11/9/2017 16 ­ Alternating Current ­ Entry Test Notes

Alternating Current

AC is the current produced by a voltage source that reverses its polarity with
time.

Time period T of alternating or voltage (that produced it) is the time interval
T in which the source voltage reverses its polarity once.
The sinusoidal waveform of AC is a graph between voltage and time.

The voltage of AC generator varies with time and at an instant.

V = Vo sin ωt

2π
= Vo sin ×t
T

= Vo sin 2πf t

V = Vo sin θ

Where θ = ωt is the angle through which coil rotates in time t & θ is the
phase which speciퟷ�es instantaneous value.

Types of AC Waves
Square Waves

Saw-tooth Waves

Sinusoidal Waves

Instantaneous Values

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The value of voltage or current that exists at any given instant t in a circuit is
known as instantaneous value.

Vinst = V = Vo sin θ = Vo sin 2πf t = Vo sin ωt

Iinst = I = Io sin θ = Io sin 2πf t = Io sin ωt

V is the instantaneous value between +Vo & −Vo

Sinusoidal graph is the set of all instantaneous values.

Peak Value (Vo or Io )

It is the highest value of voltage or current.

Peak to Peak Value

It is the sum of +ve & -ve peak values.

Root Mean Square (rms) Value

It is the square root of the average of squared instantaneous values of voltage or
current in a period.

Vrms = Vo / 2 = 0.7Vo

Irms = Io / 2 = 0.7Io

It is also known as effective value.

 Info

The average value of sinusoidal symmetrical signal is zero over a cycle but RMS value is not.
That is why practically all the calculations are based on RMS value.

Phase

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The angle θ which speciퟷ�es the instantaneous value of alternating voltage or

current is known as its phase.

Phase Lag & Lead

Phase lag occurs when the phase of waveform 2 is less than the phase of
waveform 1.

Phase lead occurs when the phase of waveform 2 is greater than the phase
of waveform 1.

Vector Representation of Phase & Alternating Quantities

Projection of a counter clockwise rotation vector along represents a sinusoidally

alternating voltage or current.

 Vector Diagram

A set of counter clockwise rotating vectors whose lengths represents the peak values of RMS
value of the signals and the angle between them represents the current of phase in AC signals is
collectively called vector diagram.

DC Circuit
Resistor R is the basic circuit element in DC circuit.

R controls voltage and current.

Ohm's law can be used.

AC Circuit
Resistor, Inductor & Capacitor are three main components of a AC circuit.

AC through Resistor

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Through resistor, V = Vo sin ωt and I = Io sin ωt voltage and current are

in phase if one increases or decreases, the other does the same.

P = V I = I 2 R = V 2 /R, holds true only when V & I are in phase.

AC Through Capacitor
Due to DC, a capacitor behaves as insulator. It only store charges. Due to AC,
a capacitor behaves as conductor.

Through capacitor, charge on parallel plates of a capacitor.

q = CVo sin ωt = qo sin ωt

Current leads voltage through capacitor (seems passing) because of the

continuously reversing polarity.

Reactance of capacitor (measure of opposition of capacitor against ៹�ow of

AC) is given by:

Vrms 1 1
XC = = =
Irms 2πf C ωC

As, frequency decreases XC decreases.

Voltage lags current by 90° in a pure capacitor circuit.

AC Through Inductor
Through inductor, Ac produce self, inductive effect because it constantly
changes.

When potential difference is applied back emf is produced.

LΔI
ϵL =
Δt
Current lags behind voltage by 90° or π/2

Inductive reactance is measure of opposition offered by the inductor coil to

to ៹�ow of AC through it.

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Vrms
XL = = 2πf L = ωL
Irms

As frequency increases XL increases.

In a pure inductor, input energy = output energy.

No power loss take place in pure inductive or capacitive circuit.

Current lags voltage by 90° in inductive circuit.

Impedance (Z )
Combined effect of resistance R, capacitive reactance XC & inductive
reactance XL in a circuit in which AC is provided is called Impedance.

Vrms
Z=
Irms

Impedance is measured in ohms

Circuit Elements Impedance (Ω) Phase Angle (ϕ)

R Z=R 0°

L Z = XL = ωL +90°

C Z = XC = 1/ωC −90°

R-L Z= R2 + XL2 0° < ϕ < 90°

R-C Z= R2 + XC2 −90° < ϕ < 0°

R-L-C Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2 ϕ > 0° if XL > XC

ϕ = 0° if XL = XC (Resonance)
ϕ < 0° if XL < XC

 Info

Current vector is taken along X-axis

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RC series circuit
1 2
Impedance Z = R2 +
ωC
Phase between V & I is θ = tan−1 (1/ωCR)
Current leads voltage.

RL Series Circuit
Imedance Z = R2 + (ωL)2

Phase between V & I is θ = tan−1 (ωL/R)

Current lags voltage.

Power in AC Circuit
Power dissipation = 0, in purely inductive & capacitive circuit.

P = IV only when V & I are in phase in a purely resistive circuit.

P = IV cos θ in real L & C circuit where cos θ is power factor & V cos θ
is component voltage vector along current.

Series Resonance Circuit

1
XL = ωL and XC =
ωC
At low frequency capacitance dominates and circuit behave as RC series
circuit and at high frequency inductance dominates and behaves as RL
series circuit.

The Impedance diagram is shown in ퟷ�gure.

If XL = XC , then it is 'resonance' and frequency at this time called

resonance frequency

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ωr L = 1/ωr C

1
fr =
2π LC

At resonance, impedance is minimum and is equal to R.

At resonance VL , the voltage across inductance and VC the across

capacitance may be much larger than the source voltage.

Parallel Resonance Circuit

The resonance frequency is

1
f=
2π LC

At resonance the impedance is maximum. Hence current is minimum at

resonance and in phase with voltage.

At resonance branch current may be larger than source currents.

At resonance power factor is one.

Three Phase AC Supply

In three phase AC generator, there are three coils inclined at 120° angle to
each other.

Each coil is connected to its own pair of slip rings.

In three phase supply, total load is dived in three parts.

There will be no drop of voltage supply in three phases.

Three phase supply can provide 400V between two lines.

The lines to neutral voltage is 230V

Star type connector is used to connect three phase wire and one neutral
wire.

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Principle of Metal Detector

Coil (L) Capacitor (C ) are coupled to produce oscillations of currents.

LC circuit behaves like an oscillating mass spring system.

Energy oscillations between a capacitor and inductor called an electrical

oscillator.

LC circuit produce beats phenomenon for neutral detection.

Choke
It is an inductive coil.

It consumes extremely small power.

It is used in AC to limit current.

Electromagnetic Waves (EMW)

Electromagnetic waves were produced by the Max well and experimentally
produced by Frack Hertz.

Electromagnetic waves are oscillating electric and magnetic ퟷ�elds.

Changing magnetic ៹�ux produces electric ퟷ�eld given by:

I ΔΦm
E=
2πr Δt
Changing electric ៹�ux produced magnetic ퟷ�eld given by:

μo ϵo Δϕm
B=[ ]
2πr Δt
Speed of e.m waves in vacuum is given by $$ v=\frac{1}
{\sqrt{\mu_o\epsilon_o}} =3\times10 9ms{-1}$$

The frequency is about 104 Hz depending upon wavelengths.

Production of EM Waves

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Electromagnetic waves in laboratory are by ossillations of electrons/

frequency of osicallatory circuit is

1
f=
2π LC

Reception of EM Waves
The reception of EM waves is based on a LC circuit in which the value of ퟷ�xed
but varying capacitor gives different frequencies.

Modulation
The process of mixing the low frequency signal (sound) with high frequency
radio waves is called modulation. The resultant waves is called modulated wave.

Types

Amplitude modulation (AM)

Frequency modulation (FM)

Phase modulation (PM)

Modulating waves are demodulated by receiving sets (TV or radio sets),

rectiퟷ�ed and then detected.

Detection of modulation waves takes place only when frequency of tuning

circuit equals p that of transmitting circuit and hence the electrical
resistance is produced.

 Info

Frequency range of AM signals is from 540KHz to 1600KHz .

Frequency range of FM signals is from 88M Hz to 108M Hz .

FM signal does not contain any noise signal as the AM does.

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