There is no diffrence b/w these sensors thier method

of
sensing is same depend upon the EDDY currunt
losses.ACCELEROMETER & PROXIMITY are diffrent way to
measure the vibration although they have same sensing
method as i told before

Accelerometers are a piezo-electronic (crystal)

device. A
pre- loaded crystal is charged with current and as
the
crystal is compressed or de-compressed by vibration
an
output proportional to g's (gravity) is provided. A
"g" is
equal to 9.80 meters/second2 or one (1) standard
earth
gravity.
Accelerometers are normally used for high-frequency
bearing
cap vibration readings (Case/Bearing Cap Absolute on
machines using rolling element bearings. Usually the
output
is integrated electronically to velocity (in/sec or
mm/sec). Other applications include monitoring Gears
and
High Frequency Applications.

Eddy or Proximity Probes are a displacement device

that
measure the relative motion between the probe
mounting
location and the target (shaft). Output is directly
proportional to displacement and is usually measured
in
mils (.001") or millimeters (mm).
Eddy Probes are used on machines with Journal
(Sleeve) type
 bearings. Where the measurement of motion between the
Bearing and Shaft is critical.

Types of Vibration Sensors

By Neal Litherland, eHow Contributor

Vibration sensors are used in a number of different projects,

machines and applications. Whether you're attempting to gauge
the speed of a vehicle, or to gauge the power of an impending
earthquake, the device you're likely using is considered to be a
"vibration sensor." Some of them operate on their own, and others
require their own power source, but all of them serve the same
purpose in slightly different capacities.
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1. Accelerometer
o One of the most common types of vibration sensor is an
accelerometer. Accelerometers come in a variety of designs, and
they can detect a wide range of different vibrations. One of the
most popular versions of the accelerometer is a pizoelectric sensor.
This sort of sensor contains a material (such as crystal quartz) that
gives off an electric charge when it detects changes in pressure. By
measuring the amounts of electric charge that pizoelectric
accelerometers give off it becomes possible to determine the
amount of vibration going on in the connection.
 Velocity Sensors
o A velocity sensor is mainly used to measure motion and
balancing operations on rotating machinery. These sensors are
ideal for sensing low and mid-frequency vibrations, but not high-
frequency ones. Additionally, a velocity sensor requires no
electrical input in order to measure the force of velocity. These
sensors do require regular maintenance to be sure that they're
operating properly however. This is especially true for sensors who
are placed on machinery that moves at a very high velocity, since
the sensors need to be firmly anchored to get accurate
measurements.

Proximity Sensors
o Not all vibration sensors are installed directly onto the
things they're supposed to measure. A proximity sensor is a type of
vibration sensor that's meant to measure distance between an
object and the probe. If the object is vibrating that means it will be
moving towards and away from the probe, and by picking up on
that motion the sensors can detect the range of vibration taking
place. These probes may be used for small applications such as
detecting vibrations within machinery, or for larger applications
such as detecting vibrations in the earth as a sign of earthquakes.
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Field Application Note
Comparing Vibration Readings
Comparing vibration level readings taken by
different types of instruments and transducers
can be very confusing and can lead to mistrust
of the systems involved.
Knowledge of how to properly compare
readings is required before comparing any
readings is attempted.
This application note explains the variables
involved in some detail and will act as a
guideline as you compare vibration readings.
Transducer Type
Three (3) basic types of vibration transducers shaft rider which is a spring mounted
are available which correlate with the three (3) device that physically rides on the surface
types of measured physical motion,
Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement.
Accelerometer
Accelerometers are a piezo-electronic (crystal) assembly is five (5) or more times heavier
device. A pre- loaded crystal is charged with
current and as the crystal is compressed or de-
compressed by vibration an output
proportional to g's (gravity) is provided. A "g"
is equal to 9.80 meters/second2 or one (1)
standard earth gravity.
Shaft Absolute
Shaft Absolute is the measurement of the
shaft's motion relative to free space (or
absolute). Shaft Absolute can be
measured two (2) ways, the first being
electronically summing the
signals
of both a Eddy Probe measuring shaft
relative and a accelerometer measuring
case absolute, the second being using a
of the shaft, normally a velocity sensor
integrated to displacement is mounted on
top of the shaft rider. Shaft Absolute is
normally used where the rotating
than the case of the machine.
Engineering Units
0 to Peak (0-P)
Both Velocity (in.sec, mm/sec) and
Acceleration (g's) by definition are
measured in 0 to Peak or one/half the
Peak to Peak signal as viewed on an
oscilloscope.
Peak to Peak (P-P)
Displacement by definition is measured in
Peak to Peak or the actual Peak to Peak
Motion of the Shaft.
Accelerometers are normally used for high-
frequency bearing cap vibration readings
(Case/Bearing Cap Absolute on machines
using rolling element bearings. Usually the
output is integrated electronically to velocity
(in/sec or mm/sec). Other applications include
monitoring Gears and High Frequency
Applications.
Velocity Pick-up
Two (2) types of Velocity Sensors exist,
mechanical and electronic. Mechanical types
are the most common and are made up of a
spring mounted coil mounted inside a magnet.
Vibration causes the coil to move in relation to
the magnet which produces a voltage output
directly proportional to Velocity. Electronic
Velocity Sensors are Accelerometers with an
electronic integrator built in to the unit. Output
of a Velocity Sensor can be expressed in many
different terms, inches/second (in/sec) or
millimeters/second (mm/sec) being the
standards.
Velocity Transducers are normally used for
Bearing Cap Vibration Monitoring
(Case/Bearing Cap Absolute) on machines
with rolling element bearings. They have the
advantage of high outputs and the signal is
read directly in velocity (in/sec or mm/sec).
Eddy Probes (Proximity)
Eddy or Proximity Probes are a displacement Accelerometers are extremely sensitive to
device that measure the relative motion
between the probe mounting location and the bandwidth can be measured between
target (shaft). Output is directly proportional to hand-held, magnet attached, epoxy, and
displacement and is usually measured in mils stud mounted installations.
(.001") or millimeters (mm).
Root Mean Square (RMS)
Root Mean Square (RMS) is a popular
method of measuring Case or Bearing
Cap Vibration as many vibration
engineers have found that RMS is more
indicative of actual rolling element
bearing condition. Although rarely found
in vibration wave-forms a pure sine wave
RMS would be .707 times the 0 to Peak
Value.
Transducer Considerations
Frequency Response
The frequency response of a vibration
transducer is very important when
comparing readings. Transducers with a
wider or broader frequency response will
typically see more vibration if it is present
than a narrower bandwidth transducer.
How different vibration frequencies
contribute to overall values is dependent
on their phase relationship to each other,
some may add, some may subtract from
the overall value.
200
Eddy Probes Displacement
mv/mil
Velocity 500
Velocity
(Mechanical) mv/in/sec
Velocity 500-1000
Velocity
(Piezoelectric) mv/in/sec
Accelerometer Acceleration 100 mv/g
Mounting
How a transducer is mounted is also
critical to comparing measurements.
the method of attachment. Differences in
Installation instructions must be followed
 precisely to obtain the manufactures
transducer specifications. Accelerometers
not mounted perfectly perpendicular to
the surface or on a flat surface will
produce stress risers which will also
produce false signals.

Eddy Probes are used on machines with Measurement Location

Journal (Sleeve) type bearings. Where the
measurement of motion between the Bearing When comparing readings it is essential
and Shaft is critical. that all readings are taken at the same
location and the same plane. Even small
Bearing Type differences in location can effect the
overall readings. All vibration transducers
Two primary types of bearings are in use today, are single plane devices and only measure
Rolling Element Bearings and Journal or in the plane in which they are held or are
Sleeve Bearings. mounted.

Rolling Element Bearings are zero (0) Instrument Considerations

clearance devices. All vibration of the shaft is
transmitted directly to the bearing cap.
All Instruments handle signal is different
ways. Different instruments have their
own frequency response and filtering.
Knowledge must be gained on the
instruments used before the outputs can
be compared even when they use the
same transducer.

Journal or Sleeve Bearings are designed so that
the oil film provides damping. The shaft is free
to vibrate within the bearing. Due to the
damping provided by the oil film very little of
the shaft vibration is transmitted to the bearing
cap. The oil film damping provides even
higher levels of attenuation to higher
frequencies.
Conversion Formulas
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
are mathematically related to each other
as a function of frequency. Electronic
integrators or differentiation are also used
to change one term to the other. Once
again it must be understood that the
readings be of the same type or they will
not agree.

D = Displacement, P-P, Mils.

V = Velocity, 0-P, in/sec.
A = Acceleration, 0-P, g's.

D = 19.10 x 103 x (V/CPM)

D = 70.4 x 106 x (A/CPM2)

Measurement Type
Only measurements of the same type can be
compared. Bearing Cap or Case Vibration
cannot be directly compared to Shaft Relative
or Shaft Absolute and visa versa.
Case Absolute
Case or Bearing Cap Absolute is the
measurement of the Case or Bearings Caps
(Location of Transducer) motion relative to
free space (or absolute motion). Case or Cap
Absolute is usually used for monitoring
Rolling Element Bearings.
Shaft Relative
Shaft Relative is the measurement of motion
between the Shaft and whatever the measuring
devise is mounted to. This measurement is
normally taken with a NCPU or Proximity
Sensor. Shaft Relative measurements are used
for Journal or Sleeve Bearing Applications.
Piping vibration can be an annoying problem
V = 52.36 x 10-6 x D x CPM
V = 3.87 x 103 x (A/CPM)
A = 14.2 x 10-9 x D x CPM2
A = 0.27 x 10-3 x V x CPM
Summary
In General it is difficult to get any two
readings to precisely agree with one
another. Even when care is taken to insure
that transducers and locations are the
same and that the measurement type is the
same, agreement within +-30% depending
on the instrument is considered good.
Even though overall values will not agree
precisely spectrum Data or frequencies
will be comparable within the limits of
the bandwidth of the different
instruments.
Checklist
1. Is Transducer Type the same
2. Bearing Type
3. Is Measurement Type the Same
4. Engineering Units the same
5. Frequency Response of
Transducer
6. Mounted Transducer Frequency
Response
7. Where Readings Taken at the
same location
8. Where Readings Taken in the
same Plane
9. Instrument Frequency Response
Corrective Actions
which can consume unnecessary maintenance
activity and can affect pumping system
performance and endurance. The system
includes the pipe, all piping supports, hangers,
snubbers, pipe to pipe interfaces, and
machinery or devices attached to the pipe. All
these items can influence the pipe vibration
patterns.
This testing method will determine the piping
system vibration amplitudes, frequencies,
nodal points, and the pipe modal shape. It can,
also, be used to identify defective supports,
incorrectly placed supports, and the locations
of maximum deflection requiring additional
supports.
Analyzer/Data Collector
Generally, the pipe supports should be a
nodal point with little or no motion.
Excessive motion at these locations
indicate that the support is faulty or
improperly installed. Vibration amplitudes
should decrease as a complex joint, such
as a tee connection, an elbow, or machine
connection, is approached.
Convert all the collected data to
displacement units using the formula:
A = 14.2 x 10-9 x D x F²
where:
D = Displacement (mils pk-to-pk)
A = Acceleration (G's pk)
F = Frequency (Hz).

Many data collectors have internal circuitry

with low frequency range limitations: output
displays in acceleration units are 2 Hz and
output displays in velocity and displacement
are 5 Hz. This circuitry is an internal high pass
filter set for a 2 Hz roll-off frequency for
acceleration signals and 5 Hz as the velocity
and displacement roll-off frequency. The filter Plot all the amplitude information which
eliminates excessive noise from being is at a common frequency on the graph to
displayed. determine the modal shape at which the
pipe is vibrating. Compare the calculated
This means that if an accelerometer is amplitudes and frequencies with the
connected to the data collector and the display allowable piping vibration levels chart to
is setup for acceleration units, the low determine if corrective action is
frequency signals are correctly displayed down warranted.
to 2 Hz. If the accelerometer signal is
integrated to velocity or displacement the low
frequency limitation is 5 Hz. Similarly, a
velocity transducer has the velocity low
frequency limitation and the integration
limitation also applies.

Methodology

Piping vibration analysis involves describing

how much the pipe is moving and at what
frequency the motion exists. The piping
motion can be further described by showing
the motion as a modal plot. Pipes can vibration
in three orthogonal directions just like a
machine. Vibration data should be collected in
the X, Y, and Z axis. Since most data collectors
do not have the capability of calculating
transfer functions collected from
impact/response input signals, all data
collection should be taken while the pumping
system is operating.

Wachel, J. C. and Bates, C. L., Techniques for Controlling Piping

Vibration and Failures, ASME Paper 76-PET-18.

The listed ASME Paper includes a

"severity chart" which could be used as a
The vibration transducer may be attached to starting point in determining the piping
the pipe using a magnetic mount without system acceptability. This chart was
affecting the lower frequency response of the compiled from 25 years of data and may
transducer. The overall pipe length should be be overly conservative for long flexible
separated into equal spaced lengths 3-5 feet piping systems commonly found in power
( 1-2 meters ) for this test and plotted on a stations.
graph sheet. The pipe hangers/restraints and
their orientation to the pipe should be noted on Pipe vibration correction will involve re-
the plot. tuning the pipe system to a different
frequency. This may be accomplished by
Setup the data collector for a frequency range re-locating the pipe supports, installing
for a 0-12,000 CPM (0-200 Hz) and display different supports, isolating the pipe from
units of acceleration (G's). Collect spectra at its hangers or joints, or installing
each measurement point. Evaluate the spectra expansion joints in the pipe. Before any
for the components at common frequencies modification is undertaken another pipe
noting their amplitude and frequency. analysis should be carried out to
determine that the modification does not
violate other design parameters such as
machine coupling momentums or
connection stresses.

Testing Checklist

1. Piping System Defined

2. Proper Accelerometer

A subset of the decision of
purchasing a monitoring system is the
decision of what type of system is
required. Monitors are available in
many varieties; some simply display
the overall signal levels, some have
elaborate interface systems, some can
automatically collect different types
of information. The end user must
decide what is really necessary. Will
the monitor be required to provide
some form of protection? Does the
end user require that the monitor
provide some type of information?
Must the monitoring system provide
diagnostic capabilities?
PROTECTION
Protection is available in many forms.
Nearly all monitor systems available
today can provide machinery
protection. This means that should a
sensor signal exceed a predetermined
set point the monitor can initiate a
shutdown to prevent internal
machinery damage. This form of
protection is tangible and can be
quantified for accounting purposes.
Additional intangible protection
provided by a basic monitoring
system are personnel and production
protection. If a machine can be
shutdown prior to catastrophic
damage, which could involve
unexpected shrapnel from the
machine, the personnel that are in the
vicinity of the machine are protected.
An orderly shutdown of a machine
train can benefit the facility
3. Graph Paper
4. Analyzer Set-up
INFORMATION
An information system will provide
data that is useful for planning and
scheduling. This information can be
used for a "Go No-Go" decision
whether to continue operating the
machine train or produce goods.
Basic monitoring systems are capable
of providing this type of information
by alerting personnel to current
conditions.
Maintenance planning and outage
scheduling requires additional
information. Information systems will
provide data as trends which give
advanced notice of elevating overall
signals.
DIAGNOSTICS
Advanced monitoring systems will
provide additional information about
the condition of the machine train
connected to the monitor. This
information can be collected
automatically or manually, and upon
alarm activation or on a regular basis.
This information has many benefits
which when properly used can
produce cost savings and downtime.
By analyzing the collected
information the root cause of the
elevated signals can lead to the cause
of the machine problem. This type of
information can lead to reducing
machine train downtime. After the
maintenance has been conducted, this
type of monitor can be used for
production and its product. Certain
production processes, such as paper
and sheet steel, are sensitive to
excessive vibration. High vibration
levels produce poor quality product.
These facilities will benefit from a
monitoring system that can alert
operation personnel when
unacceptable product is being
produced.
acceptance testing and machine
commissioning. Many end users have
reported correction of design flaws
and incorrect operating procedures
using advanced diagnostic
information.
Monitoring Classification Checklist
1. Protection
2. Information

3. Diagnostics

Industrial Plain Bearing

machinery with The plain
high horsepower bearing is the
and high loads, simplest and
such as steam most common
turbines, design with a
centrifugal high load
compressors, carrying
pumps and motors, utilize journal capacity and the lowest cost. This
bearings as rotor supports. bearing is a simple cylinder with a
clearance of about 1-2 mils per inch
One of the basic purposes of a of journal diameter. Due to its
bearing is to provide a frictionless cylindrical configuration it is the
environment to support and guide a most susceptible to oil whirl. It is a
rotating shaft. Properly installed and fairly common practice during
maintained, journal bearings have installation to provide a slight amount
essentially infinite life. of "crush" to force the bearing into a
slightly elliptical configuration.
BEARING DESIGN
Lemon Bore
A journal bearing, simply stated, is a The lemon or elliptical bore bearing
cylinder which surrounds the shaft is a variation on the plain bearing
and is filled with some form of fluid where the bearing clearance is
lubricant. In this bearing a fluid is the reduced on one direction. During
medium that supports the shaft manufacture this bearing has shims
preventing metal to metal contact. installed at the split line and then
The most common fluid used is oil, bored cylindrical. When the shims are
with special applications using water removed the lemon bore pattern is
 or a gas. This results. For
application note horizontally
will concentrate split bearings,
on oil lubricated this design
journal bearings. creates an
increased
Hydrodynamic vertical pre-load
principles, which are active as the onto the shaft.
shaft rotates, create an oil wedge that
supports the shaft and relocates it This bearing has a lower load
within the bearing clearances. In a carrying capacity that plain bearings,
horizontally split bearing the oil but are still susceptible to oil whirl at
wedge will lift and support the shaft, high speeds. Manufacturing and
relocating the centerline slightly up installation costs are considered low.
and to one side into a normal attitude
position in a lower quadrant of the Pressure Dam
bearing. The normal attitude angle A pressure dam bearing is basically a
will depend upon the shaft rotation plain bearing which has been
direction with a clockwise rotation modified to incorporate a central
having an attitude angle in the lower relief groove or scallop along the top
left quadrant. External influences, half of the bearing shell ending
such as hydraulic volute pressures in abruptly at a step. As the lubricant is
pumps or generator electrical load carried around the bearing it
can produce additional relocating encounters the step that causes an
forces on the shaft attitude angle and increased pressure at the top of the
centerline position. journal inducing a stabilizing force
onto the journal which forces the
An additional characteristic of journal shaft into the bottom half of the
bearings is damping. This type of bearing.
bearing provides much more damping
than a rolling element bearing This bearing has a high load capacity
because of the lubricant present. and is a common correction for
More viscous and thicker lubricant machine designs susceptible to oil
films provide higher damping whirl. Pressure dam bearings are a
properties. As the available damping unidirectional configuration.
increases, the bearing stability also
increases. A stable bearing design Another unidirectional bearing
holds the rotor at a fixed attitude configuration is the offset bearing. It
angle during transient periods such as is similar to a plain bearing, but the
machine startups/shutdowns or load upper half has been shifted
changes. The damping properties of horizontally. Offset bearings have
the lubricant also provides an increasing load capacities as the
excellent medium for limiting offset is increased.
vibration transmission. Thus, a
vibration measurement taken at the Tilting Pad
bearing outer shell will not represent Tilting pad
the actual vibration experienced by bearings is a
the rotor within its bearing partial arc
clearances. design. This
configuration
Journal bearings have many differing has individual
designs to compensate for differing bearing pads
load requirements, machine speeds, which are allowed to pivot or tilt to
cost, or dynamic properties. One conform with the dynamic loads from
unique disadvantage which consumes the lubricant and shaft. This type of
much research and experimentation is bearing is a unidirectional design and
an instability which manifests itself is available in several variations
as oil whirl and oil whip. Left incorporating differing numbers of
uncorrected, this phenomenon is pads with the generated load applied
catastrophic and can destroy the on a pad or between the pads.
bearing and rotor very quickly. Oil
whip is so disastrous because the VIBRATION MONITORING
rotor cannot form a stable oil wedge
consequently allowing metal to metal A shaft supported by journal bearings
contact between the rotor and the will move relative to the bearing
bearing surface. Once surface contact housing as various forces are imposed
exists the rotor begins to precess, in a onto the shaft. A vibration transducer
reverse direction from rotor rotation is required which can monitor the
direction, using the entire bearing relative motion between the shaft and
clearance. This condition leads to the bearing. Higher vibration
high friction levels which will frequencies are not of prime concern
overheat the bearing babbit metal that since they would not be transmitted
leads to rapid destruction of the through the oil film reliably.
bearing, rotor journal, and the
machine seals. The only sensor available that can
measure relative measurements of the
Some common designs employed are shaft is the non-contacting pickup,
lemon bore, pressure dam, and tilt sometimes called a displacement,
pad bearings. These designs were eddy current, or proximity pickup.
developed to interrupt and redirect This type of sensor measures the
the oil flow path within the bearing to relative vibration of the shaft and,
provide higher bearing stabilities. also, the relative position of the shaft
with respect to the bearing
GEOMETRIES clearances. High frequencies such as
blade passage and cavitation would
Journal bearings installed in be attenuated by the lubricant. Case
industrial machinery today generally mounted sensors would not provide
fall into two categories: full bearings an accurate indication of the vibration
and partial arc bearings. Full bearings due to the inherent damping offered
completely surround the shaft journal by the lubricant between the shaft and
with many differing geometries such
as elliptical, lobed, or pressure dam
configurations and usually are two
pieces, mated at a split line. Partial
arc bearings have several individual
load bearing surfaces or pads and are
made up of numerous adjustable
components.
The bearing inner surface is covered
with a softer material, commonly
called babbit. Babbit, which is a tin or
lead based alloy, has a thickness that
can vary from 1 to 100 mils
depending upon the bearing diameter.
A babbit lining provides a surface
which will not mar or gouge the shaft
if contact is made and to allow
particles in the lubricant to be
imbedded in the liner without
damaging the shaft.
The basic purpose of a machine
bearing is to provide a near
frictionless environment to support
and guide a rotating shaft. Two
general bearing styles are utilized at
this time: the journal bearing and the
rolling element bearing. For lower
horsepower and lighter loaded
machines, the rolling element
bearing is a popular choice.
Until the 1940's, the journal bearing
was the prevalent style used on
machines. As metallurgy and
machining techniques progressed,
the rolling element bearing gained
greater usage. Today many of the
smaller process support machines
have rolling element bearings.
the bearing. For more information
about installation and theory of
operation of NCPUs, see the STI
Application Notes: Eddy Current
Transducer Installation, Part 1-Radial
Vibration
FAILURE MONITORING
This style of bearing is typically
monitored using a case mounted
transducer: an accelerometer or
velocity pickup. A displacement sensor
observing the shaft relative vibration
would show little, if any, vibration due
to the vibration node created by the
bearing.
Using signal integration techniques,
found in many industrial data
collectors, specific frequency ranges
relating to certain defects can be
emphasized. Acceleration signals,
obtained from case mounted sensors,
emphasize high frequency sources,
while displacement signals emphasize
 BEARING lower frequency sources, with velocity
DESIGNS signals falling between the extremes.
Recent innovations for determining
Rolling bearing condition are Acceleration
Element Enveloping, Spectral Emitted Energy
Bearings (SEE), and Spike Energy. These
have four components: an inner measure high frequency resonances
race, an outer race, a rolling generated by bearing defects. As a
element, and a cage to support, trended variable, in conjunction with
space, and guide the rolling other parameters such as displacement,
elements. The rolling elements velocity or acceleration, they can give
found in today's rolling element the earliest indication of bearing
bearings include: balls, rollers, and defects.
tapered rollers. All rolling element
bearings have one thing in common:
all parts must be in physical metal to
metal contact at all times.
Installation instructions specify the
amount of bearing pre-load to
maintain the component contact.
The figure depicts the overall
Rolling element bearings have some amplitude levels obtained from a
unique concerns not found in bearing as it progresses through
journal bearings. A rolling element continuing phases of failure. This chart
bearing will always force a vibration depicts overall vibration levels only.
node at its location. Because of the As time progresses the earliest
metal to metal contact, this bearing indication of failure are obtained from
will provide very little vibration filtered high frequency signals because
damping. Although these bearings these signals are generated by the
are a very precisely machined part resonance of the bearing and by
they have a limited lifetime. Each bearing component defects.
component of the bearing will
generate specific frequencies as During the early stages of failure the
defects initiate and become more other three parameters may not
prevalent. generate enough signal to be detected
because these parameters emphasize
Spherical Ball progressively lower frequency ranges.
Spherical ball bearings, as the name As failure continues and the damaged
implies, utilize spherically shaped bearing generates the individual
balls as the rolling or load carrying bearing defect frequencies, the other
element. The number of balls used parameters register signals.
in a bearing varies depending on the
application. This rolling element
bearing type is designed to carry
both radial and axial loads. By
 modifying the Viewing
design, this the four
bearing can
also
accommodate
large axial
loads.

Cylindrical/Spherical Roller
This type of bearing utilizes
cylindrically shaped rollers as the
load carrying element. This bearing
type is designed to carry large radial
loads. This bearing, in its basic
configuration, is not well suited to
counter axial loads. The rollers may
actually be slightly barrel shaped in
certain designs. Barrel shaped
rollers and their associated outer
race allow for some self alignment
of the bearing. Needle bearings are a
special adaptation of the cylindrical
roller bearing.
monitoring parameters as spectra,
additionalinformation can be obtained
about the failure modes. This figure
shows the spectrum frequency content
during four stages of bearing failure. A
normal bearing or newly installed
bearing will show no frequencies
except those associated with shaft
phenomenon such as balance or
misalignment.

Tapered Roller/Land Stage I

This bearing design is a special
adaptation of the cylindrical roller
bearing. This bearing is designed to
counter axial thrust loads along with
carrying radial loads. Due to the
geometrical summation of the radial
and axial loads, this bearing has a
lower radial load limit than a
similarly sized cylindrical or
spherical bearing.
Certain applications may employ
tapered rollers along with tapered
races, hence the name. Special
bearings may have inner and outer
races with differing angles.
Stage I has some very high frequency
content in the Spike Energy region.
This zone is in the ultrasonic region
which requires a sensor specifically
designed to detect in this region.
Special circuitry filters pass only those
signals. Physical inspection of the
bearing at this stage may not show any
identifiable defects.
Stage II

VIBRATION MONITORING
APPLICATIONS
Rolling element bearings, by their
design and installation, provide a
very good signal transmission path
from the vibration source to the
outer bearing housing. Also, these
bearings require monitoring of the Stage II begins to generate signals
unique bearing frequencies associated with natural resonance
generated by the various parts of the frequencies of the bearing parts as
bearing, in addition to the rotor fault bearing defects begin to "ring" the
frequencies. bearing components. A notable
increase in Zones 3 and 4 region
Bearing Frequency Calculation signals is associated with this stage.
Although modern rolling element Beginning signs of defects will be
bearings are very precisely found upon inspection.
machined, they do have micro-
defects which are potential sites for Stage III
future damage. Due to the precise
tolerances, improper installation
practices can reduce bearing life.
Extensive information has been
compiled about bearing defect
frequencies. Stage III condition has the
fundamental bearing defect
frequencies present. These frequencies
are those discussed previously in this
paper. Harmonics of these frequencies
may be present depending upon the
quantity of defects and their dispersal
around the bearing races. The
The figure lists the bearing defect harmonic frequencies will be
frequency formulas for a defect on modulated, or side banded, by the shaft
the balls or rollers, outer race, inner speed. Zone 4 signals continue to grow
race, and cage. The assumption for throughout this stage.
these formulas is that the outer race
is stationary while the inner race Stage IV
rotates.

If the bearing dimensions are

known, the individual bearing defect
frequencies can be calculated
precisely, or a general rule of thumb
can be applied. Using the
generalized form the inner race
frequencies would be N x RPM x
60% and the outer race frequencies
Stage IV is the last condition before
catastrophic failure of the bearing. This
stage is associated with numerous
modulated fundamental frequencies
and harmonics indicating that the
would be N x RPM X 40%. If the
bearing manufacturer model
numbers are known several
computer programs are available to
calculate the necessary frequencies.
defects are distributed around the
bearing races. Due to the increased
degradation of the bearing the internal
clearances are greater and allow the
shaft to vibrate more freely with
associated increases in the shaft
frequencies associated with balance or
mis-alignment. During later phases of
stage IV, the bearing fundamental
frequencies will decline and be
replaced with random noise floor or
"hay stack" at higher frequencies. Zone
4 signal levels will actually decrease
with a significant increase just prior to
failure

Specification of a Turbine Valve Position

Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI)
system can be an exhausting process Correct valve positioning is required
when the individual parameters must to efficiently operate a steam turbine.
be specified. This application note is Some turbines may require several
supplied to provide a guide to be used throttle valves be monitored and
in selecting an appropriate TSI some turbines will instrument the
system. TSI systems not only main stop valve(s) to determine when
measure bearing vibration levels, but they crack from their seats.
can include shell expansion,
differential expansion, valve position,Retro-fit valve position
turbine speed and acceleration, thrust measurements use DC LVDTs or DC
position, phase angle, and bearing Rotary Potentiometers. All OEM TSI
temperatures. systems include valve position
measurement(s) as a startup and
When an existing TSI system is being operation parameter. Some OEM
retro-fitted the immediate indication systems utilized AC LVDTs while
is that a one-for-one replacement of others use mechanical linkages and
each original parameter is sufficient. scales for indication.
This approach may be adequate if the
original system was a complete A retro-fitted system can be installed
package. in the same position or at relocated to
a more accessible or protected
Recent experience with retro-fitting position.
TSI systems has brought to light that
many of the existing systems could
be enhanced with additional
parameters. Also, certain parameters
should be considered for complete
replacement with a different type
sensor.
For more information about valve
position systems and applications see
STI Application Note, Valve
Position,TSI Part-2.
Eccentricity

General A rotor which has been sitting idle

during overhaul or has been
The information required under this inadvertently stopped during
topic will define and describe the coastdown for an extended period
turbine generator along with who will will develop a bow or bend. This
perform and/or supply the various condition must be corrected by
tasks and parts of the TSI installation. turning gear operation and, possibly,
The time frame for the system with auxiliary heating prior to high
installation should get consideration speed operation to prevent internal
at the point. clearance rubbing.

Describing the turbine generator Eccentricity systems installed by

involves listing the number of
bearings, type of bearings,
turbine/generator manufacturer, the
number and function of each rotor
segment, etc. This information may
be obtained from the OEM operation
and maintenance manuals and is
required whether a retro-fit or an
entirely new installation is being
specified.
OEMs monitor the turbine stub shaft
or a shaft collar using induction coils.
A retro-fit Eddy Probe system will
monitor the same location and many
times use the same bracketry.
For more information about
eccentricity systems and applications
see STI Application Note,
Eccentricity, TSI Part-1.

Documentation of the proposed TSI Speed

should include who supplies the
individual components and service of Turbine speed indication supplied by
the new system, along with the OEMs come in many forms:
number of operation and service observing a gear wheel located inside
manuals and/or drawings required. the front standard, electrically
converting the generator output
For more information about frequency, or monitoring the turning
installation services see the STI gear. A retro-fitted system using Eddy
Application Note, Field Service, FS. Probe's can be specified to observe
STI Application Note, Field Wiring any multi-toothed gear wheel.
Installation, FWI covers many topics Applications monitoring generator
of particular concern prior to and output frequency without an integral
during the electrical system turning gear may require installation
installation. of a custom gear wheel.
Monitor Speed indication may be specified as
an analog display or as a digital
Selecting the monitor follows the display and can be interfaced to a
process of detailing the turbine zero speed system for turning gear
generator layout. The monitor engagement.
selection generally involves deciding
what the monitor should do and how Rate of Acceleration
the user will interface with it.
The rate of acceleration parameter is
The monitor can be specified to be a usually monitored during startup to
stand-alone output with user interface prevent over-torquing the rotors, as
or to interface with an another the turbine approaches critical speeds,
existing output device such as PLC or and as the operating speed is reached
DCS. prior to line synchronization. Once
the generator has been synchronized
Radial Vibration and is being controlled by load
dispatchers the acceleration rate is not
Radial vibration is usually the heart monitored.
of the TSI system. It gets the most
attention and generally gives the first Acceleration rate measurements use a
indication of out of specification speed input to derive its output
conditions. Most OEM TSI systems display. Eddy Probe systems can be
utilized a shaft rider transducer installed as a replacement or
system to monitor vibration with a supplement an existing application.
shaft absolute output signal. An exact See STI Application Note, Eddy
replacement transducer system can be Probe Transducer Installation, Part-1
supplied, but most customers and Radial Vibration for relevant
OEMs are specifying a Eddy Probe information about this type of sensor.
Systems. A complete vibration system
would install two sensor systems per Phase
bearing with the sensors located 90
from each other. Phase, or phase angle, is a measure of
the relationship of how one vibration
For more information about Eddy signal relates to another vibration
Probe Vibration Sensors and their signal and is commonly used to
application see the STI Application calculate the placement of a balance
Note, Eddy Probe Transducer weight. This parameter is not usually
Installation, Part 1-Radial Vibration. displayed continuously but is
monitored periodically to determine
Thrust Position changes in the rotor balance
condition, deviations in system
Thrust position indication includes stiffness such as a cracked shaft.
one or two Eddy Probe Systems to
observe the position of the thrust Phase angle measurements are
collar within its bearings. This system sometimes not supplied by OEMs,
is an internal installation and need not
but can be installed using a Eddy
replace the existing system because Probe system. Installation involves
many original installations utilize a locating or installing a once-per-turn
differential pressure system that event such as a key or notch that the
interfaces with the turbine hydraulic Eddy Probe will view. An Eddy Probe
control system. viewing a notch is easier to install
and adjust, but the installation of the
For more information about thrust notch requires special tooling to cut
position sensors and their application the notch. Keys are easier to apply
see the STI Application Note, Eddy using glues or epoxies and are subject
Probe Transducer Installation, Part 2- to coming off due to centrifugal
Thrust Position. forces.

Shell Expansion Temperature

Shell expansion is the measure of a Bearing temperature is a measure of

turbine case or shell moves in relation the how hot a bearing is operating. It
to a fixed location usually measured may be due to overloading, mis-
with a Linear Variable Differential alignment, improper lubricant
Transformer (LVDT). Some existing pressure and/or flow.
OEM systems still use spindle
micrometers or dial indicators that are Nearly all turbine generator bearings
subject to mechanical damage and were originally installed or retro-
human error. Although many systems fitted with bearing temperature
installed with only one LVDT are sensors. These sensors may be
adequate, a complete TSI system thermocouples or RTDs. This
specification should consider two parameter is often overlooked
LVDTs located at each corner of the possibly due to the OEM output
turbine shell. A second sensor will display located at some other panel
monitor shell cocking or uneven not within the vicinity of the retro-
thermal growth which is a fairly fitted TSI system. Any bearings that
common occurrence during startup was not originally equipped with
when the sliding feet may have temperature sensors can be retro-
inadequate lubrication. fitted to accept thermocouples or
RTDs.
For more information about shell
expansion systems and applications Custom Cabinet
see the STI Application Note, Shell
Expansion, TSI Part-4. Congested control boards may
preclude installing the TSI rack
Differential Expansion requiring a stand-alone cabinet. This
cabinet can house auxiliary
Differential expansion measurements equipment associated with the new
are an important parameter receiving TSI system, such as power supplies,
much attention during turbine startup termination strips, external relays,
and warming. This parameter etc.
measures how the turbine rotor
expands in relation to the turbine The cabinet can be configured to
shell, or casing. many differing designs depending
upon the user's requirements.
A new differential expansion system Cabinets should be sturdy enough
using Eddy Probes can be retro-fitted withstand environmental conditions,
to any existing system. A Eddy Probe such as moisture content, explosive
is more reliable and robust than OEM atmospheres, temperature, etc.
supplied induction coil systems.

For more information about

differential expansion systems and
applications see the STI Application
Note, Differential Expansion, TSI
Part-3.

Frequency domain measurements and A band is essentially a band pass

analysis have become increasingly filter allowing only the frequencies
popular to diagnose a particular with the selected range to be
machine fault. This measurement measured. All other frequencies are
mode relies on processing the excluded from analysis. Many
transducer output signal using Fast modern machine monitor systems are
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithms capable of monitoring specific
to display the signal amplitudes as a frequency ranges using band
function of frequency. FFT analysis.
processing essentially separates
complex signals into individual RESOLUTION
components having a single
frequency content. This type of Frequency resolution is an area
display is commonly termed a requiring considerable attention. If
spectrum. the resolution is inadequate the entire
analysis process could be
An enhancement of spectral analysis meaningless or incorrect. Some
is to define specific frequency ranges instrument specifications list the
to perform band analysis. spectral resolution as lines. A high
Conceptually, band analysis is similar resolution would be 3200 lines per
to filtering a signal. The "filter" spectrum and a low resolution would
searches for frequencies only within be 100 lines per spectrum.
its frequency range. Certain
permanently installed machine
monitoring systems offer this
capability. This feature is quite
effective, once the particular spectral Each line of
range and resolution has been resolution
determined, to rapidly diagnose can be
machine faults. viewed as a
bucket or
SPECTRUM pail of a
specific
size. The signal frequencies can be
viewed as a tennis ball. If a tennis
ball's frequency matches the
frequency range of the bucket, it is
placed in the bucket. As the bucket
fills with tennis balls the peaks on the
A spectrum display is a display of spectrum display rise. Should the
signal amplitudes on the vertical axis frequency range of the buckets be too
and the signal frequencies on the large, the tennis balls will not be
horizontal axis. The frequency axis adequately separated to detect
units may be in hertz (hz) or in cycles individual frequencies. This would
per minute (CPM). Hertz or cycles lead to always using the highest
per second may be converted into resolution for spectral or band
CPM by multiplying by 60. For analysis. Higher resolutions require
example: 10 hz = 600 CPM. The greater amounts of time to display the
horizontal axis is scaled from 0 to spectrum, thus a balance must be
some maximum frequency (Fmax). reached between the capture time and
Individual signal frequencies will the spectral resolution.
appear as peaks or spikes, each
having a specific amplitude. Properly Frequency Domain Checklist
setting the Fmax will ensure that all
of the input signal is being analyzed. 1. Overall Amplitude
This setting can be verified 2. Time Base Waveform
mathematically by summing the
square of each amplitude peak. The 3. Orbits
square root of this summation should
approximate the overall amplitude
level obtained directly from the
transducer's output.
 BAND

ANALYSIS

Band analysis involves selecting

frequency ranges of interest to allow
rapid determination of a machine's
condition. Generally, each machine
fault will generate a specific, unique
frequency as the condition
deteriorates.
\\\

Eddy Current Transducers\

Eddy Current Transducers (Proximity The gauge of the selected wire

Probes) are the vibration transducer depends on the length of the
of choice when installing vibration instrument wire run, and should be as
monitoring on Journal Bearing follows to prevent loss of high
equipped rotating machinery. Eddy frequency signal:
Current Transducers are the only Up to 200 feet 22 AWG
transducers that provide Shaft Up to 1000 feet 20 AWG
Relative (shaft relative to the bearing) Up to 4000 feet 18 AWG
vibration measurement.
The following wiring connection
Several methods are usually available convention should be followed:
for the installation of Eddy Current
Transducers, including internal, Red -24 VDC
internal/external, and external
Black Common
mounting.
White Signal
Before selecting the appropriate
method of mounting Eddy Current Common Point Grounding
Transducers, special consideration To prevent Ground Loops from
needs to be given to several important creating system noise, system
installation considerations that will common, ground and instrument wire
determine the success of your shield must be connected to ground at
one location only. In most cases, the
 monitoring recommendation is to connect
program. commons, grounds and shields at the
Monitor location. This means that all
Theory of commons, grounds and shields must
Operation be floated or not connected at the
machine.
Eddy Current Transducers work on
the proximity theory of operation. A Occasionally due to installation
Eddy Current System consists of a methods instrument wire shields are
matched component system: a Probe, connected to ground at the machine
an Extension Cable and an case and not at the monitor. In this
Oscillator /Demodulator. A high case, all of the instrument wire
frequency RF signal @2 mHZ is shields must be floated or not
generated by the connected at the monitor.
Oscillator/Demodulator, sent through
the extension cable and radiated from Conduit
the Probe tip. Eddy currents are Dedicated conduit should be
generated in the surface of the shaft. provided in all installations for both
The Oscillator /Demodulator mechanical and noise protection.
demodulates the signal and provides a Flexible metal conduit should be used
modulated DC Voltage where the DC from the Eddy Probe to the Oscillator
portion is directly proportional to gap /Demodulator junction box, and rigid
(distance) and the AC portion is bonded metal conduit from the
directly proportional to vibration. In junction box to the monitor.
this way, a Eddy Current Transducer
can be used for both Radial Vibration Calibration
and distance measurements such as All Eddy Current Systems (Probe,
Thrust Position and Shaft Position. Cable and Oscillator Demodulator)
should be calibrated prior to being
Special Considerations installed. This can be done by using a
SKF-CM CMSS601 Static Calibrator,
Number of Transducers -24 VDC Power Supply and a Digital
All vibration transducers measure Volt Meter. The Probe is installed in
motion in their mounted plane. In the tester with the target set against
other words, shaft motion either the Probe tip. The micrometer with
directly away from or towards the target attached is then rotated away
mounted Eddy Current Probe will be from the Probe in 0.005" or 5 mil
measured as radial vibration. increments. The voltage reading is
recorded and graphed at each
On smaller less critical machines, one increment. The CMSS601 Calibrator
(1) Eddy Current Transducer system will produce a voltage change of 1.0
per bearing may be adequate for VDC +-0.05 VDC for each 5 mils of
machine protection. gap change while the target is within
the Systems linear range.
The single Eddy Current Probe will
then measure the shaft's vibration in
that given plane. Therefore, the Eddy
Current Probe should be mounted in
the plane where the greatest vibration
is expected.
On larger more critical machines, two
(2) Eddy Current Transducer systems
are normally recommended per
bearing. The Probes for this type of
installation should be mounted 900
apart from each other. Since the
Probes will measure the vibration in
their respective planes, the shaft's
total vibration within the journal
bearing is measured. An "Orbit" or
cartesian product of the two vibration
signals may be viewed when both
Eddy Current Transducers are
connected to an SKF-CM Information
System or an Oscilloscope.
Linear Range
Several versions of Eddy Current
Transducers are available with a
variety of Linear Ranges and body
styles. In most cases, SKF-CM's
CMSS68 with a linear range of 90
mils (0.090") is more than adequate
for Radial Vibration measurements...
Model Range Output Size
CMSS65 90 mils 200 1/4"x28 UNF
mV/mil 1" to 5" Length
CMSS68 90 mils 200 3/8"x24 UNF
mV/mil 1" to 9" Length
CMSS62 240 50 1" x 12 UNF 1" transducer's cable exiting the bearing
mils mV/mil to 5" Length
Target Material/Target Area
Target Material
Eddy Current Transducers are
calibrated at the factory for 4140
Steel unless specified otherwise. As
Eddy Currents are sensitive to the
Gap
When
installed,Eddy Current Probes must
be gapped properly. In most Radial
Vibration applications, gapping the
transducer to the center of the linear
range is adequate. For the Model
CMSS65 and 68 gap should be set for
-12.0 VDC using a Digital Volt Meter
(DVM), this corresponds to an
approximate mechanical gap of
0.060" or 60 mils. The voltage
method of gapping the Probe is
recommended over mechanical
gapping. In all cases, final Probe gap
voltage should be documented and
kept in a safe place.
Internal Mounting
Internal Mounting is accomplished
with the Eddy Current Probes
mounted internally to the machine or
bearing housing with a SKF-CM
CMSS903 Bracket or with a custom
designed and manufactured bracket.
The Transducer system must be
installed and gapped properly prior to
the bearing cover being reinstalled.
Provisions must be made for the
housing. This can be accomplished
by using an existing plug or fitting, or
by drilling and tapping a hole above
the oil line. The Transducer's cables
must also be tied down within the
bearing housing to prevent cable
failure from "windage".
For added safety and reliability, all
permeability and resistivity of the fasteners
shaft material any shaft material other inside the
than 4000 series steels must be bearing
specified at the time of order. In cases housing
of exotic shaft material a sample may should be
need to be supplied to the factory. safety wired,
or otherwise
Mechanical Runout prevented from working loose inside
Eddy Current Transducers are also the machine.
sensitive to the shaft smoothness for
Radial Vibration. A smooth (64 Advantages of Internal Mounting
micro-inch) area approximately 3
times the diameter of the Probe must  Most economical installation.
be provided for a viewing area. The  Less machining required.
prepared journal area on most shafts  True bearing relative
are wider than the bearing itself measurement.
allowing for Probe installation  Usually good viewing surface
immediately adjacent to the bearing. for Eddy Probe.

Electrical Runout Disadvantages of Internal Mounting

Since Eddy Current Transducers are
sensitive to the permeability and
resistivity of the target material and
the field of the transducer extends
into the surface area of the shaft by
approximately 15 mils (0.015"), care
must be taken to avoid non
homogeneous viewing area materials
such as Chrome.
 No access to Probe while
machine is running.
 Cables must be tied down due
to "windage".
 Transducer cable exits must
be provided.
 Care must be taken to avoid
oil leakage.

Another form of electrical runout can External/Internal Mounting

be caused by small magnetic fields
such as those left by Magna-fluxing External/Internal mounting is
without proper degaussing. accomplished when the Eddy Probes
are mounted with a Mounting
Perpendicular to shaft centerline Adapter (SKF-CM CMSS911 or
Care must be exercised in all 904). These adopters allow external
installations to insure that the Eddy access to the Probe yet allows the
Current probes are mounted Probe tip to be internal to the
perpendicular to the shaft center-line. machine or bearing housing. Care
Deviation by more than 1-2 degrees must be taken in drilling and tapping
will effect the output sensitivity of the the bearing housing or cover to insure
system. that the Eddy Probes will be
perpendicular to the shaft center line.
Orientation of Transducer(s)
 As most In some cases
machine due to space
casings are limitations
horizontally
split,
transducers External/Internal mounting is
are commonly found mounted at 450 accomplished by drilling or making
both sides of vertical 900 apart. use of existing holes in the bearing
itself, usually penetrating at a oil
If possible transducer orientation return groove.
should be consistent along the length
of the machine train for easier Advantages of External/Internal
machine diagnostics. In all cases Mounting
orientation should be well
documented.  Eddy Probe replacement
while machine is running.
Transducer (Probe) side clearances  Usually good viewing area for
The RF Field emitted from the Probe Eddy Probe.
tip of a Eddy Current Transducer in  Gap may be changed while
approximately a 450 coned machine is running.
shape.Clearance must be provided on
all sides of the Probe tip to prevent Disadvantages of External/Internal
interference with the RF Field. As an Mounting
example, if a bearing is drilled to
permit installation, the hole must be  May not be true bearing
counter bored to prevent side relative measurement.
clearance interference. Care must also  More machining required.
be taken to avoid collars or shoulders  Long Probe/Stinger length
on the shaft that may thermally (Resonance).
"grow" under the Probe tip as the
shaft grows from heat. External Mounting
Pure external Eddy Probe mounting
Eddy Current Probe tip to tip is usually a last resort installation.
clearances The only valid reason for using this
Although Probe tip to tip clearances method is inadequate space
are not normally an issue on most availablewithin the bearing housing
machines, it should be noted that for internal mounting. Special care
Eddy Current Probes radiate an RF must be given to the Eddy Probe
Field larger than the Probe tip itself. viewing area and mechanical
As an example, Model CMSS65 and protection of the transducer and
68 probe should never be installed cable.
with less than one (1) inch of Probe
tip to tip clearance. Larger Probes Advantages of External Mounting
require more clearance. Failure to
follow this rule will allow the
  Most Inexpensive Installation.
Oscillator/Demodulator to create a
"beat" frequency which will be the Disadvantages of External Mounting
sum and difference of the two
Oscillator/Demodulator RF  May be subject to "Glitch" or
frequencies. Electrical/Mechanical runout.
 Requires mechanical
System Cable Length and Junction protection.
Boxes
Eddy Current Transducer Systems are Installation Checklist
a "tuned" length, and several system
lengths are available. Length is 1. Mounting Type, Internal
measured from the Probe tip to the External/Internal External
Oscillator/Demodulator, and is 2. Number of Transducers, X or
measured electrically which can X&Y
slightly vary the physical length. For 3. Target Material, 4140 Other
example, the Model CMSS65 and 68 4. Smooth Target Area
are available in 5 and 10 meter 5. Size of Target Area
system lengths. Care must be taken to 6. Junction Box Location(s)
insure that the proper system length is 7. Metal Conduit (Junction Box
ordered to reach the required Junction to Monitor)
Box. 8. Flexible Conduit (Junction
Box to Probe)
Grounding and Noise 9. Correct Instrument Wire
Electrical noise is a very serious 10. Shielding Convention,
consideration when installing any Monitor or Machine
vibration transducer, and special care 11. Calibration
needs to be taken to prevent
unnecessary amounts of noise. As 12. Gap Set
most plant electrical noise is 60 HZ,
and many machines running speed is
also 60 HZ, it is difficult to separate
noise from actual vibration signal.
Therefore, noise must be kept to an
absolute minimum.

Instrument Wire
A 3-wire twisted shielded instrument
wire (ie; Belden #8770) is used to
connect each Oscillator/Demodulator
to the Signal Conditioner in the
Monitor. Where possible, a single run
of wire from the
Oscillator/Demodulator (Junction
Box) to the Monitor location should
be used. Splices should be avoided.
 Accelerometers have
been a popular choice
for rotating machinery
vibration monitoring.
They are a rugged,
compact, light weight
transducer with a
wide frequency response range.
Accelerometers have been used
extensively in many machinery monitoring
applications. This transducer is typically
attached to the outer surface of
machinery. Generally this machinery will
have parts that generate high frequency
signals, such as, rolling element bearings
or gear sets.
The application and installation of an
accelerometer must be carefully
considered for an accurate and reliable
measurement.
Accelerometers were designed to be
mounted on machine cases. This will
provide continuous or periodic sensing of can be supplied with a wide range of
absolute case motion (vibration relative to sensitivities for special applications such
free space) in terms of acceleration.
Theory of Operation
Accelerometers are inertial measurement
devices that convert mechanical motion to
an electrical signal. This signal is
proportional to the vibration's acceleration
using the piezoelectric principle. Inertial
measurement devices measure motion
relative to a mass. This follows Newton's
Third Law of Motion: A body acting on
another will result in an equal action on
the first.
Accelerometers consist of a piezoelectric
crystal and mass normally enclosed in a
protective metal case. As the mass applies
force to the crystal, the crystal creates a
charge proportional to acceleration. The
As can be seen
in the figure
above, the
mounting
method also has
an effect on the
operating
frequency range of an accelerometer. By
design,accelerometers have a natural
resonance which is 3 to 5 times higher
than the advertised high end frequency
response. The frequency response range
is limited so that a flat response is
provided over the operating range. The
advertised range is achievable only by bolt
mounting. Any other mounting method
will adversely affect the natural
resonance, and in turn the usable
frequency response range.
Sensitivity
Accelerometers utilized for vibration
monitoring are usually designed with a
sensitivity of 100 mv/g. Accelerometers
as structural analysis, geophysical
measurement, or very high frequency
analysis.
Frequency Range
Accelerometers are designed to measure
vibration over a given frequency range.
Once the particular frequencies of interest
for a machine are known, an
accelerometer may be selected. Typically,
an accelerometer for measuring machine
vibration will have a frequency range from
1 or 2 hertz to 8 or 10k hertz.
An accelerometer is used on machines
when high frequency measurements are
desired. In terms of energy sensed by the
transducer, acceleration will have larger
amplitudes as the frequency increases. At
low frequencies, the acceleration
charge output is measured in pico
Coulombs per g (pC/g) terms where g is
the force of gravity. Some sensors have
an internal charge amplifier, while others
have an external charge amplifier. The
charge amplifier converts the charge
output of the crystal to a proportional
voltage output in mV/g terms.
Current or Voltage Mode
This type of accelerometer has an
internal, low-output impedance amplifier
and requires an external power source.
The external power source can be either a
constant current source or a regulated
voltage source. This accelerometer is
normally a two wire transducer with one
wire for power and signal, and the second
wire for common. This type of
Accelerometers have a lower temperature
rating due to the internal amplifier
circuitry. Signal cable lengths up to 500
feet have negligible effect on the output
signal quality. Longer cable lengths will
reduce the effective frequency response
range.
Charge Mode
Charge mode accelerometers differ
slightly from current or voltage mode
types. This sensor has no internal
amplifier and therefore have a higher
temperature rating. An external charge
amplifier is supplied with a special adapter
cable which is matched to the
accelerometer. Field wiring is terminated
to the external charge amplifier. As with
current or voltage mode accelerometers,
signal cable lengths up to 500 feet have
negligible effect on the output signal
quality. Longer cable lengths will reduce
the effective frequency response range.
Special Considerations
Mounting
There are three mounting methods
typically used for monitoring applications: To prevent Ground Loops from creating
bolt mounting, glue, and magnets.
The bolt mounting method is the best
amplitudes may be quite small giving a
false impression of an acceptably
operating machine.
Calibration
Piezoelectric accelerometers can not be
recalibrated or adjusted. Unlike a velocity
pickup, this transducer has no moving
parts subject to normal wear. Therefore,
the output sensitivity does not require
periodic adjustments to correct for wear.
An accelerometers has internal
components which can be damaged from
shock or overheating. When an
accelerometer is suspect, a simple test of
the transducer's bias voltage will help
determine whether it should be removed
from service. An accelerometer's bias
voltage is the DC component of the
transducer's output signal. The bias
voltage is measured with a DC volt meter
across the transducer's signal output and
common leads with power applied. At the
same time, the power supply voltage
should also be checked to eliminate the
possibility of improper power voltage
affecting the bias voltage level.
Instrument Wire
The following table is a partial list of
Belden® Cables that should be used for
the instrument field wiring. These part
numbers may be cross referenced to
equivalent cables from other
manufacturers. The listed cables are
polyethylene insulated, twisted, with
Beldfoil shield, drain wire, and PVC jacket.
Belden® Part Numbers
P/N Nom. O.D.
18 AWG 8760 0.22"
20 AWG 8762 0.20"
22 AWG 8761 0.18"
Common Point Grounding
system noise, system common, ground
and instrument wire shield must be
connected to ground at one location only.
method available for permanent mounting In most cases, the recommendation is to
applications. this method is accomplished connect commons, grounds and shields at
via a stud or a machined block. This the Monitor location. This means that all
method permits the transducer to commons, grounds, and shields must be
measure vibration according to the floated or not connected at the machine.
manufacturer's specifications. The
mounting location for the accelerometer Occasionally, due to installation methods,
should be clean and paint free. The instrument wire shields are connected to
mounting surface should be spot-faced to ground at the machine case and not at the
a surface smoothness of 32 micro-inches. monitor. In this case, all of the instrument
The spot-faced diameter should be 10% wire shields must be floated or not
larger than the accelerometer diameter. connected at the monitor.
Any irregularities in the mounting surface
preparation will translate into improper Conduit
measurements or damage to the Dedicated rigid conduit should be provided
accelerometer. in all installations for mechanical and
noise protection. The conduit should be
The adhesive or glue mounting method metal, and in direct contact with each
provides a secure attachment without segment. All metal junction boxes and
extensive machining. However, this fittings should be in direct contact with the
mounting method will typically reduce the conduit. With this type of installation, a
operational frequency response range. single ground point can be established.
This reduction is due to the damping
qualities of the adhesive. Also, To facilitate removal of the accelerometer,
replacement or removal of the a junction box with a barrier terminal strip
accelerometer is more difficult than any should be located close to the transducer.
other attachment method. Surface The rigid conduit should be attached to
cleanliness is of prime importance for the junction box, and the final run to the
proper adhesive bonding. transducer can be metal flexible conduit.

The magnetic mounting method is Accelerometer Checklist

typically used for temporary
measurements with a portable data
1. Accelerometer Type, Current or
collector or analyzer. This method is not
Voltage Charge
recommended for permanent monitoring.
2. Sensitivity
The transducer may be inadvertently
3. Frequency Range
moved and the multiple surfaces and
4. Calibration
materials of the magnet may interfere
5. Correct Instrument Wire
with or increase high frequency signals.
6. Grounding
7. Rigid Conduit

8. Location(s) Documented
 he velocity
pickup is a
very
populartransducer or sensor for
monitoring the vibration of rotating
machinery. This type of vibration
transducer installs easily on
machines, and generally costs less
than other sensors. For these two
reasons, this type of transducer is
ideal for general purpose machine
applications. Velocity pickups have
been used as vibration transducers on
rotating machines for a very long
time, and they are still utilized for a
variety of applications today. Velocity
pickups are available in many
different physical configurations and
output sensitivities.
Theory of Operation
When a coil of wire is moved through
a magnetic field, a voltage is induced
across the end wires of the coil. The
induced voltage is caused by the
transferring of energy from the flux
field of the magnet to the wire coil.
As the coil is forced through the
magnetic field by vibratory motion, a
voltage signal representing the
vibration is produced.
Signal Conventions
A velocity signal produced by
vibratory motion is normally
Sensitivity
Some velocity pickups have the
highest output sensitivities of any
vibration pickup for rotating machine
applications. The sensitivity will vary
from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The higher output sensitivity is useful
in situations where induced electrical
noise is a problem. The larger signal
for a given vibration level will be less
influenced by the noise level. Some
velocity pickups with their
sensitivities are listed below:
Sensitivity
500
STI LCV100 mv/in/sec
Frequency Response
Velocity pickups will
have differing frequency
responses depending on
the manufacturer.
However, most pickups
have a frequency
response range in the
order of 10 to 1000 hz.
This is an important
consideration when
selecting a velocity
pickup for a rotating
machine application. The
pickup's frequency
response must be within
the expected vibration
frequencies of the
machine. Due to the
support spring for the
bobbin., a natural
mechanical resonance
occurs at the low end of
the frequency response
curve. This resonance is
either damped by the oil
contained within the
sensor, or with a shunt
resistor across the coil's
leads.
Calibration
Comparing vibration level readings taken by
different types of instruments and transducers
can be very confusing and can lead to mistrust
of the systems involved.
Knowledge of how to properly compare
readings is required before comparing any
readings is attempted.
This application note explains the variables
involved in some detail and will act as a
guideline as you compare vibration readings.
Transducer Type
Three (3) basic types of vibration transducers shaft rider which is a spring mounted
are available which correlate with the three (3) device that physically rides on the surface
types of measured physical motion,
Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement.
Accelerometer
Accelerometers are a piezo-electronic (crystal) assembly is five (5) or more times heavier
device. A pre- loaded crystal is charged with
current and as the crystal is compressed or de-
compressed by vibration an output
proportional to g's (gravity) is provided. A "g"
is equal to 9.80 meters/second2 or one (1)
standard earth gravity.
Accelerometers are normally used for high-
frequency bearing cap vibration readings
(Case/Bearing Cap Absolute on machines
using rolling element bearings. Usually the
output is integrated electronically to velocity
(in/sec or mm/sec). Other applications include
Shaft Absolute
Shaft Absolute is the measurement of the
shaft's motion relative to free space (or
absolute). Shaft Absolute can be
measured two (2) ways, the first being
electronically summing the
signals
of both a Eddy Probe measuring shaft
relative and a accelerometer measuring
case absolute, the second being using a
of the shaft, normally a velocity sensor
integrated to displacement is mounted on
top of the shaft rider. Shaft Absolute is
normally used where the rotating
than the case of the machine.
Engineering Units
0 to Peak (0-P)
Both Velocity (in.sec, mm/sec) and
Acceleration (g's) by definition are
measured in 0 to Peak or one/half the
Peak to Peak signal as viewed on an
oscilloscope.
Peak to Peak (P-P)
Displacement by definition is measured in
Peak to Peak or the actual Peak to Peak
Motion of the Shaft.
Root Mean Square (RMS)
Root Mean Square (RMS) is a popular
method of measuring Case or Bearing
Cap Vibration as many vibration
engineers have found that RMS is more
indicative of actual rolling element
monitoring Gears and High Frequency
Applications.
Velocity Pick-up
Two (2) types of Velocity Sensors exist,
mechanical and electronic. Mechanical types
are the most common and are made up of a
spring mounted coil mounted inside a magnet.
Vibration causes the coil to move in relation to
the magnet which produces a voltage output
directly proportional to Velocity. Electronic
Velocity Sensors are Accelerometers with an
electronic integrator built in to the unit. Output
of a Velocity Sensor can be expressed in many
different terms, inches/second (in/sec) or
millimeters/second (mm/sec) being the
standards.
Velocity Transducers are normally used for
Bearing Cap Vibration Monitoring
(Case/Bearing Cap Absolute) on machines
with rolling element bearings. They have the
advantage of high outputs and the signal is
read directly in velocity (in/sec or mm/sec).
Eddy Probes (Proximity)
Eddy or Proximity Probes are a displacement
device that measure the relative motion
between the probe mounting location and the
target (shaft). Output is directly proportional to
displacement and is usually measured in mils
(.001") or millimeters (mm).
bearing condition. Although rarely found
in vibration wave-forms a pure sine wave
RMS would be .707 times the 0 to Peak
Value.
Transducer Considerations
Frequency Response
The frequency response of a vibration
transducer is very important when
comparing readings. Transducers with a
wider or broader frequency response will
typically see more vibration if it is present
than a narrower bandwidth transducer.
How different vibration frequencies
contribute to overall values is dependent
on their phase relationship to each other,
some may add, some may subtract from
the overall value.
200
Eddy Probes Displacement
mv/mil
Velocity 500
Velocity
(Mechanical) mv/in/sec
Velocity 500-1000
Velocity
(Piezoelectric) mv/in/sec
Accelerometer Acceleration 100 mv/g
Mounting
How a transducer is mounted is also
critical to comparing measurements.
Accelerometers are extremely sensitive to
the method of attachment. Differences in
bandwidth can be measured between
hand-held, magnet attached, epoxy, and
stud mounted installations.
Installation instructions must be followed
precisely to obtain the manufactures
transducer specifications. Accelerometers
not mounted perfectly perpendicular to
the surface or on a flat surface will
produce stress risers which will also

Eddy Probes are used on machines with
Journal (Sleeve) type bearings. Where the
measurement of motion between the Bearing
and Shaft is critical.
Bearing Type
Two primary types of bearings are in use today,
Rolling Element Bearings and Journal or
Sleeve Bearings.
Rolling Element Bearings are zero (0)
clearance devices. All vibration of the shaft is instruments used before the outputs can
transmitted directly to the bearing cap.
Journal or Sleeve Bearings are designed so that again it must be understood that the
the oil film provides damping. The shaft is free readings be of the same type or they will
to vibrate within the bearing. Due to the
damping provided by the oil film very little of
the shaft vibration is transmitted to the bearing D = Displacement, P-P, Mils.
cap. The oil film damping provides even
higher levels of attenuation to higher
frequencies.
produce false signals.
Measurement Location
When comparing readings it is essential
that all readings are taken at the same
location and the same plane. Even small
differences in location can effect the
overall readings. All vibration transducers
are single plane devices and only measure
in the plane in which they are held or are
mounted.
Instrument Considerations
All Instruments handle signal is different
ways. Different instruments have their
own frequency response and filtering.
Knowledge must be gained on the
be compared even when they use the
same transducer.
Conversion Formulas
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
are mathematically related to each other
as a function of frequency. Electronic
integrators or differentiation are also used
to change one term to the other. Once
not agree.
V = Velocity, 0-P, in/sec.
A = Acceleration, 0-P, g's.
D = 19.10 x 103 x (V/CPM)
D = 70.4 x 106 x (A/CPM2)
V = 52.36 x 10-6 x D x CPM
V = 3.87 x 103 x (A/CPM)
A = 14.2 x 10-9 x D x CPM2
A = 0.27 x 10-3 x V x CPM

Measurement Type
Only measurements of the same type can be
compared. Bearing Cap or Case Vibration
cannot be directly compared to Shaft Relative
or Shaft Absolute and visa versa.
Case Absolute
Case or Bearing Cap Absolute is the
measurement of the Case or Bearings Caps
(Location of Transducer) motion relative to
free space (or absolute motion). Case or Cap
Absolute is usually used for monitoring
Rolling Element Bearings.
Shaft Relative
Shaft Relative is the measurement of motion
between the Shaft and whatever the measuring
devise is mounted to. This measurement is
normally taken with a NCPU or Proximity
Sensor. Shaft Relative measurements are used
for Journal or Sleeve Bearing Applications.
Summary
In General it is difficult to get any two
readings to precisely agree with one
another. Even when care is taken to insure
that transducers and locations are the
same and that the measurement type is the
same, agreement within +-30% depending
on the instrument is considered good.
Even though overall values will not agree
precisely spectrum Data or frequencies
will be comparable within the limits of
the bandwidth of the different
instruments.
Checklist
1. Is Transducer Type the same
2. Bearing Type
3. Is Measurement Type the Same
4. Engineering Units the same
5. Frequency Response of
Transducer
6. Mounted Transducer Frequency
Response
7. Where Readings Taken at the
same location
8. Where Readings Taken in the
same Plane
9. Instrument Frequency Response
 This application
note presents
specific failure
modes
associated with
machinery
having journal bearings. Signal
measurements presented here are
time waveforms that are collected
with two orthogonally located Eddy
Probes, or proximity type sensors.
Although certain faults can be
analyzed with spectrum analyzers,
the majority of these faults can be
diagnosed using orbit analysis alone.
BALANCE
Diagnosis of a degrading balance
condition is performed by
concentrating on the synchronous
amplitude which coincides with the
rotor speed. This can be
accomplished by viewing the spectra
from any single Eddy Probe sensor. A
similar diagnosis can be made by
viewing the filtered signals from two
orthogonally mounted Eddy Probes
sensors as orbits. As the balance
condition deteriorates the size, and
sometimes the shape, of the orbit will
grow larger until the peak-to- peak
amplitude exceeds acceptable limits. EXCESSIVE PRELOAD
OIL WHIP
Oil whip occurs
during the later
stages of an oil
whirl condition and it has a
distinctive orbital display. The
display, with the phase input
superimposed on the display, appears
to have several phase marks.This
display will be round in shape and the
amplitude will greater that the
amplitude noted during oil whirl.
The size of the orbit be will larger
because the shaft uses up the entire
bearing clearance as an oil wedge can
no longer be established by the rotor
and the shaft is in direct metal-to-
metal contact with the bearing. The
orbit display will no longer rotate
because the oil whirl frequency has
coincided with the first natural
resonance, or critical speed, and has
"locked" onto this frequency. Oil
whip is a dangerous condition
because the rotor uses up the entire
bearing clearance and is in direct
metal-to-metal contact that will wear
away the bearing rapidly and destroy
the rotor if not corrected.
All journal bearing machines have
some amount of preload so that a
stable oil wedge can be established.
The preload may be internally or
externally produced. Internal sources
of preloads are from gear meshing or
hydraulic loading during pumping
actions. External preloads may be
from coupling misalignment or
piping and support system thermal
changes. These sources of preload
create an elliptical orbit that is
CRACKED SHAFT flattened in the
direction of the
A crack in a rotor, or shaft, can preload vector.
generate several
different effects As the preload
on how the increases the
machine orbit is further
behaves: a flattened. As excessive preload
change in the increasesfurther the orbit begins to
vibration level, collapse to form a "banana" shape as
a change in the operating phase the shaft tries to continue its normal
angle, and/or a change in the rotation pattern and direction.
resonance frequency as the machine
starts or stops. Spectral analysis can After the orbit has been flattened into
be used to identify this fault, but the "banana" shape a 2X frequency is
observing filtered, synchronous orbits present on spectra displays. Heavy
with the phase angle superimposed preloads further distort the orbit into
on the orbit allows rapid a figure eight shape. As preload
identification of this condition. increases the shaft centerline will
shift in the direction of the preload
Changes in the filtered amplitude can vector.
be determined using orbits analysis.
By superimposing the phase angle RUB
input signal onto the orbit a shift in
this parameter can be easily A common problem in newly rebuilt
determined. By noting the operating or modified rotors is a slight rubbing
speed at which the resonance condition as the rotor is initially
frequencies occur, a change in this operated. Rotor rubs are not a
frequency may indicate the phenomenon which continues over an
"possibility" of a crack existing. extended period; they usually
increase the clearances until the rub
The "possibility" must be emphasized has been cleared or, if not corrected,
and carefully analyzed because many they will wear away the internal
other causes can produce these clearances until the machine cannot
changes, such as, a damaged or loose be operated. The shape of the orbit
bearing support, foundation display will differ depending upon
problems, loose rotating the
parts...basically anything that can relationship of
influence the "system" mass, the shaft
damping, and/or stiffness. speed to the
first natural
LOOSE ROTATING PART frequency and
the severity of
A loose rotating part can generate the rub.
unusual vibration signals. They may
fluctuate in amplitude and the phase Spectra
Acceleration envelope measurements Inadequate lubrication, which can
are a new introduction to the inventory encompass insufficient quantity,
available to vibration analysts. excessive quantity, and/or improper
Although initially it would seem to be specifications, can be readily identified
most useful for detecting rolling using acceleration envelope
element bearing defects (BPFO, BPFI, measurements. This phenomenon
BSF, FTF), much more can be manifests itself as a shifting of the
performed once the frequency ranges noise floor. Properly installed and
and applications of other more operating bearings will not necessarily
traditional vibration parameters are generate specific bearing defect
considered. Once it is understood how frequencies when an inadequate
acceleration envelope signals are lubrication condition exists.
processed, nearly all analysis could be
accomplished with these signals.
Phenomena associated with motor
electrical and gear meshing problems
fall into the frequency range of
acceleration envelope processing.
Unbalance and other lower order
problems do not initially fall into
envelope analysis, but as these Figure 5
problems degrade they can be detected.
Figure 5 illustrates how a lubrication
Acceleration envelope signatures are problem can be identified. The left
essentially band passed signals where portion of the spectra has been
lower order and higher order elevated with overall amplitudes of 1.1
frequencies are removed. The G's. Once the bearing was greased the
remaining frequency range is most elevated portion shifted back down,
commonly associated with bearing figure 6. Overall amplitudes were
defect frequencies. Normally, running reduced to 0.7 G's.
speed related frequencies are removed
by the filters and are not present in
acceleration envelope spectra.
However, when a running speed order
frequency becomes severe enough it
will appear in the envelope signature.
This is due to the presence of
numerous harmonics of the lower Figure 6
order frequency, which are not
detectable in velocity signals, falling Sometimes the entire noise floor is
into the envelope filter range. elevated when a lubrication problem
exist, as illustrated in figures 7 and 8.
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate that when
lower velocity signals are present the
running speed components will not be
present in acceleration envelope
signatures. These spectra were
collected on the same day during a
routine PM data collection visit.
Figure 7 shows the elevated noise
floor. No identifiable bearing defect
frequencies are present, only an
elevated noise floor. Overall
amplitudes were at 8.2 G's.

Figure 7

Figure 1 Figure 8 was collected after the

bearing was lubricated. Note that
Acceleration envelope measurements bearing defect frequencies are not
were taken on same day. Note that present and the noise floor has
1Xrpm is missing in Figure 2 due to dropped. The overall amplitude
the filtering used (30k-600k cpm). dropped to 1.1 G's.
Also, note the low noise floor and the
lack of bearing frequencies in the
spectrum. This bearing had recently
been installed, no defects were
identifiable, and the lubrication is
adequate for continued operation. Figure 8

CONCLUSION

Acceleration Envelope measurements,

due to the signal filtering, can be used
Figure 2 to identify more machinery defects
than damaged rolling element
As the running speed components and bearings. This measurement parameter
their harmonics become larger along is commonly only used to identify the
with the presence of higher order smaller frequencies associated with
harmonics the "ringing" associated bearing defects.
with these harmonically related
frequency components fall into the If machinery defects are classified into
frequency range of the acceleration lower order problems and higher order
envelope measurements. Running problems they can be effectively
speed frequencies are now present in diagnosed with acceleration
acceleration envelope measurements. enveloping measurements. Lower
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate this order problems would be balance,
phenomenon. misalignment, looseness due to
fasteners, or looseness due to worn
bearings. Higher order problems would
be bearing defect frequencies, motor
 bar pass frequencies, or gearmesh
frequencies.

The presence of lower order problems

Figure 3
The velocity spectrum, figure 3, has a
much larger 1Xrpm frequency
component which now appears in the
acceleration envelope spectrum, figure
4.
in envelope spectra indicate a severe
problem which most likely will need
immediate attention. The filtering will
eliminate these frequencies from an
otherwise healthy machine.
Tracking of higher order problems can
be accomplished normally using
envelope measurements.

Figure 4

LUBRICATION

Lubrication problems, not normally

analyzed with velocity signatures, but
can sometimes be detected in
acceleration signatures, can readily be
detected using acceleration envelope
signatures. Experience has shown that
an inadequate lubrication condition
will cause a shift in the noise floor of
the signature.

An understanding of how a spring Below

mass system responds to vibratory Resonance
influences is helpful in If each of
understanding, recognizing and the
solving many problems encountered individual
in vibration measurements. In this terms are
application note the combined effects
represented by a vector, and the
of system mass, stiffness, and influences of frequency are included,
damping properties are presented to the result is a type of graph, similar in
reveal the cause and characteristics of
shape to a triangle. The figure is a
resonance. graphical representation of the
relationships of the terms at low
All machines have three fundamental frequencies, i.e. slow rotor speeds.
traits which combine to determine The total restraint vector is the
 summation of all three vector terms.
how the machine will react to Note that the damping and mass
excitation forces. These traits are terms do not have much influence on
stiffness K, damping D, and mass M. the total restraint at low frequencies,
These traits, actually represent forcesleaving the stiffness term as the
inherent to every machine and dominant term. This means that at
structure, tend to resist or oppose frequencies
vibration. below the
resonance
From an analysis standpoint, it should frequency the
be remembered that machines, along rotor behaves
with their supporting structures, are as a pure
complex systems consisting of many spring, sometimes called a stiff shaft
spring-mass systems, each with its rotor.
own natural frequency. Also, each of
these systems may have differing At Resonance
degrees of freedom with a differing As the rotor frequency increases, the
natural frequency. This collection of influence of the damping and mass
possible resonant frequencies, and the terms become greater due to the
many excitation frequencies, all influence of and ² in the mass and
combine to make resonance a very velocity terms. At a certain frequency
common problem for the transient the stiffness and mass terms cancel
vibration analyst. Understanding the each other due to the 180 phase
basics of how a system responds to difference in the terms. The figure
vibratory forces is important to presents the vectorial relationships
anyone involved in vibration and the resultant vibration amplitude
measurement, analysis, and response at resonance condition.
balancing. From a measurement
standpoint, it is important to When these terms cancel each other
remember that every object has a the only remaining restraint term is
resonant frequency...machinery, the damping term to control the
pickups, brackets, etc. Resonance of a system vibration. As the stiffness and
pickup mounting bracket, or the mass terms approach the point of
pickup itself, will introduce canceling each other, the system's
significant errors to measurements. vibration amplitude will increase to a
maximum, constrained only by the
RESTRAINING FORCE available damping from any lubricant
present. At resonance the system has
The combined effects of the lost the restraining forces of the
restraining forces of stiffness, stiffness and mass terms. A machine
damping, and mass determine how a supported by rolling element
system will respond to a given bearings, which have little or no
exciting force. Mathematically the damping capabilities, will exhibit a
relationship is represented by: dramatic and sharp increase in
M a + D v + K x = Me ² e sin( t - ) vibration amplitude in this region.
This phenomenon is referred to the
For simplification, the above resonance
equation can be written as: frequency or
Mass term + Damping term + "critical"
Stiffness Term = Restraining Force speed.
Operation in this zone should be
The restraining forces, represented by avoided since any change in the
the various terms in the equation, are available damping can have a
what determines how a rotor behaves dramatic effect upon the measured
throughout its operating range. Any vibration levels.
excitation force, such as unbalance, is
always in equilibrium with the Above Resonance
restraining forces of mass, damping, As the rotor frequency continues to
and stiffness. The amount of increase, the mass term, which is
measured vibration, as a result of proportional to ², becomes the
these combined forces, will depend predominant portion of the total
upon the combined effect of all three restraint force, growing faster than
terms in the equation. The phase the other terms. The figure shows the
angle ( ) change as a rotor increases vector representation of the forces
speed and surpasses a resonance and the vibration amplitude at high
region is dependant upon on the rotor frequencies. Note that as speed
relationship between the various increases further the phase angle
terms. change approaches another 90 shift.
The rotor behaves as a pure mass
PHASE RELATIONSHIP with little impact from the constant
stiffness term and the relatively
To understand the phase relationships slowly changing damping term. A
of the terms, consider that the mass rotor operating in this region is called
term is proportional to acceleration, a flexible rotor since it rotates around
damping term is proportional to its mass centerline, not its geometric
velocity, and the stiffness term is centerline.
proportional to displacement. In
equation form, the acceleration term Thus, as rotor frequencies increase,
= -x ² sin( t) and the velocity term = x three regions are found where one of
cos( t). Examining the relationship of the component terms is dominant
the acceleration and velocity over the other two terms. The
equations, a 90 phase difference summation of the three terms is
exists as the terms are integrated. represented by the vector labeled:
Another integration produces the Total Restraint. The total restraint
stiffness term that is proportional to vector is what is measured as
displacement (x) only, and the vibration amplitude and its associated
relationship between the stiffness and phase angle. As the rotor speed passes
damping terms have another 90 phase through each of these regions the
shift. measured phase angle will change by
90 and will exhibit an overall phase
The effects of frequency ( ) should shift of 180 as it surpasses a critical
also be considered along with the "resonance" speed: Nc.
phase shifts noted. Stiffness being
proportional to displacement only,
and not influenced by frequency,
means that essentially the stiffness
term is constant throughout all
frequency ranges. However, the
damping and mass terms are
influenced by and ², respectively.