Human Factors Engineering /

Ergonomics
Science never appears so
beautiful as when applied to the
uses of human life.
Thomas Jefferson
 Ergonomics = the Greek words…
ergo (work) + nomos (laws)

• work physiology, biomechanics,

Ergonomics and workstation design

(Europe)

•research in experimental
Human Factors psychology, where the focus was on
human performance and systems
(USA) design
Analysis of the human- machine interface requires
interdisciplinary knowledge of biomechanics, cognitive
psychology, and systems design methodology.
Design Problems and Corresponding Knowledge
Arising from the Introduction of Computers in the
Workplace
 Design is a never-ending activity. There are always
opportunities for improvements or modifications.

Ergonomics = interdisciplinary nature = engineering,

physiology, psychology, medical, anthropology ….others
 Imagine that the system in man-machine interface
figure as above was redesigned with…..

• three displays rather than one

• that some of the operator’s decisions were taken over
by a decision support system
• that the user’s input to the computer system was made
by voice recognition technology rather than manual
keying

…This type of system is currently used in fighter aircrafts.

In designing such a system the HFE specialist would

have to consider many issues
 Definition of FHE (Helander)

Considering environmental and organizational

constraints,

Use knowledge of human abilities and
limitations

To design the system, organization, job,
machine, tool, or consumer product

So that it is safe, efficient, and comfortable to
use.
 Definitions of Ergonomics [The International
Ergonomics Association (2000)]
“Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific
discipline concerned with the understanding of
interactions among humans and other elements of a
system, and the profession that applies theory,
principles, data and methods to design in order to
optimize human well-being and overall system
performance.”

“Ergonomists contribute to the design and evaluation of

tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems in
order to make them compatible with the needs, abilities
and limitations of people.”
Basic Objectives of Ergonomics

Productivity

Safety

Operator
Satisfaction
Important Emerging Areas in
Ergonomics around the World
Most HFE problems are well described by a
systems approach.

An environment- operator-machine system (Helander, 1997).

 The development over the last 50 years.

1950s: Military ergonomics

1960s: Industrial ergonomics
1970s: Consumer products ergonomics
1980s: Human-computer interaction and
software ergonomics
 1990s: Cognitive ergonomics and organization
ergonomics
2000s: Global communication, internet, and
virtual collaboration
Measurement of human dimensions

Anthropos = human

Metrikos = measuring
 Let the small
person reach.
Anthropometry
Objectives
Let the large
person fit.
• A basic philosophy in ergonomics is to design
workstations that are comfortable, convenient,
and productive to work at.
• Ideally, workstations should be designed to fit
both the body and the mind of the operator.
• Anthropometry focuses on the body parts.
• Using anthropometric design principles it is
possible for a variety of people to find physical
comfort at a workstation.
• On the other hand, violation of these principles
may create bad work postures leading to fatigue,
loss of productivity, and sometimes injury.
• Anthropometry is not only a concern about
appropriate working height, but also about
how the operator can easily access controls
and input devices.
• In an automobile it should be possible for a
small driver to reach the controls on the
dashboard while being held back by the
seatbelt.
• Similarly, the controls of machine tools must
be easy to reach.
The lathe shown in figure
was originally described by
Singleton (1962).

To control this particular

piece of equipment, the
ideal operator should be…

•137 cm (4.5 ft) tall,

•62 cm (2 ft) across the
shoulders,
•235 cm (8 ft) arm span,
(which is close to the shape
of a gorilla!)
 Why should designers be aware of
anthropometrics, human factors and ergonomics?

• Allows designers to accommodate various percentiles

of the population so the majority of people can use
and interact with the product or service being
designed.

• Designers must be aware of human factors,

anthropometrics and ergonomics to ensure their
product or service is safe and socially responsible.
(designing public places is especially sensitive to these
conditions)
The Impact of Human Factors, Ergonomics &
Anthropometry on Design
A designer can use Human Factors,
Ergonomics & Anthropometry to their
advantage or these things may work against
their design. Good design observes these
qualities first because no one wants to use or
own a product or service which carries out the
task poorly or dangerously.
 Consider the following….
• A Toilet designed by a fashion designer

Fashion designers work to a fantasy of what

the human body looks like. They are taught
how to draw human figures in a distorted,
idealized way.
The impact designers can have on society;

• The two figures in the middle are typical of fashion

design drawings. Designs are based on these oddly
proportioned, fantasy, body shapes.

• The figures on either side were statistical averages

from a series of anthropometrics studies done with
US military personnel. Whilst limited to a select age
range and profession, these nonetheless are based
on measurable and observable reality. These are real
body shapes. (From Human Dimension & Interior Space by Julius Panero
and Martin Zelnilk)
 The Result
• If a product designer were to work off the same
fantasy body shapes that fashion designers do, a
typical toilet would look like this.

• None of us would willingly climb a stepladder every

time we need to use our toilet - how silly would that
be? And yet, why is it that we continue to try and fit
into clothes that were not designed for our bodies to
begin with, or shoes that are uncomfortable and
damage our feet?

….This is most peculiar!!!

The result is a tall, narrow and most uncomfortable toilet.
•http://www.ergonomics4schools.com/lzone/anthropometry.htm

•www.baddesigns.com (a great website to help illustrate bad

design when thinking of human factors)
 Measuring Human Dimensions
• There are large differences in body size due to gender and
genetics. Men are, on average, 13 cm (5 in) taller than women
and are larger in most other body measures as well.

• The average male stature in the U.S. is 167 cm (66 in),

whereas while that in Vietnam is 152 cm (60 in).

• During the last 20 years the average Japanese teenager has

become 12 cm taller

• According to a study done in the U.K., the average male

manager is 3–4 cm taller than the average male blue-collar
worker
Importance of Anthropometric Considerations in Design

If a piece of equipment…

Would fit
roughly

- 25% of Thais
- 10% of Vietnamese
• Anthropometric measures are usually expressed as
percentiles. The most common are the 5th, 50th, and 95th
percentile.

• Anthropometric data are usually normally distributed.

Through Mean and SD of distribution, it is possible to
calculate any percentile value. (For example, the 95th
percentile equals the mean value plus 1.65 SD and the 5th
percentile equals the mean minus 1.65 SD)

• The common procedure is to design for a range of population

from the 5th percentile female (small operator) to the 95th
percentile male (large operator).

• The 5th% to 95th% range accommodates approximately 90%

of the population.
The relative sizes of different percentile humans
DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASURES
DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASURES
1. Tibial height: This measure is important for manual
materials handling. Items located between the tibial height
and the knuckle height must usually be picked up from a
stooped position.

2. Knuckle height: This height represents the lowest level at

which an operator can handle an object without having to
bend the knees or the back. The range between the knuckle
height and the shoulder height is ideal for manual materials
handling and should be used in industry.

3. Elbow height: This is an important marker for determining

work height and table height.

4. Shoulder (acromion) height: Objects located above shoulder

height are difficult to lift, since relatively weaker muscles are
employed. There is also an increased risk of dropping items.
5. Stature: This is used to determine the minimum overhead clearance
required to avoid head collision.

6. Functional overhead reach: This is used to determine the maximum

height of overhead controls.

7. Functional forward reach: Items that are often used within the
workstation should be located within the functional reach.

8. Buttock-knee depth: This defines the seat depth for chairs and
clearance under the work table.

9. Buttock-popliteal depth: This is used to determine the length of the

seat pad.

10. Popliteal height: This is used to determine the range of adjustability

for adjustable chairs.
11. Thigh clearance: Sitting elbow height and thigh
clearance help to define how thick the table top and
the top drawer can be.

12. Sitting elbow height: Sitting elbow height and

popliteal height help to define table height.

13. Sitting eye height: Visual displays should be

located below the horizontal plane defined by the
eye height.

14. Sitting height: This is used to determine the

vertical clearance required for a seated work
posture.
15. Hip breadth: This is used to determine the breadth of chairs
and whole body access for clearance.

16.Elbow-to-elbow breadth: This is used to determine the

width of seat backs and the distance between arm rests.

17. Grip breadth, inside diameter: This is used to determine the

circumference of hand tools and the separation of handles.

18. Interpupillary distance: This is an important measure in

determining the adjustability of eyepieces on microscopes.
Comparison of anthropometric measures (cm) for a
sitting 5th percentile female and a sitting 95th
percentile male—height- adjustable chairs and tables
can be used to compensate for these differences.
Anthropometric Design Reference Points

In designing cars, it is common to start

with the hip joint or hip reference
point (HRP), and then to take the
measures up to the head and hands
and down to the feet.

Racing cars start off with the

accelerator reference point (ARP) and
then lay out the rest of the body going
upwards.

In fighter planes the design will start

with the eye or eye reference point
(ERP), and the rest of the body can be
modeled going downwards.

For assembly work in manufacturing,

hand reference point (HARP) is used.
 Anthropometric Measurement

Structural Data Functional Data

Static (Fixed Dynamic (With
Position) Movement)
Measuring Devices
 Newer Measuring Devices
– Use of grids
– Photographs
– Image processing techniques
– Can record all three dimensional aspects
– Infinite number of measurements
– Whole body scanner (Combined with
modeling software)
 Design Principles
• Designing for extreme individuals
– Design for the maximum population value when a
maximum value must accommodate almost everyone.
E.g. Doorways, escape hatch in airplane, ladders, etc.
• This value is commonly the 95th percentile male for
the target population.
– Design for the minimum population value when a
minimum value must accommodate almost everyone.
E.g. Distance to control button from the operator
(reach); amount of force to press a button
• This value is commonly the 5th percentile female for
the target population.
• Designing for an Adjustable Range
– Designing for the 5th female/95th male of the target
population will accommodate 95% of the population.
• 95% because of the overlap in female/male body
dimensions (if the male/female ratio is 50/50).
• Examples are auto seats, stocking hats, office chairs,
desk height, key board height

• Designing for the Average

– Use where adjustability is impractical, e.g. auto
steering wheel, supermarket check-out counter, etc.
– Where the design is non-critical, e.g. door knob, snack
machine, etc.
 Designing for Motion
• Select the major body joints involved

• Adjust your measured body dimensions to real world

conditions
– e.g. relaxed standing/sitting postures, shoes, clothing,
hand tool reach, forward bend, etc.

• Select appropriate motion ranges in the body joints, e.g.

knee angle between 60-105 degrees, or as a motion
envelope.
– Avoid twisting, forward bending, prolonged static
postures, and holding the arms raised.
 7 Steps to Apply Anthropometric Data
(To counter variability in human body dimensions)

• Identify important dimensions, e.g. hip breadth, popliteal

height (lower leg length), seat depth (buttock to popliteal length) etc.
for a chair seat
• Identify user population, e.g. children, women, U.S. population,
world population, etc.
• Determine principles to use (e.g. extremes, average, adjustable)
• Select the range to accommodate, e.g any%, 90%, 95%
• Find the relevant data, e.g. from anthropometric data tables.
• Make modifications, e.g. adult heavy clothing adds ~4-6 linear
inches.
• Test critical dimensions with a mock-up, user testing, or a
virtual model.
Acceptable/Unacceptable
Work Positions
Effect of Workstation Design
on Posture
 Minimum dimensions
• A door handle must not be lower than the
highest standing knuckle height in a
population so that all users can open the door
without stooping
• The width of a chair must be no narrower
than the hip breadth of a large woman
• The height of a doorway must be no lower
than the stature of a tall man (plus an
allowance for clothing and shoes).
 Maximum dimensions
• A door lock must be no higher than the
maximum vertical reach of a small person.
 Percentile Example
• For female stature (from Table)
– µ = 160.5 cm
– σ = 6.6 cm
• What female stature represents the 37.5th %-ile?
– From normal distribution:
z(37.5%) = -0.32
Thus, X(37.5%) = µ + zσ σ
= 160.5 - (0.32)(6.6)
= 158.4 cm
 Anthropometry Problems
• A person’s height is 170 cm. What percentile is his
stature among US Adult males? US stature mean =
175.6 cm, SD = 6.7 cm.

• What is the stature of a 85th percentile female? Mean

stature : 1629 mm, SD = 64 mm.

• Mr. X’s popliteal height is 38.5cm. What percentile is

his popliteal height among the US population? Mean
popliteal height : 434 mm, SD = 25 mm.