws can be captured by a simple mathematical

formula, which can be used for design. As a result, the maximum speed in a curve

increases with superelevation. Accordingly, using the maximum allowed superelevation

and a "conservative" value for the side friction for various design speeds, one can

compute the lowest "safe radius".

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/Taamratkuhilen/geometric-design-65032605
Figure 3.3 : The Horizontal Curve System of Force with the Superelevation

3.2.2 Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment is often the limiting factor in road design for most forest roads.

Frequently grades or tag lines are run at or near the maximum permissible grade.

Maximum grades are determined by either vehicle configuration (design/critical vehicle

characteristic) or erosive conditions such as soil or precipitation patterns. Depending on

road surface type, a typical logging truck can negotiate different grades.

On sections with high gradient, safety problems may occur from speed

differentials between passenger cars and heavy vehicles (e.g. heavy vehicles idling on

upgrade sections), as well as vehicles braking on downhill sections (e.g. increases in

braking distances and possibility of heavy vehicle brake overheating). It should be noted

19
that road sections with gradients higher than 4% tend to present an increased road

accident risk (Mattews, et. al, n.d.)

On crest curves of the longitudinal section, because of the limited radius of the

transition curve, the available sight distance may not be sufficient for safe overtaking. It

is important that values of the radius, for which appropriate overtaking distances are not

assured, are avoided.

On sag curves of the longitudinal section, critical parameters include the range of

vehicle lights, the presence of bridges or other constructions limiting sight distance. Other

elements to be considered are water accumulation and accelerated erosion of shoulders

due to water run-off.

A research shows that on vertical curve, there are higher accident rates for sag

curves than for crest curves. Moreover, accident rates are higher when entering the curve

than when leaving the curve, for both crest and sag curves.

The combined effect of road gradient and vertical curvature on accident risk was

examined by Matthews and Barnes. The results indicate that the rates at sags and crests

are very different and should not be considered similar. Moreover, it appears that the

accident rate increases with the gradient on downhill sections (a 10% increase in

accidents for every 1% increase of the downhill gradient is indicated), while it is not clear

whether the accident rate increases with the uphill gradient. Finally, it is clear that higher

radius vertical curves have a smaller accident rate than lower radius vertical curves

(Mattews, et. al, n.d.).

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3.3 INTERSECTIONS

Figure 3.4: Intersection Road

The design of the intersection is based on the function of the routes and the speed

and volume of existing traffic and that projected for the design year. Many intersections

with lower volumes operate with stop sign control. These basic intersections rely on

having enough sight distance and driver’s judgment as to when there is an acceptable gap

to turn on to or cross the route. As volumes increase and the number of gaps decreases,

drivers tend to accept shorter gaps, which lead to safety issues. Traffic signal or

roundabout controls can accommodate higher traffic volumes. Roundabouts are

appropriate where the through traffic can be slowed and the traffic distribution will

provide the gaps to allow all approaches to operate with acceptable delay. Roundabouts

improve safety by reducing the number and severity of conflicts. Traffic signals can

provide a safety benefit for pedestrians (Coakley, 2015).

Intersections have a very big influence on safety. The location, spacing, and

design of intersections is critical to the operation and safety of any route. Most conflicts

occur at intersections, as different travel paths cross. Types and sizes of intersections vary

considerably, based on the route type and traffic volume. The type of traffic control has a

major influence on safety and on the geometric design of the intersection. The geometric

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 layout and type of traffic control at an intersection should be considered to fit in the

context of surrounding area and meet the needs of all types of users. Provision of turn

lanes and channelization for the various movements helps to separate the conflicts that

lead to crashes. Roundabouts are designed to slow traffic and reduce the number and

severity of the conflicts and any resulting crashes. Traffic signal control separates

conflicts by time, allowing only non‐conflicting movements at any given time. Traffic

signals rely on drivers obeying the signal indication. Running through red lights can

result in severe crashes. Stop sign control relies on the driver selecting an appropriate gap

in the traffic stream (Coakley, 2015).

3.4 SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance comes in four (4) types: stopping sight distance, decision sight

distance, passing sight distance and intersection sight distance (Coakley R., 2015)

3.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is a near worst-case distance a driver needs to be able to

see in order to have a room to stop before colliding with something in the roadway, such

as a crossing pedestrian, a vehicle or road debris. Without proper stopping sight distance,

the road is prone to accidents like car hitting passers-by, bumping another car or concrete

barriers.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/11-Stopping-Sight-distance-Crest-

curve_fig5_324136656

Figure 3.5: Stopping sight distance.

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3.4.2 Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance is the control for many access management situations

where the driver’s workload is heavy and complex operations or design features exist

such as crossing or intersection without appropriate signals. Decision sight distance gives

the driver additional margin for error and affords sufficient length to maneuver their

vehicle or reduces speed rather than using the break. It gives the driver time to decide on

what to do on a roadway hazard or in an unexpected situation.

3.4.3 Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance that is required on a

highway, from the name itself, passing sight distance is the element that aims to provide

safe overtaking. This allows the driver to pass another car without crashing with another

car from the opposing lane.

Source:https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ve

d=2ahUKEwj0xNfa4breAhUEurwKHZdoBaYQjRx6BAgBEAU&url

Figure 3.6: Passing sight distance

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 3.4.4 Intersection Sight Distance

Intersection sight distance is the basis where medians of the roads are place to

assure safe operations. A design element that is important at the parking aisles and on-site

circulation roads in large parking lots.

The safety effects of shorter sight distance are greater if the part of the route that cannot

be seen has an intersection, hidden driveway, tight curve or other unexpected feature to

which a driver must react. A sight distance profile is a useful tool for evaluating the

impact on safety.

Source: https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/older_users/handbook/ch7.cfm

Figure 3.7: Intersection sight distance.

3.5 ROADSIDE CONDITION

The safety of the road does not depend only on the characteristics of the roadway

but also depends on the condition of the roadside. The term “clear zone” is used to

designate the unobstructed, traversable area provided beyond the edge of the travel way

for the recovery of the errant vehicle. The clear zone includes shoulders, bicycle lanes

and any additional space, if available (Sawalha Z., Sayed T., 2001).

The greater the width of the clear zone, the more room is available for an errant

driver to recover before hitting an object; thus a greater clear zone means a safer road. In

locations where right of way or the width available for providing clear areas is not

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sufficient, it is not practical or feasible to consider the concept of clear zones as expected

in general. This type of environment is more common in densely populated urban areas.

Considering safety aspects, a lateral offset to vertical obstructions (signs, utility poles

etc.) is needed to avoid crashes (Sawalha Z., Sayed T., 2001).

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

Road geometric design elements are effective factors on highway safety. These

elements include specification of cross-sections, vertical alignments, horizontal

alignments and various sight distances. The horizontal and vertical alignment and the

sight conditions make it easier because these elements help the road users to see it visibly

and concluded that continuous improvement of the said elements will lead to significant

reductions of accidents happening in the highway and for the cross-section which is

another element it was determined that it was useful for it increased safety margins by

making the highways wider and separate with the carriageways. The different elements

discussed in this report incorporate the knowledge that the motorists and at the same time

the researcher needed to practice in order to diminish the increasing rates of accidents in

the highway. New road geometric design elements continue to develop as the formal

practice in functional safety progress.

25
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