Hecht; 10/12/2010; 8-1

Chapter 8. Polarization
8.1 The Nature of Polarized Light
A. Linear Polarization
Sum of two waves
G
E ( z , t ) = xE
ˆ ox cos (kz − ωt ) + yE
ˆ oy cos (kz − ωt + ε )

For ε = 0, ± 2π ... ,
G
E = ( xE ˆ oy ) cos (kz − ωt )
ˆ ox + yE

For ε = ±π ... ,
G
E = ( xE ˆ oy ) cos (kz − ωt )
ˆ ox − yE

B. Circular Polarization
y Right-circularly polarized
For Eo = Eox = Eoy and ε = −π /2 + 2π m
G
E = E o ⎣⎡ xˆ cos (kz − ωt ) + yˆ sin (kz − ωt ) ⎦⎤

G G
E is constant but direction of E changes in space and in time.
G G
At z = z o and t=0 ˆ o cos (kz o ) , E y = yE
→ E x = xE ˆ o sin (kz o )
G G
At z = z o and t = kz o /ω ˆ o , Ey = 0
→ E x = xE

G
E is rotating clockwise in time

y Left-circularly polarized
For Eo = Eox = Eoy and ε = π /2 + 2π m
G
E = E o ⎡⎣ xˆ cos (kz − ωt ) − yˆ sin (kz − ωt ) ⎤⎦
 Hech
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2010; 8-2

Right-c
circularly po
olarization

C. Elliptic
cal Polariza ation
Combinne two wave es
E x = Eox cos (kz − ωt )
E y = E oy cos (kz
k − ωt + ε )
2 2
⎛E ⎞ ⎛ Ey ⎞ ⎛E ⎞ ⎛ Ey ⎞
→ ⎜ x ⎟ +⎜ ⎟⎟ − 2 ⎜ x ⎟ ⎜⎜ os ε = sin2 ε
⎟⎟ co
⎜ E oy
⎝ E ox ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ Eox ⎠ ⎝ Eoy ⎠

It is an ellipse mak gle α with x-axis

king an ang x
2Eox E oy cos ε
n 2α =
tan 2
Eox − E oy
2

s polarizatio
Various on configura
ations

y States of
o polarizatiion
mI===oI===iI===b -sttates

y b -statee is given byy a sum of o -state an

nd i -state
e.
 Hech
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2010; 8-3
8.2 Pola
arizers
Naturall light → Pollarized lightt
(Random ed)
mly polarize ↑
Polarizzer

Principlles of polariizer
Dicchroism(Sele ective absorrption), Refflection, Birrefringence(D
Double refrraction)

A linearr polarizer has

h transmiission axis and
a extincttion axis.

The elec omponent that

ctric field co t is paralllel to the trransmission
n axis can o
only be tran
nsmitted.
ET = Eo cos θ
↑ ↑TThe angle between
b Eo and the tra
ansmission axis.
The inputt electric fie
eld.

The traansmitted iintensity

I (θ ) = I ( 0 ) cos
s2 θ : Malus’s Law
L
 ht; 10/12/2
Hech 2010; 8-4
8.3 Dich
hroism
Dichroic
c material a
absorbs one
e of the two orthogonall m -states

A. The Wiire-Grid Po
olarizer

y-polariized light (V
Vertical direction)
→ Currrent in y-d direction (Soome energy loss by jou
ule heat).
→ Rerradiation in n forward annd backwarrd directionss.
→ Forrward radia ation cancels the incide
ent wave.
Bac ckward radiation forms a reflected d wave.

x-polariized light prropagates th

hrough the grid with no
n change

B. Dichrooic Crystalss
Absorpttion and con
nductivity depend
d on direction
d
→ Aniisotropic cryystals

y Tourmaaline crystalls
Electric
c field perpe
endicular to
o the optic axis
a is stron
ngly absorb
bed.
→ Tra ansmission along optic cs axis.

bsorption a
Some ab along the op
ptic axis dep
pends on wa
avelength.
(Tourma
alin is usua
ally green co
olored)

C. Polaroid
J-sheet: Herapathiite needles aligned
a in one
o direction
↑
Dichroic crystal

H-sheett: Long mole

ecules, not dichroic, fo
orm the wire
e grid.
 Hech
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2010; 8-5
8.4 Bire
efringenc
ce
Birefrin
ngent crysta
al has two different
d ind
dices of refra
action.

Electron
n binding fo
orces are identical in x-
x and y-axis
→ z-ax xis becomes optic axiss

A. Calcite
e
CaCO3 has 3-fold symmetry about
a the optic axis

Calcite in a cleavagge form form

ms rhomboh
hedron
6] [Fig 8.18
[Fig 8.16 8]

e beam into Calcite

A single
→ Two o beams aftter the crystal: Ordinaary ray, Extraordinary ray.
The
ey are linea
arly polarize
ed and ortho
ogonal to ea
ach other

y Principaal plane : A plane containing

c t optic ax
the xis
Principa
al section : A princip
pal plane thaat is norma
al to two surrfaces of the cleavage form
f

o-ray ⊥ k--vector and

d optic axis.
e-ray ⊥ k-vector
- and
d o-ray.

The ordina
ary ray
The seccondary wav o v⊥
velets have the speed of
 Hech
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2010; 8-6
The extrao
ordinary ray y
The elecctric field = perpendicuular + paralllel to optic axis
↑ =v⊥ ↑= v & . (Two diifferent spee
eds)

Ray direection :
From m the origin of a waveleet to the tan
ngent point of the wave
elet with the
e wavefrontt.
It’s parallel
p to th
he energy fllow direction (Poynting
g vector).
It is not
n normal to the wave efront.

B. Birefrin
ngent Crysttals
Cubic crystal
c
Opticcally isotrop
pic.
Singlle index of refraction.
r

Hexagon
nal, Tetrago
onal, Trigon
nal
Symmmetric in xy
y-plane.
Unia
axial crysta
als with optiic axis along z-axis.

hombic, Molloclinic, Triiclinic

Orthorh
Biax
xial crystals
s with two optic
o axes

y Uniaxiaal crystal haas two indicces of refracction: no = c /v ⊥ and ne = c /v&

Birefrin efined as Δn ≡ ne − no
ngence is de

Neg
gative and p
positive unia
axial crysta
als
 Hech
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2010; 8-7
C. Birefrinngent Polarrizers
Nicol prism
m
Split ca
alcite rhomb
bohedron is cemented b
by Canada balsam
↑ ↑
n o = 1.6584, n e = 1.4864 n=1.55

The inciident beam m refracts intto o- and e--rays in the

e first prism
m.
o-ray is totally inte
ernally reflected at the interface.

Glan-Fouccault polarizzer (or Glan

n-Air)
Same propagation
p n direction of
o o- and e-rays in the first prism..
o-ray is
s totally internally refle
ected at the
e interface.
Field of view = 10 degree,
Max inntensity = 10 00W /cm 2

Cemen nted calcite prisms is ca

alled Glan--Thompson
n polarizer
Field of view = 30 degree,
Max inntensity = 1W /cm 2

Wollaston prism
o- and e-rays sepaarate at the
e interface.
The dev gle ranges frrom 15o to 45
viation ang 4 o.
 Hech
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2010; 8-8
8.6 Pola
arization by Reflection
When θi + θt = 90o , θi is called Brewste n angle, θ p )
er angle (or polarization

Using Snell’s
S law n i sin θ p = n t sin θt ⇒ nt sin(90o − θ p )
n θ p = nt /ni
tan

At θ p , no
n reflection
n of parallell polarizatio
on beam.

Plate polaarizer
If θi = θ p , a single plate is a perfect
p pola
arizer.

g Cube
Polarizing
Multiplle layers at the diagona
al surface (Similar as pile-of-plate
p es)

Degree of Polarizatio
on
Ip
V = I p , I n : Intensitie
es of polarizzed and unp
polarized lig
ght.
I p + In

I max , I min are meaasured after the analyzzer

→ I p = I max − I minn , I n = 2I min

I max − I minn
→ V =
I max + I minn
 Hech
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2010; 8-9
8.7 Reta
arders
Two m -states expeerience diffe
ferent phase
e changes in
n the retard
der.
→ Chan
nge of the polarization
p state.

A. Wave Plates
P and Rhombs
After th
he plate
G ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
E ( z , t ) = xE
ˆ ox cos ⎜ kz − ωt + yˆ oy cos ⎜ kz − ωt +
dn e ⎟ + yE dn
no ⎟
⎝ λo ⎠ ⎝ λo ⎠
The pha ase difference
2π
Δϕ = d (n e − n o )
λo

Fast axiis has smalller refractiv

ve index tha
an that of slow axis

The Half-W
Wave Plate
Δϕ = π
It rotate ection by 2θ .
es the polarrization dire
It conveerts o statte to i sta ate and vice
e versa.

The Quartter-Wave Pllate

Δϕ = π /2
/
It conveerts m statte to o / i d vice versa.
state and

Retarders in generall
Single-o
order retardder :
of Δϕ < 2π .
Relattive phase o
Thin and difficu
ult to make but large field-of-view

Multiple
e-order reta
arder :
of Δϕ + 2π m
Relattive phase o
Less s expensive, but narroww FOV, sen
nsitive to inc e, λ and T.
cident angle

Compouund zero-orrder retardeer :

Fast axis of one
e plate is ove
erlapped wiith slow axiis of the oth her.
Less sensitive to
o temperatu ure but stilll narrow fielld-of-view.

B. Compeensators annd Variablee Retarders

s
A compensator can
n control th
he amount of
o the retard
dance.

Babinett Compensa ator

Opticc axes of we
edge calcite
es are shown
n by dots

C
Soleil Compensato r
 Hechtt; 10/12/20
010; 8-10
8.8 Circ
cular Pola
arizers
Linear polarizer + 90o rettarder.
Left-cirrcular polarrizer allows only the lefft-circular light.
l

arization of Polych
8.9 Pola hromatic
c Light
A. Bandw
width and Coherence
C Time
T of a Polychroma
P atic Wave
Monoch
hromatic wa
ave : Single
e fequency.

Polychromatic wav
ve : A ran
nge of frequeencies.
Consttant polarizzation state only during
g a short tim
me.

Quasim
monochroma
atic wave : A narrrow bandw
width .

erence Colo
B. Interfe ors

↑ ↑ ↑
Polarizer . Wave platte. Analyzzer.

Phase difference,
d Δϕ , after th
he wave platte can depends of λ.
Blue ma
akes constrructive interrference wh
hile yellow d
destructive interference
i e at the outtput.

8.10 Op
ptical Acttivity
Opticallly active: A linear plane wave appears to rota
ate.

Looking
g in the direection of the
e source
Dexttrorotatory (d-rotatory)
( : Clock
kwise
Levorrotatory (l-rrotatory) : Counnter-clockwiise

A. A Usefu
ful Model
A wave into helicall molecules
→ Elecctric and ma agnetic dipo
ole momentts
→ Rotaated polarizzation

B. Optica
ally Active Biological Substances
Synthes
sized organiic molecules have an equal
e ber of l- and
numb d d-isomers..

e is dominan
But one nt in natura
al organic molecules.
m
Natuural sugar is
s always d-rrotatory.
Prote
eins consistts of amino acids(comp C H, O, N), generally l--rotatory
pounds of C,
Antib
biotics conttain amino acids
a a d-rotato
that are ory.

mino acids in
Five am n a meteoritte in Austra
alia.
They co
ontain an eqqual numbeer of l- and d-rotatories
s
 Hecht; 10/12/2010; 8-11
8.11 Induced Optical Effects-Optical Modulators
A. Photoelasticity
Isotropic substances can be made optically anisotropic by mechanical stress.

B. The Faraday Effect

Linear polarization rotates in a magnetic field applied along the beam direction.
β = sBd : Rotation angle in minutes
Verdet constant, magnetic flux density, length.

Other magneto-optic effects

Voigt and Cotton-Mouton effects occur for a magnetic field perpendicular to the beam direction.
↑ ↑
Vapors Liquids

C. The Kerr and Pockels Effects

Some isotropic substances become birefringent in an applied electric field.
The birefringence in this case.
Δn = λo KE 2 K is Kerr constant
E is electric field in statvolts( ≈ 300V)

Pockels Effect
It is called linear electro-optic effect
Δn ~ E .

20 out of 32 crystal symmetry groups with noncentrosymmetry

 Hechtt; 10/12/20
010; 8-12
8.12 Liq
quid Crys
stals
Long ciggar-shaped molecules.
Positive
e uniaxial biirefringent with
w optic axis
a in the e
elongated direction.
Alignme ent direction
n of LC mollecules is caalled directoor.
No posittional orderr, but large--scale orien
ntational ordder.
↑ ↑
lik
ke liquid like crysta
al

Parallell nematic ccell

Nema atic crystals:
Raandom in position
p but nearly para
allel to each
h other.

Two opposite gla

ass plates are
a coated with
w indium
m tin oxide
↑ ↑
~ 10 μm Con
nducting metallic
m film..
Tra
ansparent frrom 450nmm to 1800nm
m.

Rubb
bed ITO surrface → Paralle
el microgroooves.
Molecuules parallell to the glas
ss and to ea
ach other

The Liqu
uid Crystal Variable Retarder
R
The birefringenc
b ce : Δn = n e (V ) − n o
2π
The retardance
r : Δϕ = d Δn
λo

ncident E parallel
(1) In p to diirector → phase modulator
m
(2) “ n parallel “
not → Retardeer.
C cell btwn ±45o cross
(3) LC s polarizers → Irradian
nce modula
ator.

Twiste
ed nematic cell
Two glass platess are relativvely rotated by 90o.
The input
i directtor is horizo
ontal and thhe output director
d is ve
ertical.
Moleecules are grradually rottated betweeen plates.
dent E paralllel to the in
Incid nput directoor is rotated
d by 90o .

Applied electric field tilts molecules

m pe
erpendicula
ar to the ele
ectrode.
→ Reduced
R birrefringence..

Voltage controlled switch

LC ce
ell between crossed po
olarizers
 Hechtt; 10/12/20
010; 8-13
8.13 A Mathema
M atical Des
scription of Polariization
A. The Sttokes Param
meters

B. The Jo ones Vectorrs

y for polarizzed lights.
They arre used only

The elec
ctric field ve ector
⎡E x (t )⎤ ⎡ Eoox e iϕx ⎤ ⎡E o e iϕ x ⎤ ⎡ o ⎤

E =⎢ =⎢ ⇒ ⎢ ox
⎥ iϕy ⎥ ⎥+⎢ iϕy ⎥
⎣E y (t )⎦ ⎣⎢Eoy
o e ⎥⎦ ⎣ o ⎦ ⎢⎣Eoy e ⎥⎦
↑ ↑ ↑
Comple ex form H Horizontal m -state
Ve
ertical m -state
y m -state at 45o
⎡E x (t )⎤ ⎡Eo e iϕo ⎤
→ E = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ iϕo ⎥
⎣E y (t )⎦ ⎣Eo e ⎦

⎡1⎤ 1 ⎡1⎤
→ E = Eo e iϕo ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ ⎢ ⎥ : Norm
malized to ha
ave unity irrradiance
1
⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎣1⎦

y o -state light
⎡ e iϕo ⎤ 1 ⎡1 ⎤
E o = Eo ⎢ i (ϕ −π /2)) ⎥ ⇒ ⎢ ⎥
⎣e
o
⎦ 2 ⎣ −i ⎦

y i -statte light
1 ⎡1⎤
E i = ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣i ⎦

2 ⎡1 ⎤
m E o + E i =
The sum ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎣0 ⎦

y Ellipticaal polarizatiion for exam

mple
1 ⎡2⎤
⎢ ⎥
5 ⎣ −i ⎦

y Two ligh
ht polarizations are ortthogonal
if their Jones
J vectoors are orthogonal.
1
E o • EGi = ⎡(1) (1) + ( −i )(i ) ⎤ = 0
* *

2⎣ ⎦
E h • EGv = ⎡(1)( 0 ) + ( 0 )(1) ⎤ = 0
* *
⎣ ⎦

Note
E o • E Go = E i • E Gi = 1
E o • E Gi = E i • E Go = 0
 Hecht; 10/12/2010; 8-14
C. The Jones and Mueller Matrices
The input and output Jones vectors are related by a transmission matrix A
E t = AE i

m -state at 45o is incident into a quarter-wave plate with vertical fast axis
⎡E tx ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⇒ ⎢ −i ⎥ : o -state
E
⎣⎢ ty ⎦⎥ ⎣ 0 −i ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

A wave passing through a series of optical elements 1, 2, 3…n

E t = An ..A 3 A 2 A1E i