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IN THIS ISSUE AUGUST 2015
VOL. 54, NO. 8

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL WORLDWIDE MATERIALS PERFORMANCE

50 68
SPECIAL FEATURE
30 NACE International Expert Panel: Pipeline Stress Corrosion
Cracking: Detection and Control
Gretchen A. Jacobson, Director, Content Development

CATHODIC PROTECTION
38 Using Applied Potentials for Bioflm Removal from
Titanium Surfaces
S.D. Ruth Nithila, R.P. George, B. Anandkumar, and U. Kamachi Mudali,
FNACE

44 Cathodic Protection Essentials

COATINGS & LININGS

46 Erosion Behavior of Coatings at Four Impingement Angles
Yang Li and Ying Lian

50 Coatings & Linings Essentials

About the Cover
Corrosion of underground natural gas and liquid petroleum
pipelines occurs by a variety of forms and requires
specialized mitigation methods to detect and control.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT First identifed in the 1960s, stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
is a form of corrosion that results in clusters or colonies
54 Low-Level Dissolved Oxygen Measurement in Monoethylene
Glycol of cracks on the external surface of the affected pipeline.
Mobin Salasi, Jens Maier, Grahame Strong, and Andrew Mackay In this issue of MP, three NACE International Fellows who
are experts in SCC answer a series of questions on the
60 Chemical Treatment Essentials combined causes of SCC, the technologies needed to
detect and address this form of corrosion, and unfolding
developments to improve the performance and safety of
pipelines susceptible to SCC (p. 30).

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN

64 Failure Analysis: Investigation of a Cracked Catalyst
Preparation Vessel
T. Chowwanonthapunya and R. Wiriyanon

68 Wineries: Equipment, Materials, and Corrosion

B. Valdez, M. Schorr, N. Lothan, and A. Eliezer

72 Materials Selection & Design Essentials

2 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

IN THIS ISSUE AUGUST 2015
VOL. 54, NO. 8

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL WORLDWIDE MATERIALS PERFORMANCE

6 18 72
DEPARTMENTS

6 Up Front

12 Viewpoint

The MP Blog
13
45 16
18
What’s Online @ naceMP.com

Material Matters
18. Understanding a new standard for feld-applied pipeline coatings
20. Study analyzes corrosion failure of discharge pipeline for sour hydrocarbon well
24. Company News
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4 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

UP FRONT
‘Green’ Coating Developed
for Aircraft Missile Launchers
Two F-16 Fighting Falcons from the
31st Fighter Wing, Aviano Air Base, Italy.
U.S. Air Force photo/Senior Airman
Christine Griffths.
Deploying missiles at high speed from
fighter aircraft can cause wear and goug-
ing in the missile launcher rails, which can
limit their useful life. Precoating the rails,
or conductors, of a missile launcher can
significantly delay the onset of wear. IBC
Materials & Technologies, Inc. (Lebanon,
6 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Indiana), under an Air Force Small Busi-
ness Innovation Research (SBIR) contract
with the Air Force Research Laboratory’s
Materials and Manufacturing Directorate,
developed a plasma electrolytic oxidation
(PEO) nanoceramic coating that provides
an alternative to the coatings used today
on missile launcher components. The new
coating—a green technology—uses only
water-based, low-concentration electro-
lytes, which produce a significantly
harder, denser, and lower friction ceramic
coating that provides more than a 10-fold
improvement in corrosion and wear resis-
tance and a 27% improvement in fatigue
life. Anodizing has been the standard pro-
tective coating for aluminum and other
light alloys; however, the process uses
chromic and sulfuric acids, which produce
hazardous byproducts such as sulfuric
acid fumes and aluminum hydroxide that
require costly cleanup and remediation
processes. The PEO coatings have been
qualified for use on the LAU-12X Advanced
Medium Range Air-to-Air Missile (AM-
RAAM) launchers on the F-15, F-16, F-18,
and other aircraft platforms. For more
information, visit sbir.gov.
CP Appeared Adequate
for Failed Oil Pipeline
in California
The U.S. Department of Transportation’s
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration (PHMSA) issued a correc-
tive action order to Plains Pipeline, LP
(Houston, Texas) regarding the May 19,
2015 failure of the company’s Line 901 pipe-
line near Goleta, California and subsequent
release of ~1,700 to 2,500 bbl (270,300 to
397,500 L) of heavy crude oil into the
Pacific Ocean at Refugio State Beach. Line
Continued on page 8
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
UP FRONT
Continued from page 6
901 is a 24-in (610-mm) diameter pipeline
~10 miles (16 km) in length that transports
crude oil from Exxon Mobil’s breakout
storage tanks in Las Flores Canyon to
Plains Pipeline’s Gaviota Pump station.
PHMSA initiated an investigation of
the accident and, as of press time, the
cause of the failure had not yet been deter-
mined; however, in its preliminary find-
ings, PHMSA reported that the results of
Plains Pipeline’s May 5, 2015 inline inspec-
tion (ILI) survey revealed metal loss of
~45% of the original wall thickness in the
area of the pipe that failed and four areas
on Line 901 with pipe anomalies. Examina-
tion and measurements of three of these
areas indicated extensive external corro-
sion, primarily on the bottom quadrant of
the pipe. The deepest metal loss at each
area ranged between 54 and 74% of the
original pipe wall thickness. Additionally,
8 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
PHMSA inspectors noted general external
corrosion of the pipe body during field ex-
amination of the failed pipe segment.
The rupture characteristics at the fail-
ure site indicate a longitudinally oriented
opening ~6-in (152-mm) in length and
located in the bottom quadrant of the pipe.
Third-party metallurgists in the field
noted that corrosion at the failure site had
degraded the wall thickness to an esti-
mated 1/16 of an inch (1.58 mm), which
was greater than the 45% metal loss indi-
cated by the recent ILI survey. Plains Pipe-
line uses an impressed current cathodic
protection (ICCP) system to protect Line
901 from external corrosion. After the fail-
ure, PHMSA inspectors witnessed Plains
Pipeline measuring CP levels near the fail-
ure site and at the three anomaly sites, and
the CP levels appeared to be adequate. The
PHMSA corrective action order notes that
external corrosion with CP at this level
would not be expected. To view the order,
visit phmsa.dot.gov.
Method to Lower Lead
Levels in Drinking Water
May Cause Corrosion
Lowering the pH of municipal water sup-
plies in Providence, Rhode Island, a com-
mon strategy used to control the release
of soluble lead from plumbing materials,
resulted in consumer complaints of “red
water” and an overall increase in lead lev-
els, which prompted bench-scale tests and
intensive field sampling into possible asso-
ciations between higher particulate iron
and particulate lead. The research showed
that lowering the pH of municipal water
supplies can affect corrosion of cast iron
water mains, which results in increased
Continued on page 10
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
UP FRONT
Continued from page 8
levels of both particulate iron and particu-
late lead in drinking water. In the May
2015 Environmental Engineering Science
article, “Increased Lead in Water Associ-
ated with Iron Corrosion” by S. Masters
and M. Edwards, the authors state that the
10 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
benefits of decreasing lead solubility by
reducing the pH of the water supply from
about 10.3 to 9.7 can be outweighed by the
associated increase in particulate lead lev-
els at the lower pH. Iron release to water at
pH 10.3, compared with pH 9.7, was up to
35% lower in bench-scale tests and 99%
lower in field samples. Because the study
demonstrates a relationship between iron
corrosion in the water distribution system
and the discharge of lead from plumbing
systems, the authors suggest that future
strategies to reduce lead in drinking water
might require infrastructure upgrades or
iron control measures, in addition to
methods targeting lead solubility. To
access the article, go to liebertpub.com.
Technology Takes
3D Measurements of
Underwater Components
The 3-D measurement system. Photo by
Fraunhofer IOF.
Pipes, flanges, and connections for under-
water oil and gas conveying systems must
be measured so the extent of damage
caused by corrosion and other defects can
be correctly assessed and suitable repairs
initiated. To obtain this data, the
Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Optics
and Precision Engineering IOF (Jena, Ger-
many) developed a system that utilizes a
sensor and camera to measure underwater
components and display the data in a
three-dimensional (3-D) format. The tech-
nology, currently designed for use in water
depths up to 40 m, is about the size of a
shoe box and can be held by a diver like a
camera. It is operated by simply pressing a
button to measure components. The 3-D
measurement system successively projects
several striped patterns onto the surface
of the component to be examined, while si-
multaneously taking pictures of the object
with two cameras. Based on the series of
stereo photos taken and the active pattern
structure seen on the surface, the technol-
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
ogy is able to determine the exact shape of alloys fail in the same manner as model- porosity to form. If this occurs while
the object. The diver needs 0.2 s for each ing clay—roll it into a cylindrical shape the alloy is stressed, then the material
3-D scan and can check underwater and it can be stretched by ~100% before fails as if it were made of glass. For more
whether they are usable. Once back on it slowly tears apart. In the presence of information, visit asunews.asu.edu.
land or on the ship, the diver can then load corrosive environments, silver is selec-
the data to a computer, which evaluates tively dissolved from the alloy, causing —Kathy Riggs Larsen
the information and makes suggestions for
possible repair measures. The prototype
was created within an international re-
search project with -4H-JENA engineering
GmbH (Jena, Germany) and Christian
Michelsen Research (CMR) (Bergen, Nor-
way). For more information, visit
fraunhofer.de.

Research Findings Promote

Better Understanding of SCC

When exposed to corrosive environments,

the silver-gold alloy spontaneously formed
nanoscale-size porous structures, shown,
which undergo high-speed cracking under
tensile stress. Photo by Karl Sieradzki/
Arizona State University.

Researchers at the Arizona State Univer-

sity School for Engineering of Matter,
Transport and Energy (Tempe, Arizona),
are uncovering new knowledge about
the causes of stress corrosion crack-
ing (SCC) in alloys used in pipelines
for transporting water, natural gas,
and fossil fuels. Using advanced tools
for ultra-high-speed photography and
digital image correlation, the team has
been able to closely observe the events
that trigger the origination of SCC in a
model silver-gold alloy, and track the
speed at which cracking occurs. They
measured cracks moving at speeds of
200 m/s, which corresponds to about
half of the shear wave sound veloc-
ity in the material. In the absence of a
corrosive environment, these silver-gold

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 11

VIEWPOINT
EDITORIAL
DIRECTOR, CONTENT DEVELOPMENT/ Gretchen A. Jacobson
MANAGING EDITOR

NACE International TECHNICAL EDITOR

TECHNICAL EDITOR
John H. Fitzgerald III, FNACE
Norman J. Moriber,

Launches Materials
Mears Group, Inc.
EDITOR Kathy Riggs Larsen
CONTRIBUTOR Husna Miskinyar

Performance Web Site GRAPHICS

ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING
COORDINATOR
Teri J. Gilley

GRAPHICS DESIGNER Michele S. Jennings

A new Web site dedicated to NACE International’s Materials Performance (MP) ADMINISTRATION
magazine and additional content and resources for corrosion control professionals CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Robert (Bob) H. Chalker
is live at naceMP.com. GROUP PUBLISHER William (Bill) Wageneck
The MP Web site features select technical and feature articles from the maga-
ADVERTISING
zine, as well as content written specifically for the site. New articles will be posted SALES MANAGER Diane Gross
each month and older articles are archived. Extensive archives currently on the site diane.gross@nace.org,
+1 281-228-6446
include the popular Phorgotten Phenomena, Failure Analyses, Case Histories, and
ACCOUNT EXECUTIVES Erica R. Cortina
Corrosion Basics articles from past issues of MP. In addition, content can be sorted erica.cortina@nace.org,
by corrosion control technologies and methods—cathodic protection, coatings and +1 281-228-6473
linings, chemical treatment, and materials selection and design. Brian Daley
brian.daley@nace.org,
At the end of each article there is an area to input comments and create a dialog +1 281-228-6455
among readers. Articles can easily be shared on Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn, Pam Golias
and there is a button to automatically e-mail a link to an article to a colleague or pam.golias@nace.org,
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group. Jody Lovsness
The Recent News section, which is updated weekly, highlights press releases on jody.lovsness@nace.org,
+1 281-228-6257
new products and services, company news, industry developments, regulations, and
Leslie Whiteman
more. Companies are welcome to submit their press releases for consideration. leslie.whiteman@nace.org,
There are several advertising positions on naceMP.com: a leaderboard and a page +1 281-228-6248
peel at the top of the page, a skyscraper on the left-hand side, and three square mid- ADVERTISING COORDINATOR Brenda Nitz
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New York Area–
2005, available to members of NACE. The digital issues mirror the print issues, with jim@kingwillco.com,
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to 10 pages at a time as downloadable PDFs.
Finally, naceMP.com offers links to other NACE publications and numerous other EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Zahid Amjad Walsh University
resources for corrosion control professionals. See “What’s Online @ naceMP.com”
John P. Broomfield, FNACE Broomfield Consultants
on p. 16 for this month’s highlights. Other types of content and enhancements— Raul A. Castillo Consultant
including white papers and videos—will continue to be added in the coming months. Irvin Cotton Arthur Freedman Associates, Inc.
Arthur J. Freedman Arthur Freedman Associates, Inc.
The MP team welcomes your feedback on the new naceMP.com. Please send your David D. He PG&E
comments to MP Managing Editor Gretchen Jacobson at gretchen.jacobson@nace. Orin Hollander Holland Technologies
Jerry Holton Specialty Polymer Coatings USA, Inc.
org. We look forward to hearing from you. W. Brian Holtsbaum Corsult Associates (1980), Ltd.
Russ Kane iCorrosion, LLC
Ernest Klechka CITGO Petroleum Corp.
Kurt Lawson Mears Group, Inc.
Lee Machemer Jonas, Inc.
John S. Smart III John Smart Consulting Engineer
L.D. “Lou” Vincent L.D. “Lou” Vincent PhD, LLC

12 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

 THE BLOG

More on Corrosion in Oil Operation,” in MP magazine for sion fatigue cracking mechanism. It
Fatigue Failure May 2015. I have a comment that I would rather shows localized corrosion and
like to share with you regarding this arti- ductile overload rupture.
cle. The author had concluded that the It is also important to note that the
Editor: failure was caused by corrosion fatigue. author concluded that the root cause of
I read the article, “Corrosion Fatigue However, the article does not contain any the failure was corrosion fatigue. This is
Failure of a Water Injection Line in Oil evidence or figures that reveal a corro-
Operation,” by Mohamed Hanafy El-Sayed Continued on page 14
in the May 2015 issue of MP. I was disap-
pointed that no units were given for the
tensile test results. I was also disap-
pointed that no sources of vibration were
offered that would have contributed to
corrosion fatigue.
Wayne Reitz, Talbott Associates, Inc.,
Portland, Oregon, USA

Editor:
I always look forward to failure analy-
sis articles in MP as they can provide
much useful information regarding mate-
rials and coating selection. However, I
was disappointed with the article in the
May 2015 issue of MP by El-Sayed on the
failure of a water injection line.
The author claimed that the failure
was due to corrosion fatigue. This was not
the cause of the failure, this was the result
of the failure. It was acknowledged that
the coating had failed, leading to pitting
of the steel. The pitting grew until it
reached a critical depth when the pipe
could no longer withstand the cyclic
stresses. The analysis should have dis-
cussed the coating type, why it failed, and
the pitting mechanism. These issues are
of far more importance for those looking
to prevent such failures.
The author included irrelevant discus-
sions, such as a micrograph of the weld,
which was not part of the failure, and an
unexplained titanium-rich artifact on the
fracture surface. Was this a titanium
dioxide (TiO2) pigment particle from the
coating or a titanium nitride inclusion
from the steel? If included, this should
have been discussed.
Pipeline failures are of concern to
many readers, but this article provided
little enlightenment. I hope future arti-
cles of this nature will be more thorough.
Rob Francis, RA Francis Consulting
Services Pty., Ltd., Ashburton,
VIC, Australia

Editor:
I read with much interest, “Corrosion
Fatigue Failure of a Water Injection Line

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 13

 THE
Continued from page 13
not an accurate statement because corro-
sion fatigue is a damage mechanism and
cannot be deemed as the root cause. The
root cause includes the factor(s) (causes),
which led to this specific damage
mechanism.
I hope that the above observations can
help to improve the quality of the article
in order to avoid any confusion to the
readers.
Abdulaziz Al-Meshari, SABIC,
Jubail, Saudi Arabia
Reply:
Thank you for the opportunity to
respond to the comments received. Some-
times, the limited space for publishing an
article in MP causes an author to cut
some valuable parts from the main text.
As I understand it, there are five main
points requiring clarification:
• Units of the tensile test
• Inclusion of a micrograph for the
weld area
• Coating type and relation to the
mechanism of pitting
• Source of cyclic loading related to
the primary failure mechanism
• Source of titanium in the energy
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
As for the units of the tensile test, it
was forgotten by mistake to mention that
the tensile units are MPa (megapascals).
This unit is standard for tensile tests,
yield strength, ultimate strength, etc. The
purpose of showing the weld area micro-
graph was to demonstrate that the weld
area was free from defects that might
have affected initiation or propagation of
the cracks that led to the failure. Because
welding zones, including the heat-
affected zone, are in many cases origins
for failure, the micrograph was necessary
to eliminate that possibility from the
failure analysis.
The coating was a single-layer fusion-
bonded epoxy, which has been known to
suffer mechanical damage during ship-
ping and pipeline construction (this is
mentioned in the visual inspection sec-
tion of the article). Another disadvantage
of this coating system is that a special
backfill material is needed in the ditch to
prevent coating damage during long ser-
vice. Corrosion pitting of the exposed
pipe metal was the result.
14 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
BLOG
With regard to the failure cause, the
article concluded that corrosion fatigue
was the mechanism by which failure
occurred. It was also mentioned that the
external coating of the pipeline section
surrounding the failure site had become
deteriorated, either by extensive wrin-
kling during the initial construction and
installation or by the action of a low cycle
fatigue load (the failure location is
described as taking place in the sus-
pended part of the line).
Excessive cyclic loading was devel-
oped as a result of improper suspension
and fixation of the line together with the
improper flow rating and pumping.
Sudden startup and shutdown can also
develop cyclic loading. Therefore, failure
was initiated by deterioration of the exter-
nal coating of the pipeline at which pitting
began. The pitting corrosion contributed
to the failure by reducing the time to
nucleate cracking, while a very low cycle
fatigue (tolerable with properly secured
pipe) was responsible for crack propaga-
tion to failure. The environmental contri-
bution is shown in the micrographs of Fig-
ure 2, while the low cycle fatigue evidence
is shown by the stereoscopic views of Fig-
ure 3 and the SEM micrograph of Figure 4.
Therefore, conclusion number 3 would be
better if written as “the mechanism of fail-
ure was corrosion fatigue.”
Investigation of the titanium source
found that it resulted neither from TiO2
pigment particles in the coating nor from
titanium nitride inclusions in the steel.
TiO2 pigment particles would not be pres-
ent in coating required primarily for cor-
rosion protection but might be included
in other situations to provide brightness,
whiteness, or opacifying qualities. Also,
the steel alloy used for this pipeline does
not contain the identified amount of tita-
nium. The high content of titanium is not
applicable for X52 steel but is usually
used to improve fatigue strength of mar-
aging steels (max. 2% wt). Therefore, the
unexpected titanium content in the EDS
most likely resulted from the sand/soil
where the fractured part is located.
I hope these clarifications are
adequate.
Mohamed Hanafy El-Sayed , CMRDI,
Cairo, Egypt
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 15
WHAT’S ONLINE @ naceMP.com
MP Launches New Web Site
O n June 30, 2015, Materials Performance maga-
zine launched its new Web site: naceMP.com.
The site features information on all areas of corro-
sion control, including archives of popular articles
from past MP issues, new articles written specifi-
cally for the Web site, and corrosion-related news.
The MP Web site also provides links to current and
past digital issues of MP, plus a wide array of corro-
sion control-related resources. Content is updated
monthly.
See what’s online at naceMP.com in August:
• Designing an ICCP System for the Hull of an Arctic
Ice-Breaking Vessel—Researchers use modeling
tools to design effective cathodic protection sys-
tems that address challenging seawater condi-
tions and coating damage from ice abrasion.
• A Closer Look at Microbiologically Influenced
Corrosion—To better understand microbiologi-
cally influenced corrosion (MIC) and the corro-
sion threats it poses to pipelines, vessels, and
structures, Materials Performance asked several
NACE International members and others from
industry, government, and academia to com-
ment on the impact of MIC and challenges faced
when identifying and mitigating MIC.
• Pipeline Corrosion Issues Related to Carbon
Capture, Transportation, and Storage—Leading
NACE International experts on carbon capture
and storage discuss the challenges involved in
preventing corrosion of pipelines transporting
carbon dioxide.
• Advanced Fluoropolymer Fouling-Release
Coating—A biocide-free, advanced fluoropoly-
mer fouling-release coating technology has
been developed to deter the formation of both
macro- and microfouling on marine structures
and industrial processes.
• NACE Task Group Report on Sustainability of
Wastewater Systems—To increase awareness of
the corrosion problems encountered by munici-
pal wastewater systems, members of NACE Task
Group (TG) 466 published a report that guides
utility decision-makers in understanding the
types of corrosion-control solutions available to
help achieve system sustainability.
• Using Radiation Backscatter Nondestructive
Technology for Detecting Corrosion under
Insulation—A portable, nondestructive imaging
technology is available to assist offshore opera-
tors with inspecting equipment for corrosion
under insulation. It uses backscatter computed
tomography (BCT) to detect metal loss in com-
ponents without removing their insulation or
taking them out of service.

16 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

MATERIAL MATTERS
Understanding a new standard for
feld-applied pipeline coatings
C
oatings are an important ele-
ment of a pipeline’s external
corrosion protection system.
Line pipe is coated in accor-
dance with recognized standards in plants
under well-controlled conditions. These
plant-applied coatings have an excellent
reputation for reliable, long-term perfor-
mance. In contrast, pipeline coatings ap-
plied in the field during construction or
maintenance, such as at field welds, are
applied under variable and frequently ad-
verse conditions. Rain, snow, extreme cold,
steep terrain, remote locations, inexperi-
enced workers, and unsuitable job specifi-
cations often present significant chal-
lenges. In many cases where external
corrosion of a pipeline has been found, it
was associated with failure of the field-
applied coatings at welds.
To address this issue, the Canadian
Standards Association (Toronto, Ontario,
Coating applicators apply a liquid epoxy to girth welds on a FBE-coated pipeline in sub-zero
weather conditions. Photo courtesy of Russell Draper.
18 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Canada) developed CSA Z245.30-141 for ex-
ternal field-applied coatings on steel pipe-
lines. It defines requirements for the quali-
fication, application, inspection, and
testing of external oil and gas pipeline
coatings applied in the field or shop. Pub-
lished in October 2014, it became a regula-
tory requirement in Canada in June 2015.
Coated piping addressed by this standard
is intended primarily for buried or sub-
merged service in oil or gas pipeline sys-
tems. It does not apply to plant-applied
pipeline coatings, which are covered in
CSA Z245.20, 2 and it does not cover the
coating system design or selection process.
The standard covers the following
types of pipeline coatings: liquid coatings
such as epoxy and polyurethane; single
and dual layer fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE);
tapes (adhesive and backing); heat shrink
sleeves (two and three layer); polyurethane
foam insulation systems; and petrolatum,
paraffin-filled, and viscoelastic systems.
The standard also defines the responsibili-
ties of each of the parties involved in the
field coating process—the coating manu-
facturer, the coating application company,
the individual applicator who applies the
coating, the pipeline owner, and the
owner’s inspector.
Before a welding procedure specifica-
tion can be used for pipeline construction,
it must be qualified by testing a sample
weld made according to the procedure.
Welders also must be qualified by demon-
strating their capability to deposit sound,
compatible weld metal in compliance with
the welding procedure specification. The
new field coating standard uses these
same principles to qualify coating
materials, application procedures, and
applicators.
A coating manufacturer must qualify
its products by testing them against crite-
ria specified in the standard. Coating sam-
ples must be applied to pipe in a laboratory
under conditions that would be encoun-
tered during pipeline construction or
maintenance. Qualification tests include
cathodic disbondment, flexibility, impact
resistance, adhesion, and lap shear. The
manufacturer must provide the applica-
tion company and the pipeline owner with
a laboratory test report and certificate of
material qualification. The coating manu-
facturer is also responsible for developing
a manufacturer’s qualified application
procedure (MQAP), which specifies appli-
cation methods and requirements such as
tools, consumables, and equipment; sur-
face preparation; compatibility with other
coatings; preheat methods; substrate tem-
perature; ambient conditions; mixing and
thinning; coating thickness; application
method; curing schedule; recoat and re-
pair; and time to backfill.
The application company is responsi-
ble for the quality of the coating applica-
tion, including the provision of qualified
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Information on corrosion
applicators, and must have a documented
quality management system, such as ISO
9001. Ensuring its applicators are trained
is also the responsibility of the application
company. The training needs to cover the
MQAP, so participation of the coating
manufacturer in the training is recom-
mended. Training must include topics
such as surface preparation, preheating,
application, inspection, repairs, and cold
and wet weather techniques. The applica-
tion company is required to qualify each of
its applicators by witnessing them apply a
coating sample and confirming the appli-
cator complies with the MQAP. Test
samples must be applied to pipe under
conditions that approximate pipeline con-
struction or maintenance field conditions.
The sample must be inspected to confirm
it meets the same criteria applicable to
production coating. The company must
issue the applicator a qualification certifi-
cate. The owner may witness any or all
aspects of the applicator training and
qualification testing process.
The applicator must maintain a log to
document his or her coating application
experience. The log needs to include de-
tails such as the project name, date, MQAP,
and the amount of coating applied. The ap-
plication company is required to ensure
that its applicators are competent. CSA
Z6623 defines competent as “qualified,
trained, and experienced to perform the
required duties.” Competency must be de-
termined by checking the applicator’s
qualification certificate and experience
log. If these are insufficient, the applica-
tion company must witness the applicator
applying coating, and then inspect it to
confirm the coating meets the specified
acceptance criteria.
Inspection methods, frequency, and
acceptance criteria for production coat-
ings are also defined in the standard. Tests
include anchor profile, surface cleanliness,
salt contamination, thickness, hardness,
adhesion, and holiday detection. The ap-
plication company is responsible for devel-
oping a job-specific inspection and testing
plan (ITP) and getting it approved by the
owner. It must also prepare inspection re-
ports and provide a certificate stating that
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
control and prevention
the coating meets the requirements of the
standard.
Additionally, the owner’s inspector is
required to be competent. Measures of
competency include being trained on the
MQAP, having an understanding of the in-
spection methods defined in the standard,
and being able to assess test results.
References
1 CSA Z245.30-14, “Field-applied external
coatings for steel pipeline systems” (Toronto,
ON, Canada: CSA, 2014).
2 CSA Z245.20 SERIES-14, “Plant-applied ex-
ternal coatings for steel pipe” (Toronto, ON,
Canada: CSA, 2014).
3 CSA Z662-15, “Oil and gas pipeline systems”
(Toronto, ON, Canada: CSA, 2015).
Tis article was submitted by NACE Inter-
national member Russell Draper, a senior in-
tegrity engineer with Stantec (Calgary, Alberta,
Canada). Draper is a NACE Coating Inspector
Program (CIP) Level 3-certifed Coating In-
spector and a member of NACE Specifc Tech-
nology Group (STG) 04, “Coatings and Linings,
Protective: Surface Preparation,” and Techni-
cal Exchange Group (TEG) 288X, “Nonvisible
Contaminants, Identifying Specifc Levels:
Discussion of Issues.” Contact him at e-mail:
russell.draper@stantec.com.
Editor’s Note: NACE International
currently offers the Pipeline Coating
Applicator Training course, which pro-
vides hands-on field training on the
proper coating application procedures for
the most common coating materials that
contractors and inspectors will encoun-
ter on pipeline projects. These procedures
include understanding specifications,
surface preparation, application tech-
niques, dealing with changing ambient
conditions, and quality control measures.
Through the use of in-class presentations
and videos, followed immediately by
hands-on demonstrations in field condi-
tions, students learn, develop, and prac-
tice the skills required to properly apply
the specified field-applied coatings under
expected pipeline construction condi-
tions. The course concludes with a writ-
ten and hands-on examination.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 19
MATERIAL MATTERS
Study analyzes corrosion failure of discharge
pipeline for sour hydrocarbon well
I nternal corrosion of carbon steel (CS)
in the presence of hydrogen sulfide
(H 2S) is known as sour corrosion, which
causes the deterioration of metal due to
contact with H 2S and water (H 2O) and
forms corrosion products containing iron
sulfide (FeS). Oil wells that produce liquid
hydrocarbon and water typically convey
dissolved corrosive gases, particularly
H 2S and carbon dioxide (CO2). In sour
systems, the localized corrosion of CS has
progressively become a greater concern
to the oil and gas industry as a result of
increased production in environments
that contain H 2S. This has necessitated
an increase in knowledge of localized
corrosion mechanisms so efficient corro-
sion prediction and mitigation methods
can be developed.
In CORROSION 2015 paper no. 6137,
“Failure Analysis of Localized Corrosion in
Sour Environments in Discharge Lines of
Hydrocarbon Wells,” NACE International
A leak in the discharge pipeline was caused by a perforation located at the six-o’clock position on
the pipe’s circumference. Photo courtesy of Corrosión y Protección.
20 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
members Irene Carrillo Salgado and Jorge
Cantó Ibáñez with Corrosión y Protección
(Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico), along with
Paul Gomez Font and Carlos Alberto Reyes
with Pemex, Activo de Producción Vera-
cruz (Boca del Río, Veracruz, Mexico),
describe a case history of a pipeline leak at
a hydrocarbon well in a southern Mexico
oilfield and the analyses done to deter-
mine the cause of pipe failure.
In February 2014, a leak was discov-
ered on a discharge pipeline for a land
platform well that produces 390 bpd
(62,010 L/d) of sour liquid hydrocarbon
with 30% connate water and a low gas
transport rate (0.03 MMSCFD). The leak
was due to a 1.4-in (356-mm) perforation
located at the six-o’clock position on the
circumference of a straight pipeline sec-
tion ~10 m before the collection head. The
4-in (102-mm) diameter pipeline was con-
structed in 2011 of UNS G10180 CS, and
historical data indicate it had been heat
treated for use with sour media. The pipe-
line is 65 m in length from the wellhead to
the collection head and pressure rated for
500 psi (3,448 kPa) with a hydrostatic
pressure test. At the time of the leak, the
operating pressure of the discharge fluid
was 130 psi (896 kPa) and the operating
temperature was 30 °C.
According to the authors, the perfora-
tion occurred at a location on the lowest
point of the pipe, where media in the pipe-
line was normally in the accumulated
water phase and in continuous contact
with the pipe wall. To determine the root
cause of the pipe failure, analyses of the
transported waste fluid, corrosion prod-
ucts on the metal surface around the per-
foration, and microstructure of the base
metal were performed. Sample fluid was
drawn directly from an access nipple on
the well, and the physicochemical compo-
sition of the fluid (pH, conductivity, con-
centration of soluble gases, presence of
elements, etc.) was characterized on site
using colorimetric techniques. Microbio-
logical activity was measured according
to NACE TM0194-20041 using decimal
dilution inoculation. The presence of sul-
fur and carbonates in the collected solids
were determined in situ by the hydrochlo-
ric acid (HCl) and lead acetate method.
The perforated segment of the CS pipe
was placed in an inert medium and taken
immediately to the laboratory. Character-
ization analyses of the corrosion products
around the failure area of the pipe were
done with scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive
x-ray spectroscopy. Elemental chemical
characterization was carried out for areas
with scale and sediment by energy disper-
sive spectroscopy (EDS), and corrosion
products under the deposits were analyzed
with x-ray diffraction (XRD). Analysis of a
cross section using metallography was
done to determine if the microstructure of
the base metal contributed to the failure.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Information on corrosion control and prevention

The results of the in situ physico-

chemical characterization of the liquid
sample indicated the presence of sulfur
and carbonates along with high concen-
trations of H 2S, CO2 , and chlorides as well
as amounts of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
and sulfate (SO 42–); a conductivity value of
4,150 μS/cm; a pH level of 7; and an alka-
linity of 700 ppm. The microbiological
measurements indicated a high level of
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) activity,
~100,000 ucf/mL. The authors note the
high H 2S content came from the reservoir,
since it is known to be a sour hydrocar- An internal view of the failed pipeline segment after cleaning. Photo courtesy of Corrosión y
Protección.
bon well. The sulfate content promoted
activity by SRB in the injected water,
which formed sulfides. The percentage of contact with the metal walls of the pipe- structure indicated the metal complied
connate water, which was rich in a wide line. This condition can trigger multiple with material specifications for sour
variety of dissolved gases, salts, and corrosive processes in the presence of the service; however, the coating had low
microbiological activity, was a significant chemical species found. mechanical strength and multiple
amount of water content in continuous Analyses of the failed pipe micro- Continued on page 22

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 21

MATERIAL MATTERS
Continued from page 21
defects. After removing the oil that had
adhered to the pipe walls, multiple
defects in a variety of sizes were observed
throughout the metal. Evidence of local-
ized corrosion was found on the area sur-
rounding the perforation, and pits had
22 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
deposits of corrosion products covering
them. The boundaries of the perforated
area were viewed under high magnifica-
tion, and small cavities were identified
where corrosion mechanisms had initi-
ated. The attack morphology, deduced
from observation, revealed a geometric
pattern of pitting, with long, elliptical
and parabolic pits oriented along the flow
direction. EDS analysis of the scale depos-
its near the perforation indicated the
presence of corrosion products comprised
mainly of oxygen, carbon, and iron, along
with sulfur and chlorides.
The final results of the analyses indi-
cated the pipeline experienced localized
corrosion at the six-o’clock position due
to deposit-accelerated corrosion caused
by a combination of H 2O, chlorides, H 2S,
CO2 , carbonate precipitation, and micro-
biological activity. The authors propose
the corrosion mechanism involved the
effect of H 2S intensified by the water cut,
chloride content, and operating condi-
tions of the discharge line. They comment
that high concentrations of H 2S, CO2 , and
chlorides, as well as the high conductivity
of the aqueous phase, promoted internal
localized corrosion in the pipeline,
mainly pitting-type corrosion on the
metal surface, while the presence of sul-
fur indicated the formation of FeS.
In pure H 2S corrosion of CS, they note,
the concentration of dissolved ferrous
ions (Fe2+) does not have a significant
effect on either the corrosion rate or the
FeS scale retention rate; however, in the
presence of chlorides and in CO2/H 2S sys-
tems, the corrosion rate increases signifi-
cantly. FeS forms a scale that, at low tem-
peratures, can act as a barrier to slow
corrosion. With the operating tempera-
ture of this system, however, the FeS and
iron carbonate (FeCO3) scales were not
protective. At high temperatures and in
chloride-containing media, the FeS and
FeCO3 layers were unstable. Corrosion
rates increased with temperature, and
the high concentration of chlorides pro-
moted localized corrosion.
Also, the formation of carbonate
scales—which often include calcium (Ca)
and magnesium (Mg) along with FeCO3
corrosion products—was boosted
because of the alkalinity value and pH
level. Scale formation consumes CO32–
(a carbonate ion), which alters the pH as
the corrosion reaction progresses. As
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Information on corrosion control and prevention

bicarbonate (HCO3–) is produced, the pH The combination of deposits, chlorides, carbonate

shifts to alkaline. In H 2S-CO2-H 2O sys-
tems, this pH shift can result in an altered precipitations, and high H2S and SO42– content
corrosion reaction that changes ionic Fe2+ promoted a favorable environment for the
corrosion products to deposited FeS. The
precipitation of carbonates and the result-
proliferation of bacteria.
ing layer of corrosion products can pro-
mote metal corrosion under the layer.
Additionally, the authors say, the combi-
nation of deposits, chlorides, carbonate
precipitations, and high H 2S and SO 42–
content promoted a favorable environ-
ment for the proliferation of bacteria. Sul-
fates and iron are part of the SRB diet.
Under these corrosion deposits, mainly in
the zones where water accumulated at the
six-o’clock in the pipeline, bacteria likely
found good shelter. The cavities where
corrosion mechanisms had initiated, seen
along the boundaries of the perforated
area, suggest the influence of a combina-
tion of high chloride content, H 2S, and
microbiologically influenced corrosion
(MIC). Carbonate and sulfide scales pro-
moted corrosion under the deposits and
created a more suitable place for bacterial
growth; and the corrosion process grew
exponentially with pit depth.

Reference
1 NACE TM0194-2004, “Field Monitoring of
Bacterial Growth in Oil and Gas Systems”
(Houston Texas, NACE International, 2004).

Contact Irene Carrillo Salgado, Corrosión

y Protección—e-mail: irene.carrillo@
corrosionyproteccion.com.

—Kathy Riggs Larsen

MP

department. Contact MP Editor

.larsen@nace.org.

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 23

COMPANY NEWS

certification services for all major man-

Hempel’s HEMPADUR AvantGuard ® Wins Award agement system standards, as well as
The HEMPADUR AvantGuard® activated chain of custody and sustainable supply
zinc primers from Hempel (Conroe, Texas) chain certifications and product and ser-
won the New Product Innovation Award at vice certifications. It has built a strong
Frost & Sullivan’s 2015 European Growth, reputation over 80 years while operating
Innovation and Leadership Awards. The in the testing, inspection, and certification
award recognizes the products’ ability to markets and generates revenues in excess
provide superior anticorrosive protection of £20 million. The company also provides
for steel structures in tough environments. a range of building materials and system
According to Frost & Sullivan, Hempel has testing. Exova and BM TRADA have com-
developed a coating system that activates plementary offerings through internation-
all of the zinc in the coating. As a result, the coating meets and often exceeds cus- ally recognized certification schemes, all
tomer requirements for performance and reliability in harsh environments. This of which will be retained. The acquisition
enables customers to improve both productivity and the durability of their assets. will expand Exova’s capacity and capabili-
ties in building products testing and add
~340 personnel in 16 countries, which will
Exova Acquires BM TRADA services provider, acquired BM TRADA, bring Exova’s worldwide network of spe-
For a consideration of ~£22 million, Exova an international provider of certification cialists to more than 4,400 and extend the
Group, PLC (Aberdeen, United Kingdom), schemes and building products testing company’s range of certification services
a global testing, calibration, and advisory services. BM TRADA provides accredited and markets served.

Australian Academy of
Science Honors Forsyth
Professor Maria
Forsyth, electro-
materials and
corrosion science
chair at Deakin
University (Gee-
long, Victoria,
Australia), was
named a Fellow
with the Austra-
lian Academy of
Science. The appointment recognizes
Forsyth as a leader in the field of advanced
materials for new energy and infrastruc-
ture technologies, which includes fuel
cells, battery designs, and new ways to
prevent corrosion. About 500 Australian
scientists have received this lifetime honor
since the Academy was established in 1954
by Australian Fellows of the Royal Society
of London. Members are selected by Aus-
tralian and international peers from
within their discipline. Forsyth is also the
associate director for the ARC Centre of
Excellence for Electromaterials Science
(ACES), which is based at the University of
Wollongong.

24 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

CTS Receives 2014 sion industry and shares Tinker & Rasor’s
Agent of the Year Award vision, passion, and, above all, its commit-
ment to customers’ needs. “I am thrilled to
be joining such a respected company that
prides itself on top-quality service,” Decker
says. Tinker & Rasor has provided corro-
sion mitigation instrumentation and
equipment since 1948.
—H. Miskinyar

Corrosion Technology Systems (CTS)

(Easton, Pennsylvania), which has repre-
sented Sauereisen corrosion-resistant
materials in New Jersey, Delaware, Mary-
land, Eastern Pennsylvania, New York, and
Connecticut since 1992, received the Sau-
ereisen 2014 Agent of the Year Award. This
award is presented annually to the sales
agency that best meets sales objectives
through specification development and
expansion of new business opportunities
in a defined marketplace. The efforts of
CTS in the past year exceeded expectations—
it continued to expand sales to the waste-
water industry with the promotion of Sau-
ereisen’s SewerGard Systems—and the
company’s activities in market develop-
ment and technical product service con-
tinue to provide growth opportunities for
Sauereisen. A manufacturer of specialty
cements and corrosion-resistant materi-
als, Sauereisen has a network of technical
sales representatives in major cities
throughout the world, as well as manufac-
turing and warehouse facilities in the
United States, Europe, and the Pacific Rim.

Tinker & Rasor Hires

International Business
Development Manager
Tinker & Rasor
(San Bernardino,
California)
appointed Steph-
anie Decker as its
new international
business develop-
ment manager.
Decker has over
18 years of experi-
ence in the corro-

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 25

PRODUCT SHOWCASE
CRYLCOAT Powder Coating Resins
Allnex (Brussels, Belgium) has introduced
a new range of CRYLCOAT® powder coat-
ing resins for corrosion protection on bare
and pretreated steel for agricultural, con-
struction, and earthmoving (ACE) equip-
ment; and architectural and industrial
applications. These five new eco-friendly
products, available globally, are specially
designed to coat pretreated metals with-
out compromising overall powder coating
performance requirements for different industrial segments. “These new CRYLCOAT
resins are uniquely designed to meet industry standards for corrosion protection of
untreated or semi pretreated metal surfaces used in market segments such as ACE,
architectural, and general industrial metal,” states Stefan Smeets, global marketing
and product manager for Allnex Powder Coating Resins. “Our customers can rely on
these Allnex products for their advanced outdoor metal coating requirements.” Tel:
+32 2-5604511, Web site: allnex.com.
Ref-Check PLUS for
Cathodic Protection
Ref-Check PLUS from Farwest Corrosion
Control Co. (Downey, California) is de-
signed to verify the relative health of a
permanent/stationary cathodic protec-
tion (CP) reference electrode (CPRE). If the
CPRE is found to be compromised, Ref-
Check PLUS then enables the CP techni-
cian to obtain an accurate potential read-
ing. Using Ref-Check PLUS effectively
extends the life of permanently installed
reference electrodes. It helps to eliminate
the replacement of a compromised CPRE
as the instrument allows an accurate
reading to be obtained from an otherwise
unhealthy CPRE. As a result, Ref-Check
PLUS pays for itself the first time a CPRE
doesn’t need to be replaced. Tel: +1 310-
532-9524, Web site: farwestcorrosion.com.
26 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
New PosiTector Replica
Tape Reader
DeFelsko (Ogdensburg, New York)
announces its latest innovation, the
PosiTector RTR P, which measures and re-
cords surface profile parameters using
Testex™ Press-O-Film replica tape. The
patented PosiTector RTR P uses imaging
sensors to measure the peak density (Pd)
information contained in replica tape in
addition to peak height. Advanced models
are able to generate two-dimensional
(2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) images
and surface data files of the replicated
surface. Black and white 2-D and color 3-D
images are ideal for inclusion into reports
and for confirming a consistent blast pro-
file. A high-resolution surface data file
can be imported into third-party render-
ing software for further examination at a
cost far less than interferometric or confo-
cal profiling devices. With a single mea-
surement, the PosiTector RTR Series
produces a more accurate, linearized
peak-to-valley height measurement over
the full range of Coarse and X-Coarse
tapes. There is no need to average two or
more replicas as required with analog
micrometers. Tel: 1 800-448-3835, Web
site: defelsko.com/rtr.
spotOn Provides Pipe
Thickness Monitoring
Solutions
Powerful, permanently installed corro-
sion monitoring tools spotOn U and
spotOn LR from A 3 Monitoring (West Lon-
don, United Kingdom) enable very precise
thickness monitoring over time, frequent
verification of internal corrosion rate, the
identification of external and internal
corrosion/erosion threats several meters
away from the probe position, and the
remote monitoring of important assets
such as pipes within road crossings. The
spotOn U provides frequent, highly pre-
cise pipe thickness measurements, while
the spotOn LR uses a patented, innovative
monitoring solution to provide long-range
corrosion/erosion identification on pipes.
Deployable in most environments, spotOn
U and spotOn LR only require one-off
access during installation, with conse-
quent immense cost savings in integrity
programs. The tools, which can be com-
bined for better performance, reduce the
need for intrusive tools as well as the ac-
cess costs after initial installation. Opera-
tional risks are also minimized with more
reliable and precise thickness values and
corrosion trends (up to 1 mil/y [25.4
μm/y]). Tel: +44 (0) 20 30 786 775, Web
site: a3monitoring.com.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

Corrosion Protection
for Water Systems
Advenira Enterprises, Inc. (Sunnyvale,
California), the developer of Solution-
Derived Nanocomposite (SDN™) technol-
ogy for environmentally friendly protec-
tive and optical coatings, announces out-
standing results from recent testing of its
ClearCorr and ClearCorrUV protective
coatings for water distribution and stor-
age systems. The coatings’ corrosion and
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
The Latest Tools for
Fighting Corrosion
abrasion resistance data showed superior- Shrink Wrap Protects
ity over similar coatings in the market, Assets from Corrosion
specifically increased performance and
excellent adhesion. The ANSI 61 water ex-
traction test revealed no toxic metal ions
or organic substances. Advenira’s prod-
ucts were tested on metal substrates as in-
terior and exterior coatings that create a
barrier to prevent water ingress as corro-
sion-causing electrolyte on the pipe wall,
and also protect potable water from con-
taminants from the pipe wall due to disso-
lution and erosion. Results showed Metal industrial equipment and machin-
ClearCorr is a superior internal coating ery can be protected from corrosion by
for water distribution systems that pre- using Dr. Shrink’s (Manistee, Michigan)
vents leaching of toxic contaminants; and specialty volatile corrosion inhibitor (VCI)
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nal walls, where it can be applied at higher wrap supplier is now stocking VCI in a
thickness without risk of cracking. Tel: new size and color: 32-ft (10-m) by 100-ft
+1 408-732-3950, Web site: advenira.com. (30-m) by 8-mil (203-μm) thick in gray.
Continued on page 28
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 27
PRODUCT SHOWCASE
Continued from page 27
Similar to Dr. Shrink’s other premium
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structed from 100% virgin resin and con-
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and up to 12-mils (305-μm) thick. Tel:
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28 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Dairyland Announces the
Rectifier Disconnect Switch
Responding to customer requests, Dairy-
land (Madison, Wisconsin) has launched a
new Rectifier Disconnect Switch, a prod-
uct designed to safely disconnect the rec-
tifier output. Rectifiers that serve cathodi-
cally protected structures such as
pipelines can be subjected to various field
effects, including magnetically induced
alternating current and voltage that affect
the pipeline and translate back to the rec-
tifier. These effects pose a hazard to main-
tenance staff and cause safety concerns.
Placed in a series in the rectifier DC out-
put, the Dairyland Rectifier Disconnect
Switch solves these problems. The pull-
style switch makes it possible to safely
disconnect the rectifier’s DC output in
seconds. Featuring a UL and C-UL listed
switch design, the Rectifier Disconnect
Switch has been AC fault tested to high
energy levels, handles loads of 100 A at
125 V DC, and comes in a NEMA 4X enclo-
sure with a hinged cover that can be pad-
locked. Tel: +1 608-877-9900, Web site:
Dairyland.com.
FEVE Resins for Corrosion-
Resistant Topcoats
LUMIFLON® fluoroethylene vinyl ether
(FEVE) resins from AGC Chemicals Amer-
icas, Inc. (Exton, Pennsylvania) are the
first solvent-soluble fluoropolymer resins
for coatings that can be cured at room or
elevated temperatures. LUMIFLON resins
are used in topcoat formulations to make
metal or concrete products and structures
extremely weather-resistant. When used
on buildings, bridges, aircraft, automo-
biles, and solar panels, LUMIFLON-based
topcoats do not degrade from ultraviolet
(UV) light, wind, rain, or corrosion. Be-
cause LUMIFLON resins do not require
heat curing, they can be applied in the fac-
tory or in the field. LUMIFLON-based
coatings can be formulated to last up to 30
years, depending on the substrate and en-
vironment. LUMIFLON resins are trans-
parent and can be used to make both clear
and pigmented coatings in more than 230
colors in finishes ranging from high-gloss
to flat. Tel: 1 800-424-7833, Web site:
agcchem.com. —Husna Miskinyar
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
FEATURE ARTICLE
NACE International Expert Panel
Pipeline Stress
Corrosion Cracking:
Detection and
Control
Gretchen A. Jacobson, Director, Content Development
C
Corrosion of underground natural gas and
liquid petroleum pipelines occurs by a
variety of forms and requires specialized
mitigation methods to detect and control.
First identified in the 1960s, stress corro-
sion cracking (SCC) is a form of corrosion
that results in clusters or colonies of
cracks on the external surface of the
affected pipeline. According to the U.S.
Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration (PHMSA), the majority of
pipeline incidents caused by SCC are
found on natural gas pipelines in compar-
ison to the occurrence rate for hazardous
liquid pipelines. However, SCC can mani-
fest itself wherever the right combination
of factors exists.
Materials Performance invited three
experts in SCC to answer a series of ques-
tions on the combined causes of SCC, the
technologies needed to detect and address
this form of corrosion, and unfolding
developments to improve the performance
and safety of pipelines susceptible to
SCC. The panelists are John Beavers,
FNACE, corporate vice president and
director of incident investigation at
DNV GL; Fraser King, FNACE, longtime
pipeline corrosion consultant; and Sergei
A. Shipilov, FNACE, with Metallurgical
Consulting Services, Ltd.
30 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
MP: Why does SCC occur on pipelines?
John Beavers: Three conditions are
necessary for external SCC on under-
ground pipelines (like other forms of SCC)
to occur: (1) a susceptible metal, (2) a ten-
sile stress of sufficient magnitude, and (3)
a potent environment at the metal surface.
The carbon steels (CS) used to manufac-
ture line pipe are susceptible to SCC in a
number of environments, including two
that develop beneath disbonded coatings
underground.
Tensile stresses on underground pipe-
lines originate from a number of sources,
including residual stresses from pipe man-
ufacturing and construction, the internal
operating pressure, and damage to the
pipeline (e.g., from dents and mechanical
damage, and land movement). These
stresses can be in the hoop direction (e.g.,
from the internal pressure), resulting in
cracks in the axial direction, axial (e.g.,
from land movement), resulting in circum-
ferential cracks or in both directions (e.g.,
the combined stresses from dents), result-
ing in cracks at other orientations.
The majority of underground pipelines
are externally coated and cathodically pro-
tected to mitigate corrosion. A potent
environment must have access to the
metal surface for SCC to occur. Accord-
Meet the Panelists
John Beavers,
FNACE, has
directed and con-
tributed to numer-
ous research and
engineering pro-
grams on corrosion
and cracking behav-
ior of underground pipelines. Beavers
has a B.S. degree in metallurgical engi-
neering with Highest Honors (1973) and
a Ph.D. in metallurgical engineering
(1977), from the University of Illinois. He
received the NACE International F.N.
Speller Award, is a NACE Fellow, and
received the Distinguished Researcher
Award from the Pipeline Research
Council International.
Fraser King,
FNACE, is a consul-
tant with over 30
years of corrosion-
related experience
in the pipeline,
nuclear, and petro-
chemical industries. He is a consultant
for various pipeline companies in Can-
ada, as well as for industry organizations
such as the Pipeline Research Council
International (PRCI) and the Canadian
Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA).
King has B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from
Imperial College, London, U.K. and is a
Fellow of NACE International.
Sergei Shipilov,
FNACE, has been
involved in research
on SCC, corrosion
fatigue, and hydro-
gen embrittlement
for more than 30
years. He has a Dipl.-Ing. from the Mos-
cow Institute of Petroleum and Gas
Technology and a Ph.D. from the Insti-
tute of Physical Chemistry of the USSR
Academy of Sciences. He is the recipient
of the R.A. Brannon Award, the Techni-
cal Achievement Award, and the Distin-
guished Service Award from NACE
International and is a Fellow of NACE
and ASM International.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
ingly, an intact, well-bonded coating will
mitigate all forms of external corrosion,
including SCC. The first step in the devel-
opment of a potent environment at the
pipeline surface is the disbondment of the
coating, typically at defects (referred to as
holidays) in the coating.
There are two forms of external SCC on
underground pipelines—high pH SCC and
near-neutral pH SCC—which are associ-
ated with two different environments that
develop at the pipe surface within these
disbonded areas. Both environments are
associated with the presence of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the soil, typically from
decay of organic matter. High pH SCC is
most commonly associated with coal tar
coatings, and the environment that devel-
ops at the pipe surface has a pH of 9-10.
The cathodic protection (CP) causes the
pH of the electrolyte beneath the dis-
bonded coating to increase and the CO2
dissolves in the elevated pH electrolyte,
resulting in a potent high pH-cracking
environment (containing carbonate and
bicarbonate). Near-neutral pH SCC is most
commonly associated with tape and
asphalt coatings. The environment that
develops at the pipe surface in this case
has a pH of 6-8 as a result of shielding of
the CP current or inadequate CP. CO2 dis-
solves in the near-neutral pH electrolyte,
resulting in a second type of potent crack-
ing environment (containing bicarbonate
and carbonic acid).
Fraser King: By definition, pipelines
operate under pressure so that one or
more sources of tensile stress (applied
and/or residual) are inevitably present.
Furthermore, despite attempts to develop
“SCC-resistant” steels, pipeline steel
grades are inherently susceptible to vari-
ous forms of environmentally assisted
cracking. Therefore, of the three basic
requirements for SCC, that which primar-
ily determines whether a pipeline will be
subject to SCC is whether a suitable corro-
sive environment is present.
The first requirement for the genera-
tion of a suitable corrosive environment is
that the coating disbonds, allowing
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
ground water to contact the pipe surface.
(Although SCC has been discovered on
bare pipe, the majority of existing pipe-
lines and virtually all new pipelines are
protected from corrosion by an external
coating.) Coating disbondment alone is
not sufficient to cause SCC since cracking
only occurs under specific conditions of
water composition, pH, and electrochemi-
cal potential. The specific requirements
for the generation of a suitable environ-
ment mean that, even if the coating has
disbonded, SCC is not necessarily inevita-
ble. In addition, the ability to predict
where, and when, such environmental
conditions might exist at the surface of the
pipe can be used to direct inspection and
mitigation activities.
Sergei Shipilov: Although there are no
simple answers to this question, we know
that the initiation of cracks or colonies of
cracks on the surface of a buried pipeline
(Figure 1) is caused by randomly distrib-
uted defects induced by the manufactur-
ing process or the degradation of CS used
as components of the pipeline. The com-
bined action of stress (e.g., hoop and/or
residual) and natural soil environment
containing varying amounts of moisture
and oxygen further facilitates the initia-
tion of the crack(s) and accelerates their
propagation through the pipe thickness by
a factor that may range up to many times.1
In order to have a productive discus-
sion, we need to first clarify our terminol-
ogy and explain a few terms related to the
problem called “pipeline SCC.” SCC is usu-
ally used in technical journals as a general
term to classify all modes of materials
fracture due to environmental factors. For
simplicity, the terms SCC and corrosion
fatigue are often regarded as synonyms,
and also include effects produced by the
ingress of corrosion-generated hydrogen
into metals. As a phenomenon, SCC is a
cracking process caused by the conjoint
action of a corrosive environment and
nominally static or slowly increasing ten-
sile stress. The stress may be either applied
service stress or residual stress resulting
from casting, welding, or other fabrication
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015
processes. More precisely, SCC should be
defined as a special case of corrosion
fatigue crack growth (FCG) in a metal
exposed to a specific corrosive environ-
ment at the stress ratio (R = minimum/
maximum load) equal to 1.3 Corrosion
fatigue is a process of the gradual accumu-
lation of damage (cracking and eventual
fracture) in material under the combined
interactions of external chemical environ-
ment and fluctuating (or cyclic) stress with
its microstructure, where the environment
does not have to be corrosive. By analogy
with SCC under sustained stress, the term
“fatigue-corrosion cracking” (FCC) would
better describe a cracking process in
materials exposed to chemical environ-
ment under applied cyclic stress. Steels
(especially pipeline steels) and alloys sub-
ject to corrosion are subject to FCC in any
corrosive environment including environ-
ments (soils) surrounding the pipeline
and/or products transported through
pipelines.
In reality, gas and liquid pipelines are
exposed to service stresses of varying
amplitudes that usually are a mixture of
stochastic and deterministic components.
In pipelines, cyclic loading arises from two
principal sources: (1) approximate daily
pressure fluctuations during normal oper-
ation that are of the order of ±10% of the
nominal operating pressure; and (2) shut-
downs and startups for regular service or
as a result of an upset condition in which
the pressure decreases to zero or practi-
cally zero (i.e., complete unloading) and
then is increased to the nominal operating
pressure. As illustrated in Figure 2, daily
pressure fluctuations in a liquid pipeline
correspond to cyclic loading with R of
about 0.6 to 0.8 at a cyclic frequency from
about two to five cycles per day.4 Under
other circumstances, the stress ratio can
vary from zero to 0.9 and a cyclic fre-
quency can be in the range between 0.7
and 1.3 cycles per day.5 This means that
FCC, rather than SCC, should be consid-
ered as the failure mode responsible for
the subcritical crack growth in pipelines.
SCC cannot be the cause of pipeline failure
under in-service conditions and can be
31
FEATURE ARTICLE
FIGURE 1. Colony of stress corrosion
cracks on the pipeline surface exposed to
a near-neutral-pH soil environment.2
FIGURE 2. A 20-day pressure profile for a
liquid pipeline.4
FIGURE 3. FCG rates at the cathodic
potential of –1.04 V vs. SCE, the
open-circuit potential, and four loading
frequencies for X-65 steel.6
32 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
obtained only in a laboratory when a spec-
imen is tested under sustained or mono-
tonically increasing load.1,3 Despite this
obvious fact, most of the effort and mate-
rial expenditure in the last decades have
been spent on studying SCC.
Much less is known about FCC in pipe-
line steels though Gutman5 first identified
corrosion fatigue as the cause of an oil
pipeline failure in 1975. Also in 1975,
Vosikovsky6 published the first account of
laboratory experiments on corrosion FCG
of pipeline steel and showed that CP
resulted in the acceleration of corrosion
FCG rate in X-65 steel (Figure 3). A critical
combination of cathodic potential, stress
intensity factor range (ΔK), loading fre-
quency, and R can accelerate the crack
growth by up to a factor of 50 compared
with air data and the accelerating effect
due to CP is caused by enhanced hydrogen
uptake in the steel at impressed cathodic
potentials. An eightfold decrease in the
ductility (%RA) of X-70 steel due to the
effect of CP was observed by Saenz de
Santa Maria and Procter in 1980: the duc-
tility fell from about 80% (the value in air
and at the open-circuit potential) to
around 10% in tests carried out at –1.2 V
vs. SCE.7 There is no doubt that this
decrease in the ductility of pipeline steel
was due to the effect of hydrogen embrit-
tlement (HE). The hydrogen content
within the fracture surface of X-70 steel
after corrosion FCG tests at CP was six to
nine times higher than the hydrogen con-
tent obtained after the test without CP.8
MP: What are the risks associated with
SCC?
JB: External SCC on underground pipe-
lines typically forms in clusters (colonies).
Individual cracks can interlink to produce
flaws of sufficient size to cause ruptures.
SCC may cause leaks in the absence of sig-
nificant interlinking or at lower operating
pressures. Leaks and ruptures of natural
gas and liquid petroleum pipelines pose a
threat to life, property, and the environ-
ment. In general, liquid petroleum pipe-
lines pose a greater environmental threat,
while natural gas pipelines pose a greater
threat to life and property, especially when
the natural gas ignites.
FK: Even when SCC does occur, the
vast majority of cracks are shallow and rel-
atively benign. Greater than 90-95% of
near-neutral pH SCC cracks are found to
be shallow and to have blunt crack tips
with no indication that they are actively
growing. Only a small fraction of the total
crack population continues to grow and to
present a threat to the pipe integrity.
The consequences of an SCC failure
depend on both the nature of the fluid
being transported and the characteristics
of the crack. In general, pipeline failure
will result in either a rupture or a leak. For
SCC failures, a pipeline rupture generally
results from a low aspect ratio crack (i.e.,
a long shallow crack) on a gas pipeline
where the expansion of the gas can sup-
port fracture propagation. Ruptures on gas
pipelines typically result in fires. Cracks
that are relatively short compared to their
depth (high aspect ratio cracks) will more
likely result in a leak, especially for non-
compressible liquid pipelines. Such leaks
on a liquid pipeline can result in environ-
mental consequences, but are less likely to
result in a conflagration.
SS: When pipelines are in operation,
there is always the chance that they could
leak or rupture and failure can cause seri-
ous human, environmental, and financial
losses as a result of crack growth from an
initial (very small) size to a critical size
large enough to cause leakage (especially
in thin-walled pipelines) or spontaneous
rupture (especially in thick-walled pipe-
lines). Here I give three examples to dem-
onstrate how devastating the results of
pipeline failures due to FCC/SCC can be.
The examples also indicate the recurring
nature of these cases:
• On March 4, 1965, a 24-in (610-mm)
natural gas pipeline owned by Tennes-
see Gas Pipeline ruptured near Natchi-
toches, Louisiana, killing 17 people.
This incident was the first publicly doc-
umented pipeline failure attributed to
SCC. Prior to that time, it was generally
assumed that soil environments would
not be capable of producing SCC.
• On July 26, 2010, a 30-in (760-mm) pipe-
line owned by Enbridge Energy Part-
ners LLP ruptured due to corrosion
fatigue near Marshall, Michigan. The
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Tracking Corrosion in Real Time in a Carbon Dioxide Capture Plant
rupture caused a 1,100,000 gal (4,200
m3) spill of diluted bitumen into Tal-
madge Creek in Calhoun County, which
flows into the Kalamazoo River. This is
one of the largest inland, and one of the
costliest, oil spills in U.S. history. The
cost of the cleanup exceeds $1 billion.
• On September 9, 2010, a 30-in (760-
mm) natural gas pipeline, owned and
operated by the Pacific Gas and Elec-
tric Co., ruptured in a residential area
in San Bruno, California, killing eight
people and seriously injuring 10. The
rupture produced a crater about 72 ft
(22 m) long and 26 ft (8 m) wide. The
accident cost the pipeline owners
$1.6 billion.
MP: Are some pipelines more at risk
than others? If so, which ones and why?
JB: Risk is defined as the probability
that an event will occur multiplied by the
consequences of the event. The conse-
quences of a failure of a petroleum pipe-
line increase with an increase in the
diameter or operating pressure of the
pipeline and with proximity to high
consequence areas.
There are a number of factors that
affect the probability that external SCC
will initiate, propagate, or result in a rup-
ture. These include the internal pressure,
wall thickness, diameter, coating type,
pipeline age, operating temperature, dis-
tance downstream of a pump or compres-
sor station, and a host of other factors that
are summarized in Table 1 of NACE
SP0204-2015.9 In a nutshell, the operating
hoop stress of a pipeline is probably the
single most important factor affecting the
probability of a failure. The hoop stress is
determined by the combination of the
operating pressure, wall thickness, and
pipe diameter and it affects the likelihood
of SCC initiation, the SCC crack growth
rate, and the likelihood of a rupture.
Coating type, and the associated sur-
face preparation, also has a significant
impact on the probability of an SCC fail-
ure. Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE)-coated
pipelines are generally considered to be
immune to external SCC, according to Part
A3.3.2 of ASME B31.8S.10 While this is not
absolutely true, the probability of failure of
an FBE coating pipeline is so low that
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
other integrity risks will almost always be
greater. At the other extreme, older vin-
tage polyethylene tape-coated pipelines
have a relatively high probability of experi-
encing near-neutral pH SCC.
Pipeline age is another important
parameter affecting the likelihood of a
pipeline failure as a result of external SCC.
Time is required for the coating to
degrade, the potent cracking environment
FIGURE 4. Frequency of intergranular
to develop, the SCC colonies to initiate,
SCC along pipelines with distance from
and the crack to either grow through the a compressor station, together with the
wall or interlink to create a critical flaw predicted relative probability of failure
size for rupture. According to Part A3.3.2 based upon the temperature fall along a
line.13
of ASME B31.8S, pipelines that are less
than 10 years old are not considered to be
susceptible to SCC.
Further discussion of the other factors
affecting the probability of an external
SCC failure are given in SP0204-2015 and
NACE Publication 35103.11
FK: In terms of the probability of fail-
ure, some pipelines are more susceptible
than others. For example, pipelines that
run at hotter temperatures (e.g., greater
than 30-40 °C) are more susceptible to
high-pH SCC, both because there is a
greater probability of generating the nec-
essary environment by evaporation and
FIGURE 5. Pipeline steel and production
because the crack growth rate increases technology evolution.17
markedly with increasing temperature.
Conversely, newer pipelines constructed
with advanced coating systems with a low
probability of disbondment are much less
likely to fail by SCC. Indeed, for the high-
performance coating FBE, there are no
reported cases of SCC. Pipelines that oper-
ate with larger or more frequent pressure
fluctuations are more likely to fail by SCC,
as the cyclic loading can induce crack ini-
tiation and drive crack growth. Histori-
cally, some pipeline manufacturing pro- FIGURE 6. Effect of pipe diameter on
fracture time and the length of fractured
cesses have resulted in high levels of
zone.18
residual stress and/or more-susceptible
microstructures, resulting in a higher
probability of failure. bodies impose higher standards in densely
In terms of the consequences of failure, populated areas or in locations of special
gas pipelines are on average more likely to concern, such as close to schools, hospi-
rupture and cause a fire than liquid pipe- tals, or similar buildings.
lines, which tend to leak resulting in a In order to manage the overall level of
spill. Clearly, the potential for fatalities or risk, pipelines are operated at a lower
damage to human health and infrastruc- effective stress in high consequence areas
ture is greater in areas with higher popula- by either reducing the pressure or by
tion density. For this reason, regulatory increasing the wall thickness.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 33
FEATURE ARTICLE
SS: There have been several attempts to
analyze the effects of soil type, the potentials
of CP, temperature, and even coating type on
the appearance of environment-induced
cracking in pipelines.4 The fact that up until
now none of the pipeline failures due to
FCC/SCC were predicted tells us that we are
still not ready to answer this question with
any degree of certainty. On the other hand,
some common characteristics were noted
when cracked/ruptured pipes were removed
from the ground:
• Cracks initiated from the soil side and
ran parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the pipes (i.e., normal to the direction
of maximum applied cyclic stress).
• Cracking took place in the absence of
general or obvious pitting corrosion.
• Cracks were not preferentially associ-
ated with the welded seams.
• Cracks occurred most frequently on
the bottom portion of the pipe
circumference.
• Average failure times were between
about 15 and 20 years, but the first fail-
ures occurred in pipelines that had
been in service for more than 40 years.
• Cracks appeared on pipelines without
corrosion protection as well as on pipe-
lines with a good protective coating
and CP. The great majority of failures
occurred on coated pipelines with CP.
The few bare pipelines that have failed
were in operation for nine to 16 years
without CP and failed in one to 17 years
after CP was applied.1
Most if not all FCC/SCC failures on pipe-
lines occurred with coated pipes, and cracks
were initiated under disbonded coating
areas (i.e., at the same place where the posi-
tive [protective] effect of CP was expected);
all these failures occurred on buried pipe-
lines having CP. In 2003, Marr, et al.2 noted,
“the failure of a coating system is a primary
factor in the initiation and propagation of
SCC.” In most cases where it was possible to
study the condition of the coating surround-
ing the cracks, the coating apparently was
not bonded to the pipe in a small area
around the crack but the coating did not
necessarily appear to be broken. In a few rare
cases, cracking has been found under a coat-
ing that did not appear to have disbonded
areas. In such cases, groundwater must have
penetrated the coating through microscopic
pores. Such failures have been characterized
by multiple cracks that are branched, inter-
34 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
granular, and usually parallel to the pipe
axis.
In addition, cracking has been observed
over a wide range of solution compositions12
that are generated in the disbonded regions
between a pipeline and its coating; it has
occurred in heavy clay, light sand, rocky
soils, and swamps. The cracks propagate
slowly in a longitudinal direction without
penetrating the pipe wall, and they may
reach the critical size for fast mechanical
rupture of the pipeline. Elevated tempera-
tures can promote fracture by increasing the
crack growth rate, and, because of this, most
of the FCC/SCC failures have occurred near
the discharge side of compressor stations.
Whereas compressor stations are typically
100 km to 150 km apart, 65% of the failures
have been within 8 km and 92% have been
within 16 km downstream from a compres-
sor station (Figure 4).13 Although no appar-
ent correlation between soil chemistry and
the occurrence of pipeline SCC was found,12
it was revealed that CP and sulfate-reducing
bacteria worked together to promote SCC. It
was also revealed that hydrogen-accelerated
microstructural changes in steels resulted in
the significant loss of steel resistance to cor-
rosion and SCC even within the expected life
span of pipelines.
MP: What is included in a typical pipe-
line integrity management program to
assess susceptibility of pipelines to
SCC?
JB: Integrity management programs
designed to address the threat of external
SCC generally include one or more of the
following three techniques: hydrostatic
testing, direct assessment, and inline
inspection (ILI). These techniques are
used to manage other time-dependent
threats and the SCC threat can be included
in an overall risk management program. In
this way, all of the threats can be priori-
tized in a way that optimizes risk mitiga-
tion activities (i.e., highest risk reduction
at lowest cost). In this way, we don’t over-
work an SCC problem that has little
impact on total risk, or we better under-
stand the impact of a previously under-
recognized SCC threat.
Directly following the initial SCC fail-
ures of gas transmission pipelines in the
1960s, hydrostatic testing was the primary
tool used to confirm the integrity of the
affected pipelines and prevent additional
failures. While hydrostatic testing has
been effective in reducing service failures,
it has a number of limitations. Very few, if
any, SCC flaws are removed and the pipe-
line must be taken out of service for test-
ing. Large, subcritical flaws remain in the
pipeline and these can grow to failure,
resulting in the necessity for frequent
retesting.
The first recommended practice for
SCC direct assessment (SCCDA) was
issued in 2004 (NACE RP0204-2004; now
SP0204-2015), although elements of
SCCDA have been used in the industry
since the first discoveries of SCC in the
1960s. The SCCDA process consists of four
steps. In the first step—pre-assessment—
existing information on the pipeline is col-
lected to assess the likelihood that the
pipeline is susceptible to SCC and select
susceptible pipe segments and possible
dig sites. In the second step—indirect
inspection—additional data are collected,
as deemed necessary by the pipeline oper-
ator, to aid prioritization of segments and
in-site selection. The third step is direct
examination, in which the pipeline is
inspected for SCC at the selected field dig
sites. In the final, post-assessment step,
the data are analyzed to determine
whether SCC mitigation is required, and if
so, to prioritize those actions, define the
interval for the next full integrity reassess-
ment, and evaluate the effectiveness of the
SCCDA approach. A significant issue with
SCCDA is that it presently is not capable of
reliably identifying the location or loca-
tions of the most severe SCC on a pipeline
segment. Accordingly, it is better suited, at
the present time, as a threat evaluation
tool than for integrity verification.
ILI is the third technique used to evalu-
ate SCC threats on operating pipelines.
Integrity management with ILI tools con-
sists of finding and sizing the cracks,
assessing the impact of the cracks on
integrity, and repairing the cracks, if
required. The greatest challenge with the
current generation of crack detection tools
is related to the accuracy of crack sizing;
specifically crack depth measurements.
Because of these sizing issues, one or more
validation methods, such as confirmatory
hydrostatic testing or a validation dig pro-
gram, are frequently employed with ILI.
Each of the three integrity techniques
(hydrostatic testing, SCCDA, and ILI) has
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
strengths and weaknesses. Accordingly, a
combination of these techniques chosen
according to the specific pipeline of inter-
est generally provides the most robust
integrity management program to address
the threat of external SCC.
FK: The basic steps in an SCC integrity
management plan are:
1. SCC susceptibility assessment
2. Inspect for the presence of SCC
3. Classify the severity of SCC
4. Mitigate the SCC
5. Monitor the SCC
6. Document
SCC Susceptibility Assessment
An SCC susceptibility assessment
involves collecting all relevant informa-
tion and records and reviewing this infor-
mation against known indicators of SCC.
For example, known instances of SCC on
pipelines of a similar vintage, with the
same coating, and similar operational his-
tory would suggest a relatively high sus-
ceptibility to SCC. Conversely, a relatively
new pipeline with FBE coating would be
considered to have a low susceptibility.
This susceptibility assessment step is
repeated periodically for lines not previ-
ously considered to be susceptible, as the
condition of the line can deteriorate over
time.
Inspect for the Presence of SCC
Any line considered to be susceptible
to SCC in the previous step should be
inspected to determine whether SCC is
actually present. Inspection by ILI or
hydrotesting will indicate the presence of
cracks above a certain size. If excavations
are used, then a statistically significant
number of digs should be performed in
order to demonstrate the absence of SCC.
Classify the Severity of SCC
If SCC is detected, the severity of SCC
must be determined in order to establish
suitable repair and mitigation procedures,
as well as the timescale over which such
mitigation must be completed. Various
standards and recommended procedures
have been developed that classify SCC
according to the predicted failure pressure
of the defect. Typically, crack colonies are
classified into one of four to five severity
categories. The higher the severity, the
sooner repair or mitigation is required.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
Mitigate the SCC
Mitigation is typically achieved by
either removal of the feature or through
the use of a sleeve, either with or without
removal of the SCC by grinding. Hydro-
static testing will also temporarily slow
the growth of defects that do not fail dur-
ing testing by blunting the crack tip.
Monitor the SCC
The condition of any SCC that is not
removed from the pipe should be continu-
ously monitored. Monitoring can be
achieved through periodic ILI or hydro-
static inspection or by targeted excava-
tions to determine whether the severity of
SCC is changing with time.
Document
It is important that all stages of the
SCC integrity management process be
documented. These documents are impor-
tant for periodic review and learning, as
well as being required for audit by regula-
tors and external agencies.
This general approach to SCC integrity
management is laid out in various stan-
dards and recommended practices.9,14-16
SS: A significant amount of money is
being spent on trying to keep pipelines oper-
able in the face of the problem identified
above. For example, in 1996, 13 Canadian
companies, all members of the Canadian
Energy Pipeline Association (CEPA),
planned to spend $4.8 million on applied
research and over $30 million on pipeline
maintenance related to the SCC problem.
Between 1985 and 1996, TransCanada alone
spent $202 million on its SCC management
program.4 It is apparent that the problem
costs the industry at large many millions of
dollars per annum. But has such spending
actually made pipelines any safer and/or
more resistant to SCC? I am not a fan of so
called “management programs.” Manage-
ment programs will start being useful only
after we design and begin installing new
pipeline steels with higher resistance to FCC
under CP conditions.
MP: Are there new/improved assess-
ment methods available now that lead
to better monitoring, detection, and
mitigation?
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015
JB: Significant effort is being expended
in the pipeline industry to improve the
crack detection and sizing capabilities of
ILI tools and this investment is paying div-
idends. The electromagnetic acoustic
transducer (EMAT) technology looks
promising for the detection of SCC in nat-
ural gas pipelines but it is subject to some
of the same limitations as the more con-
ventional ultrasonic crack detection tools
used for liquid pipelines.
FK: Developments in EMAT technol-
ogy over the past 5-10 years have greatly
improved the reliability of ILI crack detec-
tion for gas pipelines. EMAT technology
allows the ultrasonic detection of crack-
like features in the pipe wall without the
need for a liquid couplant. This technol-
ogy is particularly attractive to the opera-
tors of gas pipelines as it means that there
is no longer a need to remove the line from
service for the introduction of a liquid slug
in which a conventional ultrasonic crack
detection tool would then be run.
Although the reliability of EMAT is cur-
rently not as good as the conventional liq-
uid-coupled ultrasonic tools, great strides
have been made in the past few years as a
result of the combined efforts of both ILI
tool vendors and pipeline operators.
MP: Are there any technology gaps that
should be addressed?
JB: As described above, field digs are a
critical component of an SCCDA program.
Dig programs also are frequently employed
with ILI to validate the result of the ILI tool
runs. ILI validation generally consists of per-
forming field digs, inspecting the pipe, and
comparing the dimensions of the cracks
measured in the field with those measured
by the ILI tool. There are several methods to
measure crack dimensions in the field. Crack
lengths are relatively easy to measure by
means of magnetic particle inspection
(MPI). Crack depths, on the other hand, are
more difficult to measure. These can be done
by grinding the cracks in steps, with periodic
MPI, until the cracks have disappeared. This
method is effective but time consuming. An
alternative approach is to use in-the-ditch
nondestructive inspection techniques such
as ultrasonic testing (UT). Improvements in
the precision and accuracy of these tech-
niques would greatly improve ILI verifica-
tion and SCCDA programs.
35
FEATURE ARTICLE
FK: There has been a long-held desire
to develop an SCC-resistant pipeline steel.
Variations in steel chemistry, microstruc-
ture, and processing can result in differ-
ences in susceptibility. However, at present
the goal of developing an SCC-resistant
steel remains elusive.
SS: Existing pipelines are constructed
largely from C-Mn steels having yield
strength in the range 42-65 ksi (290-450
MPa) (Figure 5).17 Newer pipelines are being
constructed with somewhat stronger micro-
alloyed steels having yield strength in the
range 70-120 ksi (480-830 MPa). These steels,
by virtue of their relatively low strength lev-
els, are generally considered to be fairly
immune to HE under sustained loads. How-
ever, under cyclic loading, acceleration in
crack growth due to absorbed hydrogen can
occur in all these steels. Increasing yield
strength would further accelerate the crack
growth rate and it is a common pattern that
materials, which have higher strength, are
often among the most prone to SCC, FCC,
and HE. In addition, as shown by Polyakov
and Kharionovsky,18 increasing the diameter
of a pipe from 28 in (720 mm) to 56 in (1,420
mm) results in decreasing the average oper-
ating time of a natural gas pipeline before it
ruptures from 18 to six years (Figure 6); at
the same time, the length of a ruptured zone
due to environment-induced cracking
increases from 76 ft (23 m) to 266 ft (81 m).
Despite the above facts, recent trends in the
pipeline industry include using stronger
steels having yield strength in the range 100-
120 ksi (690-830 MPa); using more negative
potentials of CP (e.g., –1.2 V, with permissible
excursions to –1.5 V vs. CSE; and using larger
diameter pipes (e.g., 42 in [1,070 mm]) in
newly constructed pipelines. A fact that can
be stated with certainty today is that these
trends, used separately, all together, or in any
two combinations will result in significant
acceleration in SCC-related failures.
MP: Are there any additional comments
you would like to include?
JB: External SCC of underground pipe-
lines has been the focus of my comments
above. However, over the past 10 to 15
years, it has become apparent that inter-
nal SCC, as a result of exposure to alco-
hols, also can pose a threat to pipelines.
Both ethanol and methanol are potent
SCC agents. Fuel grade ethanol (FGE)
36 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
meeting ASTM standards has caused SCC
of CS tanks and piping in terminals where
it is stored. Experience with FGE in under-
ground transmission pipelines is very lim-
ited, primarily because of the threat from
internal SCC. More recently, it has become
evident that methanol also can pose a
threat to pipelines. Methanol is used for
pressure testing of pipelines and pipeline
system components in cold climates and
as a drying agent to remove water from
these systems. In at least one instance, the
use of methanol has resulted in internal
SCC of a crude oil transmission pipeline.
FK: SCC is one of a number of integrity
threats to liquid and gas pipelines.
Although the relative importance varies
from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, SCC is
typically responsible for fewer incidents
than other integrity threats, such as inter-
nal and external corrosion or third-party
damage. It is also important to understand
that the threat from SCC can be managed
using a variety of tools developed by the
industry over the past several decades,
including crack-detection ILI tools, hydro-
static retesting programs, and formalized
excavation programs and direct assess-
ment methodologies.
SS: Mitigation of pipeline failures may
necessitate the use of materials that are
more expensive than plain C-Mn steels, the
modification of CP systems, and the applica-
tion of relatively low operating temperatures
and pressure levels. In addition, coating
improvements may be needed, particularly
with respect to bonding. The development of
suitable corrosion inhibitors to be added to
coatings and primers could also become an
important consideration.
The current practice as regards “pre-
venting” catastrophic failures of pipelines
is that the failures occur first and then the
U.S. National Transportation Safety Board
and the Transportation Safety Board Can-
ada (as well as the engineering commu-
nity) respond by observing the failures and
providing explanations for why they think
the failures occurred. Prevention, in such a
practice, is a misnomer.
Accurate prediction models are needed
if pipeline failures are to be prevented in the
real sense of the word. But without a thor-
ough understanding of the complex mecha-
nisms at work when failures occur, re-
searchers cannot develop such prediction
models to prevent failures, or respond in an
appropriate and timely fashion when they
do. An effective prediction model is able to
span the atomistic continuum to determine
evolution in the microstructures, responses,
and properties of materials, and works in
complement with experimental investiga-
tions to create solutions that can be applied
in designing fracture-tolerant alloys and
pipeline steels. But in order to develop such
models, we first have to understand and
identify the links between the atomistic
structure and chemistry of the interface be-
tween an alloy and its environment and the
macroscopic behavior and properties of the
alloy.
In particular, there is a need to under-
stand, at a fundamental level, why different
alloys show dramatically different crack
growth behavior in chemical environments.
The research community is divided as to
whether this is just an aqueous corrosion
issue, which is best addressed by applying
classical electrochemical concepts, or
whether the hydrogen promotes “bond
breaking” at the crack tip, enhancing flow
near the crack tip or near grain boundaries
and thereby weakening them so a fracture
can occur. Since it is very difficult to identify
on an atomistic level each important step of
the material-environment interaction that
leads ultimately to the severance of the
atomic bonds in the solid, investigations
should aim at determining which of these
processes provides the most viable explana-
tion in practice as regards materials fracture
in service. Computer simulation can prove
useful in predicting local chemistries, pH,
and potentials within (“short” and “large”)
cracks in the presence of an electrolyte and
in developing models of how specific materi-
als respond in the presence of an electrolyte
by accounting for and including all of its
effects on the materials’ microstructure.
I think that we will be able to discover
practical and applicable solutions for the
FCC/SCC problem in pipelines if we find the
will and the means to create a national
knowledge data base that allows us to
address a broad spectrum of varied and
highly complex challenges in all corrosion-
and FCC-related areas—with the objective of
improving the safety and performance of gas
and liquid pipelines and their associated
materials. This kind of work can only be
done on a large scale, and with the involve-
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
ment of a number of people. In addition, fed-
eral agencies such as the U.S. Department of
Transportation and the Ministry of Trans-
port Canada should demonstrate real inter-
est in supporting, advancing, and enforcing
all aspects of pipeline safety, including pipe-
line corrosion and FCC.
References
14 Stress Corrosion Cracking, 3rd ed. (Calgary, AB,
Canada: Canadian Energy Pipeline Associa-
tion).
15 ASME B31, “Managing System Integrity of Gas
Pipelines,” Supplement to ASME B31.8S (New
York, NY: ASME, 2014).
16 ASME STP-PT-011, “Integrity Management of
Stress Corrosion Cracking in Gas Pipeline High
Consequence Areas” (New York, NY: ASME,
2008).
17 S. Felber, F. Loibnegger, “The Pipeline-Steels
X100 and X120,” 62nd Annual Assembly and
International Conference of the International
Institute of Welding, XI-929-09, 2009, pp. 1-24.
18 V.N. Polyakov, V.V. Kharionovsky, “Statistics of
Transmission Pipeline Fractures,” Structural
Failure, Product Liability and Technical Insur-
ance, H.P. Rossmanith, ed. (London, U.K.:
E & FN Spon, 1996), pp. 353-361.

1 S.A. Shipilov, I. Le May, “Structural Integrity of

Aging Buried Pipelines Having Cathodic Pro-
tection,” Eng. Fail. Anal. 13 (2006): pp. 1,159-
1,176.
2 J.E. Marr, S.B. Hardy, E. Huuskonen, “SCC
Integrity Management—Liquid and Gas Pipe-
line Systems,” Marr Associates, Calgary, May
2003.
3 S.A. Shipilov, “Mechanisms for Corrosion
Fatigue Crack Propagation,” Fatigue Fract. Eng.
Mater. Struct. 25 (2002): pp. 243-259.
4 “Stress Corrosion Cracking on Canadian Oil
and Gas Pipelines. Report of the Inquiry,”
National Energy Board, MH-2-95, November
1996.
5 E.M. Gutman, B.V. Amosov, M.A. Khudiakov,
“Effect of Corrosion Fatigue of Line Pipe Steel
on Pipeline Reliability,” Nef. Khoz. 8 (1977):
pp. 59-62.
6 O. Vosikovsky, “Fatigue-Crack Growth in an
X-65 Line-Pipe Steel at Low Cyclic Frequencies
in Aqueous Environments,” J. Eng. Mater. Tech-
nol., Trans. ASME 97H (1975): pp. 298-304.
7 M. Saenz de Santa Maria, R.P.M. Procter, “Envi-
ronmental Cracking (Corrosion Fatigue and
Hydrogen Embrittlement) X-70 Linepipe Steel,”
Fatigue and Crack Growth in Offshore Struc-
tures, C137/86 (London, U.K.: IMechE, 1986),
pp. 101-108.
8 F. Schmelzer, F.J. Schmitt, “Crack Growth
Behaviour of Structural Steels in Seawater,”
Z. Werkstofftech. 12, 3 (1981): pp. 90-96.
9 NACE SP0204-2015, “Stress Corrosion Crack-
ing (SCC) Direct Assessment Methodology”
(Houston, TX: NACE International, 2015).
10 ASME B31.8S, “Managing System Integrity of
Gas Pipelines” (New York, NY: ASME, 2012).
11 NACE Publication 35103, “External Stress Cor-
rosion Cracking of Underground Pipelines”
(Houston, TX: NACE International, 2003).
12 S.K. Zhigletsova, V.B. Rodin, V.V. Rudavin, G.E.
Rasulova, N.A. Alexandrova, G.M. Polomina,
V.P. Kholodenko, “Change of Physicochemical
Parameters of Soils Near to Stress-Corrosion
Defects of Gas Pipelines,” Environment-Induced
Cracking of Materials: Prediction, Industrial
Developments, and Evaluation, S.A. Shipilov,
R.H. Jones, J.M. Olive, R.B. Rebak, eds.
(Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2008), pp. 323-333.
13 R.R. Fessler, “Studies Reveal Causes of Stress-
Corrosion Cracking,” Pipe Line Ind. 44, 3 (1976):
pp. 37-39.

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 37

CATHODIC PROTECTION
Using Applied Potentials for
Bioflm Removal from Titanium
Surfaces
S.D. Ruth Nithila, R.P. GeoRGe,
B. aNaNDkumaR, aND u. kamachi
muDali, FNace, Indira Gandhi Centre
for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, India
38 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Titanium surfaces with bioflms were
exposed to seawater and a sequence
of applied potentials through two cy-
cles: an open circuit potential (OCP)
to +600 mV vs. a saturated calomel
electrode (SCE) with a 15-min hold at
+600 mV, and +600 mV to –600 mV
with a 15-min hold at –600 mV. This
application decreased the density of a
gram-positive bacterial bioflm and
natural seawater bioflm by two orders
of magnitude. The synergistic effect
of chlorination with alternate applied
potentials was also demonstrated.
T
Titanium (Ti) possesses outstanding
corrosion resistance in a wide range of
aggressive environments. Due to its techni-
cal superiority, it has proven to be the heat
exchanger material choice for seawater-
cooled power plants.1 However, the excel-
lent biocompatibility of Ti’s surface makes
it highly prone to biofilm formation. Earlier
studies 2 have confirmed that a heteroge-
neous biofilm of anaerobic sulfate-reduc-
ing bacteria and aerobic manganese-
oxidizing bacteria caused a breakdown of
passivity on a Ti surface. Hence, biofilm
removal to maintain Ti’s passivity in the
cooling water environments is critical.
Although power plants employ various
conventional biofouling treatment strate-
gies (e.g., chlorination and sponge ball
cleaning), biofouling continues to be a
difficult factor to control. This suggests
that conventional treatment strategies
need to be supplemented by nonconven-
tional treatments, such as applied potential
or ultrasonication, to provide a biofilm-free
condenser system.
Previous works3 have reported that the
application of alternating low voltages
(between –0.6 V and +1.0 V vs. a saturated
calomel electrode [SCE]) is effective
against marine bacteria and higher biofoul-
ing species. Nakayama, et al. 4 employed
alternating potentials of 1.0 V vs. a silver/
silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode for
60 min and –0.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl for 10 min to
control biofouling of plates coated with
titanium nitride (TiN).
Systematic studies determined the
effect of alternating the application of
anodic and cathodic potentials (+600 mV
and –600 mV) to remove biofilms formed
on Ti surfaces in cooling water systems.
The synergistic effect of including chlorina-
tion was also investigated.
Experimental Procedure
Commercially pure Ti (CP Grade 2)
samples (13 by 11 by 2 mm) were ground to
1,000 grit using silicon carbide (SiC) paper,
washed with detergent, degreased with
acetone, ultrasonically cleaned using dis-
tilled water, and air dried.
Pure bacterial cultures of gram-negative
(Pseudomonas sp.) and gram-positive (Bacil-
lus sp.) were grown overnight at 35 °C in sea-
water broth (pH 7.2, 24 g/L sodium chloride
[NaCl], 0.70 g/L potassium chloride [KCl],
5.30 g/L magnesium chloride [MgCl2], 7 g/L
magnesium sulfate [MgSO4], 0.10 g/L cal-
cium chloride [CaCl2], 5 g/L peptic digest of
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
animal tissue, 1.50 g/L beef extract, and 1.50
g/L yeast extract). Pseudomonas sp. and
Bacillus sp. cells were harvested after cen-
trifugation and suspended in a 10-mM
potassium phosphate (KH 2 PO 4 ) buffer
(0.68 g/L KH2PO4 and 0.87 g/L dipotassium
phosphate [K2HPO4]) at a concentration of
10 6 cells per mL at 25 °C. The pH was
adjusted by adding hydrochloric acid (HCl)
or potassium hydroxide (KOH), and zeta
potential measurements were made at neu-
tral, acidic, and basic pH levels using a Mal-
vern Zetasizer †. Redox potentials of the
overnight bacterial cultures containing 106
cells/mL were measured in a two-electrode
electrochemical cell.
Hydrophobicity of the bacterial cul-
tures was estimated using a bacterial
adherence to hydrocarbons (BATH) assay
spectrophotometrically as described by
Rosenberg, et al.5 Sterile Ti specimens (UV
irradiated for 5 min) were exposed for 24 h
to the overnight-grown pure-culture broth
of Pseudomonas and Bacillus sp. to obtain
pure-culture gram-positive and gram-nega-
tive biofilms. Other sterile Ti specimens
were exposed to natural seawater in the
nuclear desalination demonstration plant
(NDDP) pump house for 24 h to obtain the
natural seawater biofilms.
To develop the artificial seawater bio-
films, a biofilm that formed on a Ti panel
exposed for a month in seawater was trans-
ferred into artificial seawater broth and incu-
bated overnight. Ti specimens were then
exposed to the overnight culture from artifi-
cial seawater broth in the laboratory for 24 h.
The effect of alternating the application
of anodic/cathodic potentials on 24-h natu-
ral seawater biofilms, artificial seawater bio-
films, and pure-culture gram-positive and
gram-negative bacterial biofilms was inves-
tigated. For the electrochemical study, a
three-electrode, Borosil† 500-mL electro-
chemical cell was used, with platinum foil as
a counter electrode, a SCE as the reference
electrode, and the Ti specimen as the work-
ing electrode. A potentiostat with custom-
ized software was used to apply the follow-
ing sequence of potentials: open circuit
†
Trade name.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
TABLE 1. BACTERIAL DENSITY OF DIFFERENT 24-h BIOFILMS ON
Ti SPECIMENS WITH AND WITHOUT APPLICATION OF ALTERNATE
ANODIC/CATHODIC POTENTIALS
Natural Artifcial
Pseudomonas Seawater Seawater
Experimental sp. Bacillus sp. Bioflm Bioflm
Condition (cfu/cm2) (cfu/cm2) (cfu/cm2) (cfu/cm2)
Control (2.4 ± 0.2) x 106 (1.36 ± 0.2) x 104 (3.5 ± 0.3) x 106 (1.2 ± 0.11) x 103
Applied (7.7 ± 0.5) x 105 (4.58 ± 0.3) x 102 (1.57 ± 0.2) x 104 (5.0 ± 0.5) x 102
alternate
anodic/cathodic
potentials
potential (OCP) to +600 mV vs. SCE with a The bacterial density of the 24-h bio-
15-min hold at +600 mV, and +600 mV to films on Ti specimens with and without
–600 mV with a 15-min hold at –600 mV, application of alternate anodic/cathodic
which was repeated for a second cycle. Thus, potential is expressed as number of colony-
the total duration of the applied potentials forming units per cm2, and these results are
was 1 h. All of the experiments were carried presented in Table 1.
out at room temperature (27 ± 3 °C) using
seawater electrolyte. Results and Discussion
To confirm the mechanism of redox The process of bacterial adhesion to
mediation in the control of bacterial adhe- solid surfaces is essentially determined by
sion by applied potential, alternate anodic/ properties of the bacterial cell surface, the
cathodic potential was applied on a 24-h substratum, and the suspending liquid.
biofilm of gram-negative Pseudomonas sp. These properties include zeta potential,
and gram-positive Bacillus sp. on Ti speci- hydrophobicity of the cells, redox poten-
mens with a 0.5-mM solution of ferrocene- tial, pH, ionic concentration of the me-
carboxylic acid added to the seawater elec- dium, surface free energy, and the surface
trolyte. The combined effect of chlorine charge. The substratum is Ti and the me-
and alternate application of anodic/ dium is seawater. The two groups of bacte-
cathodic potentials was compared to the ria (gram-negative and gram-positive)
separate effects of adding chlorine and occur throughout the environment, in-
applying alternating potentials. cluding seawater. Hence, the effectiveness
The damage incurred to bacterial cells of the application of alternate anodic/
after applying alternating potential was cathodic potentials to control biofilm for-
quantified by culture techniques using sea- mation needs to be tested for representa-
water agar,6 and visualized by Nikon 600† tive bacteria from both groups. Pure-
epifluorescence microscopic characteriza- culture biofilms of gram-negative Pseu do­
tion (excitation filter BP 490, barrier filter monas sp. and gram-positive Bacillus sp.
O 515) using a LIVE/DEAD BacLight † were used as they are the predominant
Bacterial Viability Kit and acridine orange biofilm formers in the seawater environ-
nucleic acid stain 7 to observe the viable ment11 and also represent two major types
bacteria. Three replicates were analyzed of bacteria with distinct cell membrane
for each condition and statistical analyses morphology.
were carried out using MYSTAT† software. The most effective method of control-
The biofilms and bacterial morphology ling biofilm formation is to prevent bacte-
were observed with a scanning electron rial adhesion on surfaces, thereby blocking
microscope (SEM) (SEC Desktop Mini-SEM the initial stage of biofilm formation.9 If the
SNE-3000M†) after gold coating. potential of the surface is changed in the
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 39
CATHODIC PROTECTION
FIGURE 1 SEM of 24-h gram-negative Pesudomonas sp. bioflms on Ti specimens (a) without and
(b) with application of alternate anodic/cathodic potentials.
FIGURE 2 Epifuorescence micrographs of live and dead Baclight-stained pure-culture bioflms
of gram-positive Bacillus sp. on Ti specimens (a) without and (b) with application of alternate
anodic/cathodic potentials.
positive or negative direction, those
changes affect the bacterial cells at the
interface.
Generally, bacteria bear a net negative
charge and can be repelled by the cathodic
charge, which increases during cathodic
potentiostatic application. There are
reports in literature 10 stating that the
anodic current reduces the binding energy
and weakens the adhesion force of the bac-
teria. The objective of this study was to
apply cathodic current cycled with anodic
current. This sequence decreased bacterial
density by one order of magnitude in gram-
negative bacterial biofilms and artificial
seawater biofilms, and by two orders of
40 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
magnitude in gram-positive bacterial bio-
films and natural seawater biofilms.
Using microscopic techniques, the
mode of damage was observed in the bio-
films after alternating anodic/cathodic
potentials were applied. The SEM images of
the 24-h Pseudomonas sp. biofilms on Ti
specimens with and without application of
alternating anodic/cathodic potentials are
shown in Figure 1. The SEM images clearly
demonstrate the cell morphology change
from a rod shape to a spherical or oval
shape. According to Wellman, et al.,11 this
change can decrease the adhesion force,
leading to desorption of cells from the sur-
face. The epifluorescence micrographs of
the BacLight-stained live and dead pure-
culture of Bacillus sp. biofilms on Ti speci-
mens showed a large number of green fluo-
rescing live cells before applying a potential
(Figure 2[a]); and, on application of alter-
nate anodic/cathodic potential, showed
fewer cells present. Cells fluorescing in red
(Figure 2[b]) indicated that the bacterial
cell membranes were damaged and the
propidium iodide stain penetrated these
cells and made them red.
To understand the difference in con-
trolling gram-negative and gram-positive
bacterial biofilms by the alternate anodic/
cathodic potential technique, surface char-
acterization of bacterial cells and redox
potential measurements of bacterial cul-
tures were undertaken. Gram-negative
extra polymeric secreting Pseudomonas sp.
with a more positive zeta potential (–27.7
mV vs. –29.4 mV for Bacillus sp.), an active
redox potential (0.14 V vs. 0.17 V for Bacil-
lus sp.), and higher hydrophobicity (3.6%
cells in aqueous phase compared to 14.1%
for Bacillus sp.) appear to resist the effect of
an alternate anodic/cathodic potential
being applied, with only a one order of
magnitude decrease compared to two or-
ders of magnitude decrease in the case of
gram-positive Bacillus sp. According to
Ehrlich and Newman,12 gram-negative bac-
teria are capable of greater elution export
and import across the cell wall than gram-
positive bacteria, and this may help gram-
negative bacteria in neutralizing charge
effects on the surface. Gram-positive bacte-
ria in turn are affected to a greater degree.
The effect of alternating the application
of anodic/cathodic potentials in the pres-
ence of a redox mediator was also investi-
gated to obtain some insight into the mech-
anism of control. The redox mediators are
the artificial electron transferring agents
that can readily participate in the redox
reaction with the biological component
and facilitate the rapid electron transfer.13
The ferrocene derivatives are known to be
fast and reversible mediators.14 The epiflu-
orescence micrographs of the 24-h Bacillus
sp. biofilms on Ti specimens with and with-
out alternate anodic/cathodic potentials in
the presence of 0.5 mM ferrocenecarboxylic
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Using Applied Potentials for Biofilm Removal from Titanium Surfaces

acid as redox mediator in electrolyte are

shown in Figure 3. On addition of this redox
mediator to the seawater electrolyte,
further reduction in biofilm formation
and fluorescence of cells was observed
(Figure 3[c]).
Finally, the synergistic effect of chlorine
and alternate anodic/cathodic potentials
on seawater biofilms was demonstrated.
Oxidizing antimicrobials like chlorine are
widely used in cooling water systems. The
chlorine gas is administered to water,
which hydrolyzes rapidly to hypochlorous
acid (HClO), an effective antimicrobial
component. The disadvantage of chlorina-
tion is that the concentration of HClO is
pH-dependent, and at higher pH levels it
dissociates into hypochlorite ions.15
Chlorination in industrial water treat-
ment is usually applied as a shock dose of
1 to 2 ppm at regular intervals. In this study,
seawater with 1 ppm of chlorine was used
as the medium for application of alternate
anodic/cathodic potentials. The effects of
FIGURE 3 Epifuorescence micrographs of acridine orange-stained 24-h bioflms of gram-negative
chlorination and applied alternate poten-
Bacillus sp. on Ti specimens (a) without application of alternate anodic/cathodic potentials,
tials were compared separately, along with (b) with application of alternate anodic/cathodic potentials in the absence of a redox mediator, and
the combination of both treatments. The (c) with application of alternate anodic/cathodic potential in the presence of a redox mediator in
maximum reduction of biofilm density the electrolyte.
(Table 2) was observed with the combina-
tion of alternate anodic/cathodic poten-
tials and chlorine in the electrolyte. Sepa- TABLE 2. MEAN INITIAL AND FINAL POPULATIONS AND RESPECTIVE
rately, chlorination and applied alternate
potentials could achieve ~88% biofilm
PERCENTAGE REMOVAL AFTER VARIOUS TREATMENTS OF BIOFILMS
removal; however, the combination of both Conditions Total Counts (cfu/mL) Percentage Removal
could achieve more than 98% removal, Control (6.5 ± 0.8) x 106 —
which demonstrates the synergistic effect Chlorination only (7.5 ± 0.3) x 105
88.4
of combining the treatments. Experiments 5
Alternate potentials application only (7.8 ± 0.1) x 10 88.0
are underway to evaluate field application
of the technique with 30-min applications Combined chlorination and alternate (8.5 ± 0.1) x 104 98.6
of alternate anodic/cathodic potentials potentials application
every 24 h on Ti tube specimens exposed in
the outfall of the Madras Atomic Power
Station in Kalpakkam, India. the bacterial density, attached cells with biofouling in cooling water systems is
damaged cell membranes, changes in cell demonstrated.
Conclusions morphology, and swelling of microbial
Systematic studies were carried out to cells. It was concluded that the combina- Acknowledgment
establish the effect of applying alternating tion of chlorination and applied alternate In this work, the authors keep on record
anodic and cathodic potentials (+600 mV potentials could achieve more than 98% the guidance and support of R.K Dayal and
to –600 mV) to remove biofilms formed on removal of seawater biofilms from Ti N. Parvathavarthini, retired scientists of
Ti surfaces in cooling water systems. Bac- surfaces. Thus, the scope of the applied the corrosion group. The authors sincerely
terial culture techniques and microscopic alternate potential technique as a power- acknowledge P. Vasudeva Rao, director,
characterization confirmed reduction in ful nonconventional tool for controlling Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research;

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 41

CATHODIC PROTECTION
Baldev Raj, past director; and T. Jayakumar,
director, MMG; for their keen interest in
the study and constant encouragement.
References
1 W.L. Williams, The Science, Technology and
Application of Titanium, R.I. Jaffee, N.E.
Promisel, eds. (Oxford, U.K.: Pergamon Press,
1970), p. 1,153.
2 B. Anandkumar, et al., “Studies on Break-
down of Passivity of Titanium Covered with
In Vitro Biofilms,” J. Corrosion Science and
Engineering 16, 26 (2013).
3 T. Matsunaga, et al., “Prevention of Marine
Biofouling Using a Conductive Paint Elec-
trode,” Biotechnol. Bioeng. 59 (1998): pp. 374-
378.
4 T. Nakayama, et al., “Electrochemical Pre-
vention of Marine Biofouling on a Novel Tita-
nium-Nitride-Coated Plate Formed by
Radio-Frequency Arc Spraying,” Appl. Micro-
biol. Biotechnol. 50 (1998): pp. 502-508.
5 M. Rosenberg, D. Gutnick, E. Rosenberg,
“Adherence of Bacteria to Hydrocarbons:
A Simple Method for Measuring Cell-Surface
Hydrophobicity,” FEMS Microbiology Letters
9 (1980): pp. 29-33.
6 E.W. Rice, et al., Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 22nd
ed. (Washington, D.C.: APHA, AWWA, WEF,
2012).
7 D.E. Francisco, R.A. Mah, A.C. Rabin, “Acri-
dine Orange-Epifluorescence Technique for
Counting Bacteria in Natural Waters,” Trans.
American Microscopical Society 92 (1973): pp.
416-421.
8 G. Judy, et al., “Biomineralisation of Manga-
nese on Titanium Surfaces Exposed to Sea-
water,” Biofouling 24 (2008): pp. 275-282.
9 R. Bos, H.C. van der Mei, H.J. Busscher,
“Physico-chemistry of Initial Microbial Ad-
hesive Interactions—Its Mechanisms and
Methods for Study,” FEMS Microbiolog y
Reviews 23 (1999): pp. 179-230.
10 S.H. Hong, et al., “Effect of Electric Currents
on Bacterial Detachment and Inactivation,”
Biotechnol. Bioeng. 100 (2008): pp. 379-386.
11 N. Wellman, S.M. Fortun, B.R. McLeod,
“Bacterial Biofilms and the Bioelectric
Effect,” Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40
(1996): pp. 2,012-2,014.
12 H.L. Ehrlich, D.K. Newman, Geomicrobiology,
5th ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2008).
42 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
13 A. Chaubey, B.D. Malhotra, “Mediated
Biosensors,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics
17 (2002): pp. 441-456.
14 A.E.G. Cass, et al., “Ferrocene-Mediated
Enzyme Electrode for Amperometric Deter-
mination of Glucose,” Anal. Chem. 56 (1984):
pp. 667-671.
15 J.W. McCoy, The Chemical Treatment of Cool-
ing Water, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Chemical
Publishing Co., 1974).
RUTH NITHILA was a senior research
fellow of Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam 603102,
India, e-mail: ruthnsd@gmail.com. She has
more than six years of research experience
in biofilms and biofouling control. Her
interests are in studying nonconventional
techniques such as ultrasonication and
alternate-applied potentials to control
biofouling on titanium being used as
condenser material in a fast breeder
reactor. She has a Ph.D. in environmental
studies from the University of Madras,
Chennai, India. She is a student member of
NACE International.
B. ANANDKUMAR is a scientific officer in
the Corrosion Science and Technology
Group of IGCAR, e-mail: anandb@igcar.
gov.in. He has a Ph.D. in chemistry (2009)
from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, India
and has two years of post-doctoral experi-
ence as a visiting scientist in IGCAR. He
has more than 11 years of research experi-
ence in microbiologically influenced corro-
sion (MIC) and biofilm control. His inter-
ests are in developing molecular biological
tools to identify microbial groups involved
in biofouling of titanium condenser tubes
and in studying biofouling control
techniques. He has authored 25 journal
papers and 15 conference proceedings in
the fields of biofilms and microbial corro-
sion.
RANI P. GEORGE is a leader for the Surface
Modification Programme of the Corrosion
Science and Technology Group at IGCAR,
e-mail: rani@igcar.gov.in. She joined
IGCAR as a scientific officer in 2000,
having spent two years as a visiting scien-
tist there. She obtained her Ph.D. in
botany in 1997 and is a member of NACE
International. She worked as a visiting
scientist, Corrosion Protection Centre,
UMIST, Manchester, U.K. in 1998 with R.C.
Newman on the mechanism of MIC probes.
She has authored more than 33 journal
papers and 30 conference proceedings in
the field of biofouling and corrosion. She is
a member of several professional societ-
ies, serving as an organizing committee
members for conferences. She was
awarded a 2010 NACE International
Gateway India Section (NIGIS) Corrosion
Awareness Award for Excellence in
Corrosion Science and Technology.
U. KAMACHI MUDALI, FNACE, is an
outstanding scientist and associate direc-
tor, Corrosion Science and Technology
Group, at IGCAR. He is also head,
Reprocessing Research and Development
Division & Convener, IGCAR Patents &
Technology Transfer Cell. He joined IGCAR
in 1984 after completing his M. Tech. in
corrosion science and engineering at IIT
Bombay. He has a Ph.D. in metallurgy
corrosion from the University of Madras.
He is internationally known for his contri-
butions in the fields of localized corrosion;
super hydrophobic, antifouling, self-
healing high-temperature corrosion-resis-
tant coatings; surface modification and
engineering using chemical, laser, ion, and
plasma sources to enhance corrosion
protection of materials; and many other
areas. He is a senior professor at the Homi
Bhabha National Institute University of
DAE at Kalpakkam and an adjunct profes-
sor of the PSG Institute of Advanced
Studies & PSG College of Technology,
Coimbatore, India. Mudali has hundreds of
publications to his credit, holds three
patents, and received numerous honors
and awards. He is a Fellow of NACE
International, ASM International, Asia
Pacific Academy of Materials, Indian
Institute of Metals, Indian National
Academy of Engineering, Institution of
Engineers, and Tamil Nadu Academy of
Sciences.
WANTED
Practical Technical Articles •
Distinctive Cover Photos •
News • Product Releases
Send corrosion-related articles, photos,
and other information for publication to:
MP Managing Editor, NACE
International, 15835 Park Ten Place,
Houston, TX 77084
For MP article submission guidelines
and more detailed information on
types of information sought,
call +1 281-228-6207, e-mail:
gretchen.jacobson@nace.org, or
see the Publications section of the
NACE Web site: nace.org.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 43
CATHODIC PROTECTION ESSENTIALS
CP Interference Evaluated
Using Remote Data Logging
Techniques
Te colocation of pipelines with other
sources of interference in congested urban
and suburban right of ways (ROWs) is one
of the challenges faced by corrosion profes-
sionals. Often it is difcult to determine the
44 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
source(s) of interference currents so mitiga-
tive action can be made to restore sufcient
cathodic protection (CP) on the afected
pipeline. Evaluating the efects of electric
transit systems can be a particularly dif-
cult task when the interference is signif-
cant only in short intervals. Additionally,
multiple data parameters, including alter-
nating current (AC) and direct current (DC)
potentials, AC and DC current densities,
and reverse current switch measurements
should be gathered synchronously to build
an accurate profle of the total interference
being experienced. Data logging at loca-
tions of high detrimental DC traction inter-
ference can be efectively used for evalua-
tion; however, time synchronization of the
data events across multiple sites is not
always accurate if the proper equipment is
not employed.
CORROSION 2015 paper no. 5918,
“Using Remote Data-Logging Techniques to
Evaluate Transit System Interference” by
J. Hilleary, J. Dewitt, and L. Krissa, presents
a case study on the use of Web-based moni-
toring systems with remote data logging
capability to acquire critical data and de-
velop profles on pipelines with interference
originating from electric transit systems.
Te focus was on accomplishing efective
synchronization of time-based events
across multiple sites, and correlating the
data back to the intermittent transit system
events that were causing the interference.
An additional challenge was identifying
other foreign current sources not directly
associated with the transit system, which
could also potentially contribute to, or
distort, the interference profle.
Data were recorded from two remote
monitoring system installations to track
current values and additional CP param-
eters. One system took measurements every
15 s over a three-day period, and the other
took measurements every 4 h over several
days. When the aggregate measurements
were plotted and compared, it was identi-
fed that the pipe-to-soil potentials were
being driven very low (toward zero) a large
percentage of the time at one location. Tis
indicated further investigation was war-
ranted on the efect this had on the pipe-
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
line’s CP in this area. Te case study demon-
strated that remote monitoring systems
available now can be used very efectively
for monitoring and compiling the data
necessary to meet basic CP compliance
requirements and also produce a detailed
analysis of the efects from periodic bursts
of interference current encountered at
electric mass transit crossings.
In-Trench Pipeline Supports
May Shield CP
When installing pipelines in rocky
areas, additional mechanical safeguards
may be necessary to protect the coating.
Tese safeguards can take the form of inter-
mittent supports that elevate the pipeline
of the trench bottom. Because these sup-
ports are non-metallic and installed directly
against the pipeline coating, the pipeline
may be shielded from cathodic protection
(CP) current at the locations of the sup-
ports. In CORROSION 2015 paper no. 5780,
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
“Cathodic Shielding Efects of In-Trench
Pipeline Supports” by D. Fingas and R.A.
Gummow, the cathodic shielding efects of
two such intermittent supports, a plastic
pipeline support and a standard spray-in
polyurethane foam support, are investi-
gated and compared. Coating defects were
simulated with coupons installed under
both supports on the surface of a fusion-
bonded epoxy (FBE)-coated nominal pipe Te CD and potential results were com-
size (NPS) 24 pipe section, with an addi- pared to one another to assess the relative
tional coupon installed to act as a control. cathodic shielding efects. Te results
Te pipe, coupons, and supports were clearly indicated that the control coupon
immersed in a tap water electrolyte until and the plastic pipeline support coupons
stable corrosion potentials were reached. polarized more and received more CP cur-
CP, supplied by a magnesium anode, was rent than the foam pipeline support cou-
applied until the system reached a steady pons under the test conditions. Te plastic
state. At suitable intervals, the CP current pipeline support was determined to have
for each coupon was measured indepen- negligible cathodic shielding efects, while
dently and the CP current density (CD) was the foam pipeline support was determined
calculated. In addition, coupon instant-of to have signifcant cathodic shielding
potentials were measured to assess the efects.
polarization characteristics of each coupon.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 45
COATINGS & LININGS
Erosion Behavior of Coatings
at Four Impingement Angles
YaNG li aND YiNG liaN, Hebei University
of Engineering, Handan, China
46 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
The erosion behaviors of high-velocity
oxy-fuel/air-fuel (HVOF/HVAF) sprayed
tungsten carbide-cobalt-chromium (WC-
Co-Cr) coatings were investigated. The
erosion mass loss of the coatings was
generally found to decrease with increas-
ing hardness and specifc energy con-
sumption (SEC) values and with decreas-
ing porosity. A criterion is proposed
based on hardness, SEC, and porosity to
predict the erosion resistance of HVOF/
HVAF sprayed coatings.
S
Slurry erosion is a very serious problem
for many types of industrial equipment,
such as hydroturbines, slurry pumps, and
pipelines. 1-3 Erosion not only reduces the
efficiency of industrial equipment, but also
causes safety concerns that can result in
significant economic losses. Therefore,
more and more attention has been paid to
slurry erosion in recent years.
Slurry erosion involves a very compli-
cated process. The important parameters
include impingement angle, impingement
velocity, impingement time, slurry concen-
tration, and characteristics of the impact
particles and target.4 Among these factors,
the impingement angle has attracted the
most attention. On the one hand, many re-
searchers have investigated the variation of
erosion rates of materials due to impinge-
ment angles using theoretical and experi-
mental methods. While some interesting
results have been obtained,5-8 further de-
tailed investigations are still needed. On
the other hand, the relationship between
erosion resistance and material properties
at different impingement angles has also
drawn much attention, and the criterion
for erosion resistance of materials is ex-
pected to be established.9-11
Liang, et al. 9 studied the relationship
between erosion resistance and specific en-
ergy consumption (SEC) on nine types of
materials. They concluded that SEC could
be used for evaluating plough-cutting resis-
tance under impact loading and is an ap-
propriate criterion for erosion resistance at
shallow impingement angles.
Sun, et al.10 investigated the erosion re-
sistance behavior of a ceria nanoparticle-
doped ultrafine tungsten carbide-12 cobalt
(WC-12Co) composite prepared by spark
plasma sintering, which indicated that the
erosion resistance of the ultrafine WC-
12Co composites was closely related to the
hardness values at impingement angles of
30 and 90 degrees.
The slurry erosion behavior of HVOF/
HVAF sprayed tungsten carbide-cobalt-
chromium (WC-Co-Cr) coatings was also
investigated in a previous study.11 The aver-
age erosion rate at four impingement an-
gles was found to increase as the porosity of
the coating increased.
The previous studies indicate that
hardness, porosity, and SEC may be the key
factors for evaluating erosion resistance
under some conditions. Therefore, to bet-
ter predict future erosion behavior, a crite-
rion for erosion resistance can be estab-
lished based on these key factors. However,
few investigations have been performed on
this issue, especially for different impinge-
ment angles on HVOF/HVAF sprayed WC-
Co-Cr coatings.
In the present study, the erosion behav-
ior of nine HVOF/HVAF sprayed WC-Co-Cr
coatings was investigated using a slurry jet
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
erosion machine and four impingement
TABLE 1. PARTICLE SIZE OF POWDERS, HARDNESS, SEC, AND
angles; and the key influencing factors
were analyzed. Furthermore, a feasible cri- POROSITY OF VARIOUS COATINGS
terion was developed to predict the erosion Sample Spray Particle No. and Its Hardness Porosity
resistance. No. System Particle Size (µm) (Hv) SEC (J/mm3) (%)
M1 M 1 (11-53) 925 14.29 8.69
Materials and M2 2 (15-45) 875 14.26 13.85
Experimental Details
M3 3 (15-45) 893 10.65 13.67
Materials T1 T 1 (11-53) 1,022 20.18 2.18
Three typical HVOF/HVAF spray sys- T2 2 (15-45) 1,226 37.36 3.79
tems, noted as “M,” “T,” and “I,” were used.
T3 3 (15-45) 1,174 30.33 5.24
For the “M” and “T” spray systems, the
combustion-supporting gas is oxygen, and I4 I 4 (5-30) 1,134 31.94 4.97
compressed air is used in the “I” spray sys- I5 5 (10-38) 934 25.39 7.97
tem. The detailed process parameters and I6 6 (5-30) 1,059 24.20 7.80
spray styles have been explained in a previ-
ous work.11 Six commercial powders with
the same composition (86 wt% WC, 10 wt%
Co, and 4 wt% Cr) were selected to prepare
the coatings. The particle sizes are listed in
Table 1. These powders were sprayed on
large-area stainless steel plates to create
nine WC-Co-Cr coatings with different
microstructures. The properties of the
coatings are also listed in Table 1.

Experimental Details
A slurry jet erosion test rig was used to
study the behavior of the various coatings.
The slurry, composed of sand and tap water
with a concentration of 27% (mass frac-
tion), was mixed in the ejector and directed
toward the sample at an impact velocity of
3.7 m/s at four different impingement an-
gles of 15, 45, 75, and 90 degrees. The dura-
tion of the slurry test was 2 h and each test
used 2 kg of angular silica sand that passed
a 40-70 mesh and was changed every 2 h.
The details of the slurry jet erosion test
facility are described in a previous work.12
Samples measuring 15 by 15 by 6 mm
were prepared by wire electrical discharge
machining. A precision balance with accu-
racy to 0.1 mg was used to measure the cu-
mulative loss of mass at regular intervals.
Cross-sections of the coatings’ micro-
structure were observed by scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM) (SHIMADZU SSX-
550 †). The porosity of the coatings was
†
Trade name.
FIGURE 1 Schematic illustration of slurry jet erosion (impingement angle is 90 degrees).
measured from the optical micrographs
and analyzed using image analysis software
(SISC IAS V8.0 †). Each sample was mea-
sured 10 times and the average value was
used. The Vickers microhardness tests
were carried out on a polished cross sec-
tion of the coatings by a micro-sclerometer
(Leco-LM-247AT †) using a 300-g load for
15 s, and the hardness value used was the
average of 10 measurements. The SEC value
was measured by a single pendulum
scratch test, which is explained in other
work.13
Results and Discussion
Erosion Criterion
According to fluid mechanics theories,
a flow will spread out along the surface
when the stream impacts a flat surface,8 as
schematically shown for a slurry jet in Fig-
ure 1. The trajectory of sand particles will
change due to the high viscosity of the flow,
and a slight rebound of the particles can be
achieved under low velocity. Therefore, the
sand particles will slide along the surface of
the specimens. Based on this movement
mode, the erosion mass loss should be in-
tensely affected by some properties of the
coatings, which can be used to predict the
erosion resistance.
Coating materials are cut by the sand
particles as they slide on the surface of the
specimens, so the erosion mass loss for
anti-cutting materials is expected to be re-
duced. Anti-indentation ability is indicated
by the hardness, and the energy of cutting
per unit volume is approximated by the

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 47

COATINGS & LININGS

TABLE 2. EROSION MASS LOSS RELATED TO HARDNESS, SEC, AND POROSITY

Erosion Mass Loss (mg) at Impingement Angle
3
Sample No. Hardness (Hv) SEC (J/mm ) Porosity (%) 15 Degrees 45 Degrees 75 Degrees 90 Degrees
M1 925 14.29 8.69 6.2 11.7 15.2 18.2
M2 875 14.26 13.85 5.8 10.6 10.4 14.6
M3 893 10.65 13.67 6.5 8.9 10.9 15.2
T1 1,022 20.18 2.18 3.4 7.6 12.2 17.7
T2 1,226 37.36 3.79 3 4.2 6.4 8.6
T3 1,174 30.33 5.24 3 5.7 7.3 8.6
I4 1,134 31.94 4.97 2.4 4.7 7.1 8.6
I5 934 25.39 7.97 3.2 5.7 8.2 10.1
I6 1,059 24.20 7.80 2.9 5.3 8.7 8.5

Analysis of Abnormal Change in

FIGURE 2 SEM cross-sectional morphologies of coatings (a) M1 and (b) T1.
SEC.9 Consequently, the erosion mass loss
should decrease with increasing hardness
and SEC.
Fatigue damage also occurs under the
repeated impact action of the sand parti-
cles, and the materials with fewer crack
sources and higher resistance to crack
propagation should have lower erosion
mass loss.
Pores are a typical fatigue crack source,
and the cohesion of the coatings can also
be reflected by the SEC value to some ex-
tent. 11,14 Materials with a high SEC value
can effectively suppress the propagation of
fatigue cracks, and the erosion mass loss
should decrease with decreasing porosity
and increasing SEC value. Accordingly, cut-
ting and fatigue damage are the main ero-
sion mass loss mechanisms, and the mate-
rials with high hardness and SEC values
and low porosity will exhibit excellent ero-
sion resistance properties.
Erosion Behaviors
The data relating erosion mass loss of
coatings to Vickers microhardness, SEC,
and porosity are listed in Table 2. In gen-
eral, the erosion mass loss of the coatings
decreases linearly with increasing hardness
and SEC values and decreasing porosity.
Exceptions to the linear relationships were
found for coating samples M1 and T1 at
45-degree and higher impingement angles,
where the erosion losses were greater than
for the other samples.
The experimental results were nearly in
accord with the aforementioned criterion;
however, the two exceptions may be related
to the difference between the experimental
test and actual conditions. The erosion pro-
cess involves repeated dynamic impact, 4
while steady loading was used during the
hardness measurement. Though the load-
ing style of the single pendulum scratch test
is dynamic, only one impact was performed.
Therefore, it is not appropriate to predict
the erosion mass loss by the criterion alone;
the evolution of the materials under re-
peated impact should also be considered.
Erosion Mass Loss
The abnormal increases in the erosion
mass loss of M1 and T1 coatings at higher
impingement angles indicate that different
microstructures should be investigated.
Figure 2 shows the cross section morpholo-
gies of these two coatings, where numerous
binder strips are observed on both coat-
ings. The cutting, crack initiation, and
propagation occur easily at high shear
stress and normal stress, respectively. At a
high impingement angle, the normal stress
is high, so fast crack propagation may
occur along the binder strips. Simultane-
ously, shear stress also exists due to the tra-
jectory change of the sand particles, and
then the binder strips can also be easily cut.
In addition, as shown in Figure 2(a), a
large-area gathered binder (binder lake)
and coarse WC particles with sharp cor-
ners are observed in the M1 coating. It is
expected that stress concentration will eas-
ily form in these areas, which are typical ac-
tive crack sources.
In the case of T1 coating, as shown in
Figure 2(b), many laminar structures are
observed; and the mean free path, mea-
sured by the average distance between two
WC particles, becomes larger, resulting in
easy crack propagation. Therefore, serious
damage forms easily in the M1 and T1 coat-
ings due to their special microstructures,
resulting in the abnormally high erosion
loss behavior at high impingement angles.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are based on
the foregoing results and discussions:

48 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

 Erosion Behavior of Coatings at
Four Impingement Angles

• The two principle mechanisms of ero- 11 Y. Li, S. Li, Y. Liu, H.R. Wang, “Effect of Poros-
sion mass loss are cutting action of the ity and Laminar Structure on Erosion Resis-
sand and fatigue damage by the tance of WC-Co-Cr Coatings,” Tribology 31
repeated impact of the sand on the (2011): pp. 228-234.
coatings. 12 J.B. Zu, I.M. Hutchings, G.T. Burstein, “Design
• The erosion resistance can be pre- of a Slurry Erosion Test Rig,” Wear 140 (1990):
pp. 331-344.
dicted by the hardness, SEC, and poros-
ity of the coatings, with the erosion 13 S.Y. Gao, S.W. Liu, S. Li, Y. Liu, “Evaluation of
Wear Resistance of Abradable Coatings by a
mass loss decreasing with increasing
Single-Pass Pendulum Scratch Method,”
hardness and SEC values and decreas-
Tribology 30 (2010): pp. 385-391.
ing porosity. Results with the M1 and
14 W.Y. Hu, S. Li, S.Z. Li, X.F. Sun, H.R. Guan,
T1 specimens at high impingement
“Determination of Dynamic Mechanical
angles were exceptions.
Properties of Metals from Single Pendulum
• Special microstructures in the M1 and Scratch Tests,” Tribology International 32
T1 coatings, including Ti binder strip, (1999): pp. 153-160.
binder lake, and laminar structure, are
susceptible to serious damage, result- YANG LI is a lecturer at Hebei University of
Engineering, 199 Guangming South St.,
ing in the abnormal changes in the Handan, Hebei, 056038, China. Li is a
erosion mass loss. doctor of materials sciences and technol-
ogy, with topics of investigation including
erosion of materials.
References
1 C.G. Duan, Silt Abrasive Erosion of Hydraulic YING LIAN is an assistant lab master at
Turbine (Beijing, China: Qing Hua University Hebei University of Engineering. Her
topics of investigation include erosion of
Press, 1981). materials.
2 F.Y. Lin, H.S. Shao, “Effect of Impact Velocity
on Slurry Erosion and a New Design of a Slurry
Erosion Tester,” Wear 143 (1991): pp. 231-240.
3 K. Sugiyama, S. Nakahama, S. Hattori,
K. Nakano, “Slurry Wear and Cavitation Ero-
sion of Thermal-Sprayed Cermets,” Wear 258
(2005): pp. 768-775.
4 S.Z. Li, X.L. Dong, Erosion and Fretting Wear of
Materials (Beijing, China: China Machine
Press, 1987).
5 I. Finnie, “Some Observations on the Erosion
of Ductile Metals,” Wear 19 (1972): pp. 81-90.
6 I. Finnie, G.R. Stevick, J.R. Ridgely, “The Influ-
ence of Impingement Angle on the Erosion of
Ductile Metals by Angular Abrasive Particles,”
Wear 152 (1992): pp. 91-98.
7 A.V. Levy, N. Jee, P. Yau, “Erosion of Steels in
Coal-Solvent Slurries,” Wear 117 (1987): pp.
115-127.
8 F.Y. Lin, H.S. Shao, “The Effect of Impingement
Angle on Slurry Erosion,” Wear 141 (1991): pp.
279-289.
9 Y.N. Liang, S.Z. Li, S. Li, S.R. Yang, “A Practice
of Single Pendulum Scratch Test in Abrasion
and Erosion of Material,” Tribology 16 (1996):
pp. 54-60.
10 X.G. Sun, Y. Wang, D.Y. Li, “Mechanical Proper-
ties and Erosion Resistance of Ceria Nano-
Particle-Doped Ultrafine WC-12Co Composite
Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering,” Wear
301 (2013): pp. 406-414.

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 49

 COATINGS & LININGS
ESSENTIALS
Epoxy System Restores
Corroded Steam Engine
The locomotive’s steam chest initially (top)
and after repair with the three composite
systems (above). Photos courtesy of Belzona.
As a part of the celebration of the London
Underground’s 150th anniversary, the steam
locomotive Metropolitan No. 1, built in
1898, was scheduled to make a number of
trips on the city’s Metropolitan line. After a
steam leak in the original cylinder block
was detected, Belzona Polymerics, Ltd.
(Harrogate, United Kingdom) was con-
tacted to see whether a high-temperature-
resistant epoxy coating could solve the
problem. Following an inspection, it was
determined that the steam chest, which is
part of the main cylinder block on the en-
gine, was corroded and had several holes
due to steam pressure and exposure to
corrosive chemicals over many years. If
these holes weren’t repaired, the engine
would lose pressure and fail to run. Replac-
ing the steam chest would have required a
massive amount of work, both in disman-
tling the engine and removing the cylinder
block as well as having another cylinder
block made. Tis process would not only be
50 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
time and labor intensive but cost prohibi-
tive as well. To bypass this time-consuming
and expensive process, the client chose to
repair the damaged steam chest with a
combination of long-term repair and pro-
tection systems manufactured by Belzona.
Te frst step in the repair of the loco-
motive’s steam chest was to bond steel
plates over the perforated areas of the cast
iron substrate. Prior to this, the area was
cleaned and grit blasted before the plates
were bonded into place. A two-part, high-
temperature repair composite was specifed
to bond steel plates over the damaged
areas. Te composite is based on a solvent-
free, epoxy resin-reinforced silicon with
steel alloy, and is specifcally designed for
rebuilding metals damaged by corrosion.
Te composite was applied all around
the plate edges to bond and seal the plates
as they were tightened into place by the
bolt heads. Te edges of the plates were
then smoothed with the same material to
remove any sharp edges and provide a neat
fnish. Next, one coat of a two-part ceramic-
flled epoxy coating, which provides erosion
and corrosion resistance to high-tempera-
ture equipment operating under immersion
up to 120 °C, was applied. Tis system was
used over the entire top of the steam chest
at a thickness of 813 to 1,016 μm. Lastly, to
seal and level the repair as well as to pro-
vide extra protection from corrosive chemi-
cals and steam vapor produced by the coal
and combustion process, an extremely
durable, acid- and heat-resistant three-part
epoxy repair composite was applied at
~50-mm thick.
Te application of this modern epoxy
polymer system made it possible to con-
tinue operating the locomotive, which is
more than 100 years old, and played a vital
role in preserving an important piece of
London’s heritage. Tis is particularly sig-
nifcant considering the Metropolitan No. 1
is the only working steam train left in the
United Kingdom that was actually built in
London. For more information, visit
belzona.com.
Continued on page 52
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 51
COATINGS & LININGS ESSENTIALS

Continued from page 50

A coating integrity survey refers to the methods Using a Coating Integrity

Survey to Assess Buried Oil
and principles of identifying coating defects in and Gas Pipelines

underground metallic structures.

Vegetation was encountered during a

coating integrity survey in Nigeria.

To protect buried oil and gas pipelines

against corrosion, coatings are typically
applied as the primary corrosion control
measure. Ideally, to protect the pipeline
from direct contact with the environment,
the coating should form a continuous flm
of an electrically insulating material. Quite
often, a cathodic protection (CP) system is
also applied in conjunction with a coating
to compensate for the anticipated imper-
fections/defects (holidays) that may occur
in the coating system during its application
and service life. If not properly protected by
CP, holidays are susceptible to corrosion,
which can lead to eventual pipeline failure
if they are not found and repaired in time.
In CORROSION 2015 paper no. 5788,
“Importance of Coating Integrity Survey of
Buried Oil and Gas Pipelines,” by D.R. Aloko,
A.A. Liadi, and A.B. Edward, the authors
discuss the importance of regularly con-
ducting a coating integrity survey of buried
oil and gas pipelines. A coating integrity
survey refers to the methods and principles
of identifying coating defects in under-
ground metallic structures. Over the years,
various methodologies and equipment have
evolved to detect coating breakdown. Dif-
ferent available technologies and methods
include direct current voltage gradient
(DCVG), alternating current voltage gradi-
ent (ACVG), Pearson Survey, and pipeline
current mapping (PCM). Regardless of the
method used, the ultimate goal is to iden-
tify points of coating deterioration on the

52 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

pipeline and take appropriate measures for
repairs. Early identifcation and repairs of
coating defects on buried pipelines trans-
late into numerous technical and economic
advantages.
In their paper, the authors also describe
a direct current voltage gradient (DCVG)
coating integrity survey of a 25-year-old
petroleum asphalt-coated underground gas
transmission pipeline in Nigeria that
crosses two major rivers as well as asphalt
and dirt roads in a combination of swampy
and dry land. A summary and analysis of
the survey fndings are also presented.
New ASTM Standard
Addresses Corrosion
Protection for Steel Bars
specifying bodies for bridge and road infra-
structure, engineering and contracting
frms, producers of precast concrete prod-
ucts, manufacturers that will use the stan-
dard to confrm product parameters meet
the specifcation, and laboratories that will
use it for product testing requirements. For
more information, visit astm.org.
JIP Explores Benefts of
TSA Coatings and CP for
Hot Pipelines
Te benefts of combining thermally
sprayed aluminium (TSA) coatings and
cathodic protection (CP) to thermally cy-
cled risers and hot hydrocarbon transporta-
tion pipelines is being explored by a new
joint industry project (JIP). TSA coatings
are widely used to reduce the corrosion rate
of ofshore facilities; however, data covering
the simultaneous use of TSA coatings and
CP when applied to subsea hot risers and
hydrocarbon transportation pipelines is
limited. As a result, little consideration has
been given to the interaction of TSA with
anodes or impressed current CP (ICCP)
systems in international standards and,
as a result, guidance is limited.
Te work scope for the project, cur-
rently sponsored by BG, ExxonMobil, Petro-
bras, and Total, includes measuring the
efects of representative environmental
conditions (e.g., oil temperatures up to
130 °C) on TSA coatings and anode behav-
ior when subjected to both constant
elevated temperature and thermal cycling.
An important output will include interpre-
tation of the project results and implica-
tions for ofshore structure CP design.
Source: TWI, Ltd., twi-global.com.

A new ASTM International standard

supports corrosion protection for steel
reinforcing bars galvanized by zinc or
zinc-alloy coatings for protection from
corrosion. Te standard, A1094/A1094M,
“Specifcation for Continuous Hot-Dip
Galvanized Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement,” provides a high-
performance, low-cost option for building
and protecting concrete structures.
According to Gary Dallin, director of the
GalvInfo Center, “Galvanizing is a proven
and efective way to protect reinforcing bar
from corrosion, as it provides both barrier
and galvanic protection to the steel sub-
strate. It also increases the chloride thresh-
old of the reinforcing bar.” In addition to
corrosion protection, the unique fabrica-
tion properties of the bars covered by the
standard will help minimize installation
and long-term maintenance costs. Te new
standard is geared toward state and federal

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 53

CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Low-Level Dissolved
Oxygen Measurement in
Monoethylene Glycol
Mobin SalaSi, Curtin University, Perth,
WA, Australia
JenS Maier and GrahaMe StronG,
Wood Group Kenny Australia Pty., Ltd.,
Perth, WA, Australia
andrew Mackay, HACH Pacifc,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
54 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
A test method for low-level dissolved
oxygen (DO) measurement in glycol-
based conditions is explained. Three
independent DO measurement tech-
niques are compared in water-only
and monoethylene glycol (MEG) solu-
tions. The objective is to determine
limitations and advantages of each
technique when the measurement is
performed in MEG.
M
Monoethylene glycol (MEG) is often
chosen as a thermodynamic hydrate inhibi-
tor used in offshore gas/condensate closed
loop systems.1 A particular concern in MEG
systems is oxygen ingress. Significant
amounts of MEG are injected, reclaimed,
and then reinjected into the loop, and it is
vital that the dissolved oxygen (DO) level in
MEG is reduced and/or maintained at <20
ppb. The presence of trace amounts of
oxygen (20 ppb < O 2 concentration < 500
ppb) may result in the pitting/crevice
corrosion of corrosion-resistant alloys
(CRAs)2-3 and may also suppress the perfor-
mance of film-forming corrosion inhibi-
tors. 4 As such, appropriate selection of
accurate oxygen monitoring methodology
is essential to ensure reliable measure-
ments when oxygen levels are low.
There are several methods accepted by
ASTM (D888-12, 5 D5543-09, 6 and D5462-
137) for DO measurement in water-based
solutions. However, no information is avail-
able for measuring/monitoring oxygen in a
glycol-based medium. The objective of the
present work is to compare the perfor-
mance of available low-level oxygen mea-
surement techniques in MEG. Special
considerations necessary for accurate
measurement of DO in MEG are also
described.
Experiment
Measurement Theories
Theory of Electrochemical
Cell Measurement
An electrochemical cell (EC) for testing
consists of a metal anode and a metal cath-
ode, both immersed in an electrolyte solu-
tion. An electronic circuit is linked to the
anode and cathode to measure the current
flow between the electrodes. Oxygen pene-
trates a membrane and enters the cell,
where it dissolves in the electrolyte and
undergoes a reaction at the cathode. This
causes an increase in electric current,
which is proportional to the amount of oxy-
gen entering the cell. Without a constant
flow of solution across the membrane,
however, all oxygen within immediate con-
tact with the membrane will be consumed
and the sensor will then give a false “low”
reading. This can be a particular problem
in viscous solutions, where either the fluid
flow is too high for O2 to have the opportu-
nity to permeate the membrane, or the
solution is stagnant and the O 2 immedi-
ately on the membrane is consumed rap-
idly and the EC sensor measures “zero” O2.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
Colorimetric Measurement of
Low-Level Dissolved Oxygen
This method is based on the changes in
the color intensity of the solution. A
reagent inside sealed ampules reacts with
DO in the solution. A color comparator is
then used to measure the oxygen level. The
measurement methodology is described in
ASTM D5543-09 for accurate and rapid
measurement of DO in water (e.g., deaer-
ated boiler feedwater, boiler water, and
deaerated deionized [DI] water).

Theory of Luminescence
Dissolved Oxygen Measurement
Optical sensing of oxygen originates
from the work of Kautsky in 1938, 8 and
demonstrates that oxygen can dynamically
quench the fluorescence of an indicator.
This principle has been reported in various
fields of application, such as monitoring
aquatic biology in waste water, blood gas
analysis testing, and cell culture monitor-
ing. ASTM D888-12 recognizes this method
for measuring oxygen in water. Compared
to classic oxygen detection using electro-
chemical sensors, luminescence DO (LDO)
technology has several advantages, includ-
ing no oxygen consumption, independence
from sample flow velocity, no electrolyte,
and low maintenance. However, none of
these capabilities has been evaluated in
MEG-containing solutions.
FIGURE 1 Schematic of the experimental setup used for low-level DO measurement.
Instruments
The following instruments/techniques
were used for DO measurement in MEG
solutions:
• LDO sensor (Hach ORBISPHERE
M1100† LDO sensor, 0.6 to 2,000 ppb,
±0.8 ppb)
• Portable f low-through analyzer
(HACH 3655 ORBISPHERE†, ppb EC
O2 analyzer, 0.1 ppb to 10 ppm ±0.6
ppb)
• D O t est kit (Ch em etrics ULR
CHEMets† Kit Cat #K-7540, range 0 to
40 ppb)
†
Trade name.
Experimental Setup
A schematic of the experimental setup
is shown in Figure 1. During the tests, the
nitrogen sparge rate was controlled using a
flow meter. The outlet of the liquid con-
tainer was connected to a Dreschel bottle.
To minimize oxygen ingress inside the test
cell during the experiment, low oxygen per-
meability tubing, Tygon†, was used for the
gas and liquid connections.
Chemicals
High-purity nitrogen (N2) gas was used
for sparging the test solutions and main-
taining the N 2 gas blanket during the

FIGURE 2 LDO vs. EC DO measurement. (a) MEG and (b) water only.

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 55

CHEMICAL TREATMENT
FIGURE 3 Comparison of LDO readings in a stagnant MEG solution, a stirred MEG solution, and when the probe was frst in the headspace and then
inserted into the stagnant MEG solution. (a) Overall view and (b) closer view.
FIGURE 4 Comparison of LDO readings in stagnant and agitated water-only solutions.
experiments. The N2 gas was specified to a
minimum purity of 99.99% with an oxygen
content <10 ppm.
The fiber-grade MEG was sourced from
SPDC, Saudi Arabia. Ultra-purity water was
used for the water-only test conditions to
compare the accuracy of the test methods
in MEG. The conductivity of the DI was
<3 µS/cm. Experiments were performed at
room temperature, 25 ± 2 ºC.
56 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Results
In the first set of experiments, fiber-
grade MEG and high-purity water solutions
were sparged with high-purity N2. DO was
continuously measured during N2 sparging
using the EC and LDO sensors simultane-
ously. As shown in Figure 2(a), there was a
large difference between the LDO and EC
probe readings for DO levels in the MEG
solution at the beginning of the experi-
ment. As the experiment proceeded, the
LDO and EC readings indicated identical
DO values. This suggests a slower response
time of the LDO sensor when the DO levels
were close to the LDO detection limit (2,000
ppb). The final DO reading (low-level DO)
was confirmed with the colorimetric
ampules.
The DO measurements with the LDO
and EC sensors in the water-only solution
show a smaller gap at the beginning of the
experiment compared to the measure-
ments in MEG (Figure 2[b]). This confirms
the excellent performance of both methods
in water-based solutions.
The final low DO value was confirmed
by the colorimetric ampules with a reading
of <20 ppb DO in both the MEG and water
solutions.
The next objective was to analyze the
response time of the LDO sensor for taking
a DO measurement after being inserted
into a pre-sparged solution. Figure 3 shows
a comparison of the readings of three dif-
ferent situations. First, the probe was
directly inserted into the pure MEG solu-
tion when there was no agitation in the
solution or in the vicinity of the LDO sen-
sor. As shown by the red curve, it took more
than 1 h for the LDO sensor to show a sta-
ble reading. The second case involved
inserting the probe directly into the solu-
tion while sufficient agitation, provided by
the rotation of a magnetic bar (Figure 1),
was present in the LDO location. A rapid
response of the LDO sensor was expected,
and stabilization occurred after 5 min (blue
curve). In the third measurement strategy,
the probe was first kept at the headspace in
the setup, which was continuously purged
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Low-Level Dissolved Oxygen Measurement in Monoethylene Glycol

TABLE 1. LIMITATIONS/CAPABILITIES OF EACH O2 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE

EC • While the electrochemical sensor works relatively well in MEG, limitations of this technique may affect its feasibility for
some applications. For example, EC sensors only work when there is a suffcient amount of fuid fow.
• EC sensors require frequent maintenance, replacement of the permeable membrane and electrolyte, and the silver and
gold anodes and cathodes require periodic polishing and regular maintenance.
• EC sensors can be affected by other gases (e.g., CO2, SO2).
LDO • The response of the LDO sensor in pure MEG is slower compared to water (i.e., the sensor suffers from mass transport).
• The sensor response time was found to be much faster in the gas headspace (high-purity nitrogen). By priming the LDO
sensor in a gas phase with low concentrations of oxygen, it can reduce the time to obtain a stable reading in liquids with low
DO.
• The formation of gas bubbles at the LDO sensor tip can result in false readings and should therefore be avoided during
feld and laboratory measurements.
• Once the sensor has stabilized at low DO levels (ppb), it will respond quickly to any small DO changes.
Colorimetric • The technique can essentially be used for confrmation of data from other measurement methods.
measurement • The best application of this measurement method is when the DO level is <20 ppb. A colorless/slightly pink ampule
indicates/confrms low DO level.
• The technique doesn’t provide continuous readings (i.e., discrete DO values can be recorded).

by N2 gas. Once the sensor’s DO readings
dropped to the ppb level, it was inserted
into the pure MEG solution. In this case,
the response of the LDO sensor was much
faster than the direct insertion method
without agitation ( first case).
It should be noted that formation of
bubbles at the LDO location can influence
DO readings in MEG. In many measure-
ments, it was evident that bubbles
appeared as soon as the sensor entered the
MEG solution.
As shown in Figure 4, the LDO sensor
had a relatively good response time in the
water, under both agitated and stagnant
conditions. The bubble formation at the
LDO location was not an issue in water,
which indicates the sensor can be used
with confidence.
Discussion
As stated previously, oxygen permeates
a membrane on the EC sensor and is con-
sumed in a chemical reaction; whereas the
LDO sensor has a nonpermeable sensor
cap. The oxygen interacts with the material
on the sensor cap, and it is the amount of O2
interacting with the LDO sensor that deter-
mines the amount of O2 in the atmosphere/
solution being analyzed. The O2 does not
permanently bind or interact with the LDO
probe, and it is in a constant state of homo-
geneity with the immediate atmosphere/
solution being analyzed. The response of
the LDO following a reduction in DO relies
totally on the slow diffusion rate of oxygen
from the sensor. EC, on the other hand,
removes the O2 electrochemically and by
diffusion, so when DO is falling the EC is
faster to respond. This explains the discrep-
ancy between the EC and the LDO sensors
at the beginning of the tests (Figure 2).
In an atmosphere being purged with
high-purity N2, it was observed that the O2
reading recorded by LDO dropped quickly
(Figure 3, LDO at headspace). This is
because the O2 can easily attach and detach
from the LDO probe surface at 101.325 kPa.
Without stirring, the response time is much
longer for a dense solution (such as water)
and a higher viscosity solution (such as
MEG) compared to air. Stirring signifi-
cantly decreases the stabilization times of
the LDO sensor when reading the expected
20 ppb DO by helping the O 2 molecules
leave the LDO probe surface in a higher vis-
cosity solution (MEG).
Table 1 summarizes the findings from
the experiments performed to investigate
the limitations and capabilities of these
three independent low-level oxygen mea-
surement methods.
Conclusions
Based on the experiments conducted in
this study, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
• Mass transport and bubble capture
problems are common issues when
measuring DO. While EC and LDO
can successfully measure DO in a
viscous liquid like MEG, mass trans-
port and bubble problems are more
profound. If measurements are to be
reliable, it is important to understand
these issues and take the precautions
explained in this article.
• The EC sensor requires a continuous
supply of liquid to ensure the electro-
chemical removal does not result in
depleted oxygen within, and immedi-
ately adjacent to, the cell. Stirring/
agitation of the solution is critical for
EC. Stirring also may be helpful with
LDO but only in improving the
response of the instrument. Given
sufficient time, LDO in an unstirred
system will eventually reflect an
accurate measurement of DO.
Acknowledgments
The authors appreciate the comments
of Gizelle Cuevas and Katerina Lepkova.
References
1 S. Brustad, K. Løken, J.G. Waalmann,
“Hydrate Prevention Using MEG instead of
MeOH: Impact of Experience from Major
Norwegian Developments on Technology Se-
lection for Injection and Recovery of MEG,”
Offshore Technology Conference 2005, OTC
17355-MS (Houston, TX: OTC, 2005).
2 T.N. Evans, P.I. Nice, M.J. Schofield, K.C.
Waterton, “Corrosion Behaviour of Carbon
Steel, Low Alloy Steel and CRA’s in Partially
Deaerated Seawater and Comingled Pro-
duced Water,” Corrosion (2004): pp. 1-17.
3 R.D. Mack, J. Carminati, “Performance of
Selected Corrosion Resistant Alloys under
Simulated Seawater Injection Conditions
Downhole,” Corrosion (2008): pp. 1-9.
Continued on page 58

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 57

CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Continued from page 57
4 E. Gulbrandsen, J. Kvarekvål, H. Miland,
“Effect of Oxygen Contamination on Inhibi-
tion Studies in Carbon Dioxide Corrosion,”
Corrosion (2005): pp. 1,086-1,097.
5 ASTM D888-12e1, “Standard Test Methods
for Dissolved Oxygen in Water” (West Con-
shohocken, PA: ASTM).
6 ASTM D5543-09, “Standard Test Methods for
Low-Level Dissolved Oxygen in Water” (West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2009).
7 ASTM D5462-13, “Standard Test Method for
On-Line Measurement of Low-Level Dis-
solved Oxygen in Water” (West Consho-
hocken, PA: ASTM, 2013).
8 H. Kautsky, “Quenching of Luminescence by
Oxygen,” Trans. Faraday Society 35 (1939):
p. 216.
58 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
MOBIN SALASI is a research fellow at
Curtin University, Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering, Kent St., Bentley, WA 6102,
Australia, e-mail: mobin.salasi@curtin.edu.
au. He is a post-doctoral research fellow at
the university and is a materials scientist
with 10 years of academic and industrial
experience. He has a Ph.D. from the School
of Mechanical Engineering at the
University of Western Australia and is a
member of NACE International.
JENS MAIER is a senior materials engineer
at Wood Group Kenny Australia Pty., Ltd.,
432 Murray St., Perth, WA 6000, Australia,
e-mail: jens.maier@woodgroup.com. He
has eight years of experience in materials
and corrosion-related research and devel-
opment engineering. In his current role he
provides engineering support for the
qualification and procurement of produc-
tion chemicals for various liquid natural
gas facilities. He has a Ph.D. in applied
chemistry from Curtin University and is a
member of NACE.
GRAHAME STRONG is a principal materi-
als lead engineer at Wood Group Kenny
Australia Pty., Ltd. He has 23 years of
experience in corrosion engineering,
providing practical and cost-effective
solutions through the application of
electrochemistry, chemical treatments,
and risk assessments. He has a Ph.D. from
Murdoch University. His company is a
corporate member of NACE.
ANDREW MCKAY was formerly with HACH
Pacific, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. HACH
provides access to lab and process water
analytics as well as service and application
support. The company also supplies other
products including leak detection equip-
ment that can be easily bundled with
water quality analytics. In business for
more than 60 years, the company’s
products and services include parameters
for waste water, drinking water, and
process water; on-site and laboratory
analysis, process analysis, flow, and
samplers; municipal and industrial applica-
tions; and more.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 CHEMICAL TREATMENT
ESSENTIALS

Film Forming Inhibitors Used whether production conditions permit

for Pipeline Corrosion Control good inhibitor performance.
Te use of carbon steel and flm-forming Te authors have determined several
corrosion inhibitors has often been retained tasks that should be considered for devel-
as the most cost efective solution for corro- oping a successful corrosion inhibition
sion control for long pipelines carrying program with flm-forming inhibitors,
sweet or mildly sour wet hydrocarbons, which are listed in their paper. Additionally,
including but not limited to crude oil ex- the authors list major gaps they have identi-
port lines, wet gas pipelines, and fow lines. fed based on the current state of knowl-
Te integrity of such structures heavily edge in the area of flm forming inhibitors.
relies on the efectiveness of the corrosion
inhibition program in place. Most corrosion
New System Tests Performance
inhibitors used in the oil and gas industry in of Biocides under Pipeline-
pipelines, wells, and most facilities are Simulating Conditions
flm-forming inhibitors. Te NACE-
accepted defnition of a flm-forming inhibi-
tor is not very restrictive. Te flms can be
thin (monolayer) or thick flms, the inhibi-
tion can be continuous or batched, and the
protection mechanism can be a barrier flm
or an oil wetting flm.
CORROSION 2015 paper no. 5475,
“Corrosion Control by Inhibition, Part I:
Corrosion Control by Film Forming Inhibi-
tors” by M. Achour and J. Kolts, presents a
review of research eforts made over the
past decade in the area of corrosion inhibi-
tion using flm-forming inhibitors, as well A methanogenic bioflm on a carbon steel
as the authors’ view of the requirements (CS) coupon from the new biocide test
needed for a successful flm-forming corro- system (left) compared to a clean CS
sion inhibition program. Tey note that coupon.
corrosion of produced oil and gas pipelines
An efective microbiology management
transporting full well fuids is strongly
strategy is crucial for avoiding biofouling,
infuenced by fuid fow. Over time, the
microbiologically infuenced corrosion
volumes of fuids transported in a pipeline
(MIC), and reservoir souring in oil produc-
and the characteristics of the fuids will
tion. Operational experience has shown
change; therefore, the nature of corrosion
that disruption of service may occur even
and the requirements for corrosion inhibi-
when a biocide treatment program is in
tion will change with time.
place if the efciency of the program is not
All of the phases of production must be
carefully monitored and evaluated. From
considered when designing corrosion inhi-
the operator point of view, it is important to
bition for a pipeline. Tese include the
be able to test biocides under pipeline-
highest and lowest production rates, high-
realistic conditions to consider both the
est and lowest pressures, diferent fow
positive and negative efects on various
regimes throughout production, the varia-
types of microorganisms, bioflms, corro-
tion in composition of the production fuid,
sion products, and other chemicals.
and the lift of the facility. Tose involved
A new biocide test system, developed
with inhibitor selection must be familiar
for testing and validating the performance
with the operations and with the practical
of biocides and other antimicrobial agents
application of the inhibitor. From an oper-
under conditions that simulate a full-scale
ating standpoint, a primary concern in
corrosion inhibition is determining Continued on page 62

60 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 61
CHEMICAL TREATMENT ESSENTIALS
Continued from page 60
production system, is described in CORRO-
SION 2015 paper no. 5464, “Implementation
of New Test System for Optimizing the
Performance of Chemical Mitigation Strate-
gies against MIC in Pipelines” by M. Ander-
sen, S. Juhler, and L. Tang. When a water
62 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
injection pipeline in the Danish portion of
the North Sea burst some years ago, MIC
caused by poor microbiological control was
believed to be a signifcant part of the cause
behind the incident. Tis event initiated
implementation of an MIC risk assessment
program. As part of an improved MIC miti-
gation strategy, the biocide treatment pro-
gram was to be upgraded and a new biocide
test system was developed to ensure selec-
tion of the most efective and cost-efcient
biocides for mitigating bioflms of MIC-
related microorganisms.
Te newly developed biocide test sys-
tem allows testing of biocide dosage strate-
gies for their performance against MIC
bioflms under pipeline-simulating condi-
tions. It was used to evaluate the perfor-
mance of various biocide dosage regimes
against a methanogenic Archaea bioflm
similar to the MIC-related microorganisms
identifed in production systems in the
North Sea.
Te efciency of each biocide treatment
was evaluated based on its immediate efect
on the bioflm activity and on its lasting
performance during the days following
biocide injection. Results from the new test
system were compared with results ob-
tained from a conventional biocide kill test
performed on the same test organism, and
dosage regimes that proved efective in the
conventional biocide test showed no signif-
cant efect on the methanogenic bioflm
when evaluated by the new test system.
Te study demonstrated that even
though a biocide dosage regime has been
tested to be efcient in killing planktonic
microorganisms using conventional test
methods, it may be inefcient in mitigating
microbiologically related problems in full-
scale production systems. Tis emphasized
the risk that even tested biocide dosage
strategies that are currently applied may
not be efective against MIC-causing bio-
flms growing on pipeline surfaces. Basing
ofshore biocide strategies on conventional
planktonic biocide tests only, therefore,
implies a potential risk of false security and
wasted economic expenses on an inefcient
biocide strategy.
Implementation of the new test system
as part of a generic MIC risk management
program is expected to help operators
ensure good performing, cost-efcient
biocide treatment strategies prior to imple-
mentation in full-scale systems.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
FAILURE ANALYSIS
Investigation of a Cracked
Catalyst Preparation Vessel
T. ChowwanonThapunya, Burapa
University, Chonburi, Thailand
R. wiRiyanon, PTT Maintenance and
Engineering Co., Rayong, Thailand
64 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
This article describes the failure analy-
sis of an austenitic stainless steel pres-
sure vessel used in the catalyst prepa-
ration unit of a petrochemical plant.
The investigation deals with the met-
allurgical examination and chemical
analysis of corrosion products. The
analysis revealed that this failure was
related to an inappropriate fabrica-
tion process. Investigations and the
possible causes of this failure are dis-
cussed.
A
A failure occurred in the pressure vessel
used during catalyst preparation at a petro-
chemical plant. This failed pressure vessel
was made of Type 304 stainless steel (SS)
(UNS S30400). A sketch of the catalyst
preparation vessel is shown in Figure 1. The
catalyst in this vessel was composed mainly
of aluminum and triethyl aluminum. The
head of the vessel exhibited several crack-
like discontinuities. The analysis of the
vessel’s failure focuses on the damage at the
head of the pressure vessel.
Laboratory Evaluation
To examine the metallurgical and/or
corrosion damage, three samples were
obtained from the head of the pressure ves-
sel. Figure 2 shows the locations where the
samples were cut. Metallurgical examina-
tion began by investigating the outer
surfaces of Samples No. 1 and No. 3 with a
stereomicroscope. Some crack-like discon-
tinuities on the surface were sectioned to
observe their depths. A scanning electron
microscope (SEM) was then used to obtain
better detail. The replica technique was
also employed to examine the inner sur-
faces of samples at the microstructure
level. The local chemical composition of
the corrosion products in Sample No. 2 was
analyzed using an energy dispersive spec-
trometer (EDS).
The Metallographic and
Microstructure Examination
The digital microscope observations
obtained from the surface of Sample No. 1
found crack-like discontinuities all over the
entire sample surface. These discontinui-
ties are shown under high magnification in
Figure 3. They are evident and sharp. In
addition, no branch-like cracks are indi-
cated. Technically, this type of discontinu-
ity should not have originated from corro-
sion-related problems.1 Figure 3 also shows
the remaining dye from the liquid pene-
trant test as indicated by the arrows.
Examination of the surface of Sample
No. 3, with the aid of stereomicroscopy, also
found some crack-like discontinuities, with
some corrosion products seen on them.
This finding illustrates that these crack-like
discontinuities must have occurred during
fabrication of the vessel. To confirm this
finding, crack-like discontinuities from
Sample No. 3 were then sectioned to
observe their depth. Figure 4 shows shallow
discontinuities (<15 µm) on the cross sec-
tions. This information suggests that these
crack-like discontinuities are not true
cracks, but only scratches on the surface
that occurred during the fabrication pro-
cess.2-3 Some corrosion products were seen
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
near the scratches on the surface, indicat-
ing that the local protective chromium
oxide surface layer was destroyed. Princi-
pally, the degree of protection provided by
the passive metal was substantially reduced
because of the scratches.4
The inner surface of Sample No. 1 was
also closely examined using the replica
technique. Figure 5 shows small random
cracks on the inner surface of Sample No. 1
under high magnification. These small ran-
dom cracks are obviously transgranular,
and many fine and parallel fissures can be
seen. Usually, ductile overload can lead to
the initiation of this type of fine fissures.5-6
Thus, the presence of many fine fissures
indicates an inappropriate forming process
of this failed vessel.

Chemical Composition
Examination
In some areas of the inner surface of
Sample No. 2, obvious corrosion products
were detected and later examined using
SEM and EDS for local chemical composi-
tion analysis (Figure 6). From this figure,
some corrosive elements (i.e., sulfur and
chlorine) can be identified, but both are
present in very small amounts. Aluminum
is also present in the corrosion products
as residue from the chemicals used inside
the vessel. These findings suggest that
the working environment inside the failed
pressure vessel was not particularly
aggressive.

Conclusions
A failed austenitic SS pressure vessel
used in the catalyst preparation unit of the
petrochemical plant was investigated. The
results from the metallographic studies
revealed that crack-like discontinuities
were present on all the sample surfaces.
These discontinuities are sharp, but do not
create branches. Observations on the FIGURE 1 Sketch of the catalyst preparation vessel where the failure occurred.
depth of the crack-like discontinuities did
not find deep discontinuities on the sam-
ple surfaces. Hence, crack-like discontinui- a significant decrease in the protective The microstructure examination using
ties on the surface of the samples were ability of the passive surface layer on the SS the replica technique disclosed many fine
confirmed as being scratches, which must and subsequently led to the formation of fissures on the inner surface of the sample,
have occurred during the fabrication pro- corrosion products adjacent to the indicating ductile overload during the
cess. The presence of the scratches caused scratches. forming process. The results from the EDS

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 65

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN

FIGURE 3 Crack-like discontinuities on the

surface of Sample No. 1 under high
magnifcation.

FIGURE 2 Overview of the positions on the vessel head where the samples were taken.

FIGURE 4 Cross section showing shallow

discontinuities in Sample No. 3.

FIGURE 5 High-magnifcation micrograph of

small random cracks from Sample No. 1.

study showed that the working environ-

ment inside the vessel was not aggressive
enough to promote severe  corrosion.
Thus,  the main cause of this failure was
not directly linked with corrosion. All of
the results obtained from this investiga-
FIGURE 6 Surface analysis of corrosion products on Sample No. 2 using SEM-EDS (arrows indicate
small amounts of chlorine and sulfur). tion pointed toward inappropriate condi-
tions during the formation of this vessel,
particularly the excessive forming stress,
as the main reason for this failure. There-

66 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

 Investigation of a Cracked Catalyst Preparation Vessel

fore, improvement of the forming process,

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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their
gratitude to Pana Naksuk, managing direc-
tor of TOC Glycol Co., Ltd., for his kind per-
mission to publish this work, and also to
Chaowalit Limmaneevichitr, associate pro-
fessor, for his substantial contributions to
this work.

References
1 ASM Handbook, Failure Analysis and Preven-
tion, Vol. 11 (Materials Park, OH: ASM Inter-
national, 1996).
2 V.J. Colangelo, F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metal-
lurgical Failures, 2nd ed. (New York, NY:
Wiley, 1987).
3 C.R. Brooks, A. Choudhury, Metallurgical
Failure Analysis (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,
1993).
4 M.G. Fontana, Corrosion Engineering, 3rd ed.
(New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1987).
5 R.D. Barer, B.F. Peters, Why Metals Fail, 6th
ed. (New York, NY: Gordon and Breach Sci-
ence Publishers, 1991).
6 D.J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components
Fail, 2nd ed. (Materials Park, OH: ASM Inter-
national, 2000).

THEE CHOWWANONTHAPUNYA is a
lecturer at Burapha University, Faculty of
Engineering, 169 Long-Hard Bangsaen
Rd., Saen Sook, Muang, Chonburi, 20131,
Thailand, e-mail: thee@eng.buu.ac.th. He
has more than 10 years of professional
experience in failure and corrosion analysis
at various petrochemical plants. He is a
Doctor of Engineering in materials
sciences and engineering from the
University of Chinese Academy of Science.

RUNGROTE WIRIYANON is vice president

for Maintenance and Engineering at PTT
Maintenance and Engineering Co., 22/2
Pakornsongkhraorat Rd., Map Ta Phut,
Muang, Rayong, 21150, Thailand. He has
more than 20 years of professional experi-
ence in maintenance and engineering in
the petrochemical industry.

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 67

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
Wineries: Equipment, Materials,
and Corrosion
B. Valdez and M. SChoRR, University of
Baja California, Mexicali, BC, Mexico
n. loThan, Technion-Israel Institute of
Technology, Haifa, Israel
a. eliezeR, Sami Shamoon College of
Engineering, Ber Sheva, Israel
68 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Although wine production is one of
the oldest industries established by
humankind, the modern wine indus-
try utilizes special equipment, mostly
made from austenitic stainless steel,
to avoid corrosion, scale formation,
and the appearance of contaminants.
Additional engineering materials used
are fber-reinforced plastics, glass for
bottles, and wood for tonels and casks.
I
In ancient cultures such as Babylonia,
Egypt, Phoenicia, Israel, Greece, and Rome,
vines, vineyards, and wine were part of
everyday life. 1 The two oldest nutritive
beverages known to mankind are milk and
wine, both symbolic elements in many
religions.2
According to market research company
International Wine and Spirits Research,
global sales of wine and spirits rose to 60
billion L in 2013.3 Wine production contrib-
utes to the food industry’s position as one
of the three largest markets worldwide,
which also includes the energy and water
industries based on production, number of
consumers, and economic and social sig-
nificance; and, like the energy and water
industries, the wine industry is subject to
corrosion.
Vine, Vineyard,
and Wine
The vine “vitis vinifera” is planted in
vineyards using stem cuttings, a method
brought to the Napa Valley, California, USA
and the Guadalupe Valley, Baja California,
Mexico by missionaries and colonists (Fig-
ures 1 and 2). Viticulture has been benefi-
cial to the economy for these regions and
many other countries. The appliances
needed for the vintage are shears, trays,
and baskets that must be clean to avoid dis-
eases caused by fungi, bacteria, and insects.
Human sensory examination by wine
experts and tasters can detect the differ-
ences in wines (i.e., their origin, age, sugar
content, flavor, and aroma). To ensure the
quality of wine as well as the conservation
of its organoleptic characteristics, physical
and chemical analyses are applied.
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH) is the main
component of alcoholic drinks, and is pro-
duced by applying the yeast Saccharomyces
to ferment sugar-containing fruits and
cereal grains. Wine, the most popular
drink, is obtained by anaerobic conversion
of sugar in ripe grapes into ethanol, shown
in Equation (1):
C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2 (1)
In a subsequent stage, wine may con-
vert into vinegar (a dilute, slightly corrosive
solution of acetic acid [C2H4O2]) in another
biocatalytic process, this one accomplished
by the aerobic bacterium Acetobacter aceti.
During this process, the previously formed
ethanol is oxidized by oxygen from the air,
as shown in Equation (2):
CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O (2)
Therefore, wine bottles should be well-
closed with impermeable, resilient, hydro-
phobic corks to avoid oxygen penetration
that would ruin the wine. Wine bottling is
done with automatic stainless steel (SS)
machines (Figure 3).
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 FIGURE 1(b)
Ripe grapes.

FIGURE 1(a) Overview of a new world vineyard.

Wine Production nants. In so doing, the

Modern technologies are involved in taste and organoleptic
wine production. Wineries, winemakers, characteristics of the
and wine inventories utilize software for wine are conserved.
management, production, and marketing These SS vessels
to assure high efficiency, cost control, and a re m a n u f a c tu re d
profit on a global scale.4 Voltammetry and from polished sheets
spectroscopy are applied to predict the with smooth, reflec-
presence of pigment and antioxidant spe- tive surfaces com-
cies in the red wines of a winery in Baja monly used for food
California.5 The wines’ oxidation-reduction equipment. 7 These
potential (ORP) is measured with a conven- finishes are achieved
tional potentiostat controlled by a com- by chemical or elec-
puter. This method follows ASTM D14986 troch emical treat-
for determining the ORP of water. During ment, and these tech-
safe wine transportation, microchips niques are also ap-
embedded in the crates monitor tempera- plied for rehabilitation
FIGURE 2 Oak storage barrels.
ture and track location. of damaged surfaces
Wine production requires large quanti- (Figure 4).
ties of water for cleaning, bottling, and In the wine industry, bisulfites are deleterious effect of oxygen, and it
hygienic procedures. Scaling deposited in added to prevent undesirable biochemical destroys the enzyme that causes enzy-
production vessels is removed with mild processes. The most corrosive agent found matic browning.
acids, such as phosphoric and citric. The in wine is sulfur dioxide (SO 2), which can
use of SS controls the formation of corro- form sulfurous acid (H2SO3). SO2 provides Winery Equipment and Materials
sion products, while strict adherence to useful properties in wine making: it is an In the past, fermentation vats, classical
sanitation procedures prevents contami- antiseptic, it protects the wine from the tonels, casks, and barrels constructed of

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 69

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
FIGURE 3 SS bottling machine.
FIGURE 4 SS processing tanks.
hooped staves were made from special
woods (e.g., oak), which would impart the
characteristic body, taste, aroma, and color
to the wine inside.
As part of modern science and tech-
nology, an extended range of engineering
materials has been developed and is pres-
ently used in the wine industry to improve
the equipment and facilities. These mate-
rials encompass metals, alloys, plastics,
glasses, and composites. Among their fea-
tures is increased corrosion resistance
and improved mechanical strength. Most
of the equipment used in these plants, in-
70 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
cluding hoses, pipes, pumps, tanks, fer-
mentation vats, steamers, pasteurizers,
refrigerators, blenders, filters, and packag-
ing/bottling machines, is made of austen-
itic SS (e.g., UNS S31600 and S30400) to
minimize corrosion. One of the world’s
largest wineries is situated in Modesto,
California. This winemaker is a pioneer in
the use of austenitic SS tanks, which are
easily cleaned, resist staining/corrosion
from wine, and allow precise temperature
control during fermentation. The main
types of equipment installed in a modern
winery are listed in Table 1, and a wine
production schematic diagram is shown
in Figure 5.
A main component of wine is ethanol,
which is also used as a gasoline additive
that is produced from sugar and cellulose-
containing vegetables in industrial plants.
Nickel-containing SS (e.g., UNS S30400,
S34003, S31600, and S31603) is widely used
in these plants, 8 and this experience has
been adapted by the wine industry.
Corrosion Prevention and Control
Corrosion avoidance requires the appli-
cation of appropriate methods and tech-
niques from the early stages of design
through the construction, erection, and
operation of a full winery.9-10
Cathodic protection (CP) is employed
to protect water storage tanks, cooling sys-
tems, and pipelines. Normally, CP is applied
in conjunction with paints and coatings as
part of an anticorrosion system.
To ensure the purity and quality of the
wine, cleanliness and durability of the
equipment is essential. Hygiene and sanita-
tion are basic requirements. Equipment
surfaces are restored by manual and auto-
mated mechanical or chemical cleaning,
with the latter referred to as “cleaning in
place” without disassembling the equip-
ment. Sanitation and cleaning/disinfecting
of the vessels and machinery in the United
States proceeds in accordance with the
regulations of the National Sanitation
Foundation (NSF),11 which stipulates that
materials in the food industry, including
the wine industry, should have a smooth
surface and be corrosion resistant, non-
toxic, stable, and nonabsorbent.
Mild organic acids (tartaric, malic, lac-
tic, and citric) are present in grapes and
wine, in small amounts, and alter the taste
and color as well as lower the pH of the
wine. Sometimes these acids crystallize
and settle in the bottom of the bottle.
Corrosion resistance is the main prop-
erty to be considered in the choice of mate-
rials for winery equipment, but the final
selection must be a compromise between
technological, functional, and economic
factors. Sometimes it is more economical
to use a higher priced material than a lower
priced material that may require frequent
maintenance or replacement; however, the
quality of the finished product must be par-
amount.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

TABLE 1. EQUIPMENT AND
ENGINEERING MATERIALS FOR
THE WINE INDUSTRY
Equipment Materials
Grapes crusher SS
Press SS
Fermentation vat SS, reinforced plastic
Filters SS
Wine containers SS, reinforced plastic
Barrels, casks Oak wood
Bottles Glass, transparent,
colored
Bottling machines SS
Box containers Impermeable
cardboard
Conclusions
Wine consumption is being expanded
due to the rise of the standard and quality
of life worldwide. Wineries use tonels,
casks, and barrels fabricated from classic
wood materials, along with modern mate-
rials such as corrosion-resistant SS and
fiber-reinforced plastics for equipment and
facilities.
To ensure the efficiency and profitabil-
ity of the industry, the production and stor-
age equipment should be corrosion-resis-
tant to control the expense of maintenance
and replacement of corroded equipment.
References
1 M. Schorr, B. Valdez, A. Eliezer, “The Chemis-
try of Wine,” Medium Chemistry Magazine 98
(2015): p. 24.
2 H. Riedel, et al., “Wine as Food and Medi-
cine,” Scientific, Health and Social Aspects in
the Food Industry, B. Valdez, M. Schorr,
R. Zlatev, eds. (Rijeka, Croatia: InTech, 2012),
pp. 399-418.
3 “The Spirits Business, Cheers to Uncle Sam,”
The Economist, November 29, 2014, http://
w w w. e c on omi st . c om / n e w s / b u si n e ss /
21635022-emerging-markets-are-grim-
global-spirits-firms-america-looks-good-
cheers-uncle-sam ( June 16, 2015).
4 “Wine Industry Software Guide” Wine Busi-
ness Monthly, October 2007, http://www.
winebusiness.com/wbm/?go=getArticleSign
In&dataId=51359 ( June 16, 2015).
5 G. Guzman, M. Schorr, B. Valdez, A. Marti-
nez, “Voltamperometric Studies of Baja Cali-
fornia Red Wines,” The Ocean, The Wine, and
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
Wineries: Equipment, Materials, and Corrosion
FIGURE 5 Wine production schematic diagram.
The Valley: The Lives of Antoine Badan,
E.G. Pavia, J. Sheinbaum, J. Candela, eds.
(Ensenada, Mexico: CICESE, 2010).
6 ASTM D1498-13, “Standard Test Method for
Oxidation-Reduction Potential of Water”
(West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM Interna-
tional, 2013).
7 B. Valdez, et al., “Corrosion in the Food
Industry and Its Control,” Food Industrial
Processes, Methods and Equipment (Rijeka,
Croatia: InTech, 2012).
8 “Really Green Ethanol Enabled by Nickel-
Containing Alloys,” Nickel Magazine 29, 2
(2014): pp. 8-9.
9 R. Raichev, L. Veleva, B. Valdez, Corrosión de
Metales y Degradación de Materiales,
M. Schorr, ed. (Baja California, Mexico: Uni-
versidad Autónoma de Baja California, 2009),
pp. 216-233.
10 B. Valdez, et al., “Corrosion Control in Indus-
try,” Environmental and Industrial Corrosion,
B. Valdez, M. Schorr, eds. (Rijeka, Croatia:
InTech, 2012): pp. 39-43.
11 The National Sanitation Foundation (NFS),
http://www.nfs.org ( June 16, 2015).
B. VALDEZ is a full professor at the Insti-
tute of Engineering, Universidad
Autónoma de Baja California, Blvd. Benito
Juárez y Calle de la Normal s/n, Col. Insur-
gentes Este, C.P. 21280, Mexicali, BC,
Mexico, e-mail: benval@uabc.edu.mx. He
has a B.Sc. in chemical engineering, a
M.Sc. and a Ph.D. in chemistry, and is a
member of the Mexican Academy of Sci-
ence and the National System of Research-
ers in Mexico. He was the guest editor of
Corrosion Reviews, in which he produced
two special issues on corrosion control in
geothermal plants and the electronics in-
dustry. His activities include corrosion re-
search, consultancy, and control in indus-
trial plants. During the IMRS Congress in
August 2013 in Mexico, he received a Na-
tional Distinguished Career Award from
NACE International and the NACE Central
Mexico Section. He has been a NACE In-
ternational member for 26 years.
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015
M. SCHORR is a professor (Dr. Honoris
causa) at the Institute of Engineering,
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California,
e-mail: mschorr2000@yahoo.com. He has a
B.Sc. in chemistry, a M.Sc. in materials
engineering from the Technion-Israel Insti-
tute of Technology, and 50 years of experi-
ence in environmental and industrial corro-
sion control. From 1986 to 2004, he was
the editor of Corrosion Reviews. He has
published 354 scientific and technical arti-
cles in English, Spanish, and Hebrew on
materials and corrosion. He has worked as
a corrosion consultant and professor in
Israel, the United States, Latin America,
Spain, and South Africa. During The IMRS
Congress in August 2010, in Mexico, he
received an International Distinguished
Career Award from NACE International
and the NACE Central Mexico Section. He
is a member of the National System of Re-
searchers in Mexico. He has been a NACE
International member for 23 years.
N. LOTAN has been a full professor in the
Department of Biomedical Engineering
since 1989 at the Technion-Israel Institute
of Technology, Haifa, Israel. He joined the
Technion-IIT in 1979. He held visiting ap-
pointments at the National Center for Sci-
entific Research in Strasbourg, France;
Cornell University in Ithaca, New York,
USA; the University of Rouen in France;
the Ciba-Geigy Corp. in Basel, Switzer-
land; and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in Boston, Massachusetts,
USA. During 2006, Lothan taught a course
on advanced materials at the University of
Baja California, Mexico. Lotan is the incum-
bent of The Roy Matas/Winnipeg Chair in
Biomedical Engineering, and is the labora-
tory coordinator of the Leonard and Diane
Sherman Biomaterials Research Center.
A. ELIEZER is the director of the Corrosion
Research Center, Nano-Bio & Advanced
Materials, as well as a faculty member of
both civil engineering and mechanical en-
gineering at the Sami Shamoon College of
Engineering, Ber Sheva, Israel. He is the
director of the Research and Development
Authority. He is active in the NACE Europe
Area, is a board member of the World
Corrosion Organization, is an EFC member
and CAMPI chair, as well as a faculty ad-
visor of the NACE Israel Negev Student
Section.
71
 MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN
ESSENTIALS
Laser Shock Peening aluminum, titanium,
Technology Improves Aircraft or nickel-based super-
Reliability and Lifetime alloys—that is used in
Researchers S.R. Mannava and Vijay K. aircraft structures and
Vasudevan, both professors in the mechani- components. Te laser
cal and materials engineering department deeply compresses
at the University of Cincinnati’s College of and changes the struc-
Engineering and Applied Science (Cincin- ture of the metal,
nati, Ohio), have joined Airbus in a unique which fortifes it.
partnership to make airplanes more resil- When a metal sample
ient, longer lasting, and more efcient. is treated, a ridged
Teir research uses a laser to alter the phys- geometric grid pattern
ical, mechanical, and environmental prop- is formed on its sur-
erties of a metal to make it stronger, more face. Tat’s the portion
durable, and less sensitive to corrosion of the sample that is
while increasing its longevity. Te process, enhanced for fatigue and corrosion resis- “Critical aircraft components are made
known as laser shock peening (LSP), uses a tance. Each sample goes through a rigorous of high-strength materials that are suscep-
sophisticated laser system consisting of series of manipulations, such as stress, heat, tible in service to high stresses, fatigue, and
several lasers working in tandem to shoot and environmental tests, to assess struc- corrosion. Should these critical compo-
beams of infrared light at a metal—typically tural and chemical properties down to its nents fail, the reliability of the aircraft
nanostructure. Continued on page 74

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Call Diane Gross today at +1 281-228-6446

72 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

MATERIALS SELECTION & DESIGN ESSENTIALS
Continued from page 72
would be compromised. We hypothesize
that when we use the LSP process to impart
deep, compressive, residual stresses to
these components, we strengthen the metal
in a very deliberate way, which makes it less
likely to fail. Tis process can also contain
any failures, should they occur,” Mannava
explains.
When the researchers have confrmed
the metal itself won’t fail due to fatigue,
cracking, or corrosion, they plan to fortify
large pieces of metal for use in prototypes
and, eventually, mass production. Tey will
also conduct basic research to understand
the efects of the process on material be-
havior in order to optimize the process for
specifc applications. Te technology is
currently being tested for use on passenger
aircraft, and the team indicates the technol-
ogy may eventually be tried on other high-
technology products. Source: University of
Cincinnati. To learn more, visit ucri.org.
Tank and Containment
Linings
Some of the most critical uses of protective
coatings involve service conditions that
require the use of coatings as linings. Tey
may be the same coatings that are used in
atmospheric or underground service, but
they are usually specially formulated for
three specifc purposes:
1) To protect the substrate (steel,
aluminum, concrete, or other
74 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
materials) from attack by the liquid
being stored inside the tank or
temporarily stored inside a
containment structure
2) To protect the liquid being stored
from contamination by the substrate
3) To restore structural integrity to an
old tank, while meeting the require-
ments for protection of the substrate
from corrosion and the liquid in
storage from contamination
All coatings are permeable to some
degree. The choice of coatings as tank
linings requires a much greater knowledge
of the properties of the liquid being stored
and the ability of the coating to withstand
permeation by that liquid than would
typically be required for any coating being
applied in atmospheric service.
Choosing a Tank or
Containment Lining
Few project managers have an in-depth
knowledge of the suitability of various
tank linings when placed in immersion
of aggressive, penetrating liquids. It is
possible to review the product data sheets
of several global scope and specialty scope
manufacturers to get a general idea of
which linings might work in a given situa-
tion. However, this approach is risky in
that the product data sheets, of necessity,
must be quite general in nature. There
are three recommended alternatives that
will provide choices
with better chances
of success in a given
application:
1) Comparative
side-by-side
testing of
candidate
systems in a
laboratory
program that
simulates, to
the best extent
possible, the
service condi-
tions expected
in that particu-
lar tank. This
takes time but can provide very good
indications of a lining’s resistance to
permeation by a particular liquid for
a given period of time at a stated
storage temperature.
2) If time does not allow for com-
parative laboratory testing, the
candidate coating manufacturers
can be requested to provide their
chemical suitability tables for the
products that are being considered
for a particular tank. Although this
normally is limited to specific
testing for specific time frames such
as 30 and 60 days, it often provides
reliable guidelines about the perfor-
mance characteristics of each
product. In addition, these suitabil-
ity tables normally include some
very valuable precautions regarding
immersion based on the pH, temper-
ature, etc., of the chemicals. Some
very valuable information is nor-
mally available about cleaning
chemicals, procedures, and recovery
times between different cargoes.
3) Review selected case histories of
tank linings used in similar services.
This can be very valuable as it
provides longer-term results.
However, when doing so, the project
manager must be careful to confirm
that the service conditions are truly
similar to the expected service
conditions. He or she must also be
careful to confirm that the product
shown in the case history is still
formulated the same as it was when
that case history was conducted.
Volatile organic compound require-
ments have caused changes in
products to achieve higher volume
solids that can, and have, drastically
altered the chemical resistance of
some products.
Tis article is adapted by MP Editorial
Advisory Board Member Norm Moriber
from Te Protective Coating User’s Hand-
book, Louis D. Vincent (Houston, TX: NACE
International, 2010), pp. 147-148.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 On NACE International
SPOTLIGHT Corporate Members

THIS MONTH: SILVER Operations has been, and continues to be,

an integral part of Duke Energy’s busi-
CORPORATE MEMBER ness operations in this area.
DUKE ENERGY The North Carolina-based energy com-
pany provides electric power and gas dis-
tribution operations, and other energy ser-
vices in the Americas, including a growing
portfolio of renewable energy assets.
Within its Gas Operations division,
the company serves natural gas to more
than 500,000 customers within a 2,148-
through a program called “The Keys to
Life.” This program highlights a safety-
first, zero-injury culture through per-
sonal accountability, hazard recognition,
and active caring.
With a culture founded on safety,
accountability, and trust, Duke Energy
fosters excellence in safety, operational
performance, and environmental stew-
ardship. As such, its NACE corporate
membership brings many benefits,

O n April 3, 1837, then-Ohio Governor

Joseph Vance signed the act that
first incorporated the Cincinnati Gas
Light and Coke Co. for the purpose of
“lighting the City of Cincinnati, or the
streets thereof, and any buildings or
houses.” From the very first gas light on
January 14, 1843, at the W.H. Harrison
Drug Store on the corner of 4th and Main
(where Duke Energy’s downtown office
building now sits) until today, Gas
square mile (5,563 km 2) service territory
in Southwest Ohio and Northern Ken-
tucky. It operates 7,310 miles (11,762 km)
of gas transmission, hazardous liquid,
and distribution mains and has 498,603
gas service lines and 6,138 miles (9,876
km) of gas service piping. The gas supply
is supplemented with 1,293,331 MMbtu
(1,365,589,403 MJ) of landfill gas.
Duke Energy’s people take pride in
identifying and eliminating safety risks
including educational and technical
resources for employees as well as profes-
sional development, training, and certifi-
cation that keeps the company up to
speed on the latest safety policies and
best practices within the corrosion indus-
try. “NACE is our doorway to the world of
corrosion sciences and collaboration,”
says Samuel Vessel, Duke Energy’s super-
vising engineer for Corrosion Engineering
and Control.

An Introduction to Asset Corrosion Management

In the Oil and Gas Industry
by
Dr. Ali Morshed
Content includes:

■■ Details of the CM process

■■ Products associated with CM applications
■■ Potential cost savings
■■ Useful, practical and straightforward guidance

$100.00 $75.00
LIST PRICE NACE MEMBER PRICE

ORDER
YOUR COPY TODAY
Item No. 37594

nace.org/store 1 (800) 797 6223

For more information and additional titles

106 Pages 12 Chapters Softbound ISBN 1-5790-246-X

Published 2012
A NACE Publication

76 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8


New NACE International Coatings
Contractor Accreditation Program
T
he highly anticipated NACE
International Institute
Contractor Accreditation
Program (NIICAP), an indus-
try-designed and managed
program that provides accreditation for
contractors who achieve professional qual-
ifications in the surface preparation and
coating and lining application industries,
is available effective July 2015. This com-
prehensive program provides coatings
contractors in the industrial, marine,
water, and wastewater industries, as well
as the asset owners who seek to hire them,
with a transparent accreditation that dem-
onstrates the highest levels of fundamental
and specialized knowledge, product and
service quality, and best practices in coat-
ings applications and corrosion control.
NIICAP accreditation signifies that
coatings contractors have a formal,
78 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
NACE NEWS
audited system in place to verify employee
proficiencies and project methods.
Contractors who earn the NIICAP seal
meet predefined industry requirements for
coating and lining applications, which
were developed and vetted by owners,
contractors, and government representa-
tives to ensure the program remains
relevant and practical. Accredited contrac-
tors follow predetermined surface
preparation and application processes,
and maintain and foster continual
improvement.
NIICAP-accredited contractor compa-
nies receive the following benefits, among
others:
• Increased credibility, recognition, and
respect in the field
• Recognition as a premier coatings
contractor to asset owners
• Expanded opportunities for project
prequalification and organizational
success
• Distinction as an industry leader with
the highest commitment to quality
processes and best business practices
In addition, asset owners that choose
NIICAP-accredited coating contractors can
be confident that they have hired profes-
sionals who adhere to the highest
standards of corrosion control. This results
in valuable efficiencies and savings in time,
money, and manpower associated with
protecting the world’s infrastructure and
large industrial and marine assets from the
effects of corrosion.
There are three steps to achieve this
accreditation:
• Submit the NIICAP application that is
designed to introduce and provide
background on the contractor firm,
including business processes and work
history.
• Participate in an on-site audit. The
in-depth audit provides a thorough
assessment of the contractor’s business
and administrative practices as well as
practices in the field and shop. The
auditor will observe performance and
assess capabilities.
• Receive and address the written results,
which are provided within 21 days.
Applicants that attain accreditation
immediately earn the ability to use the
NIICAP seal and market their organiza-
tions accordingly. Applicants that do
not attain accreditation will receive
clearly stated reasons for the decision
and have the ability to correct the
deficiencies, appeal the results, or
reapply.
For more information on the NIICAP
program, please visit niicap.net or e-mail
info@niicap.net.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 NACE NEWS
NACE Area & Section News
West Asia & Africa Area
Third from left: Helena Seelinger, Bob and Kim Chalker, and Elaine Bowman with West Asia & Africa Area
offcers, sponsors, and area offce staff.
H
istory was made on May 17, 2015
when two sections of the NACE
International West Asia &
Africa Area combined their
efforts to organize a very special technical
dinner meeting. The NACE Dhahran and
Jubail Saudi Arabia Sections conducted
the 35th Technical Meeting with an
impressive 180 attendees.
The primary speakers were NACE Chief
Executive Officer Bob Chalker and NACE
Past President Elaine Bowman, project
Twenty-two corrosion professionals from several countries participated in a TEG 080X meeting.
On May 18, the West Asia & Africa
Area held a meeting focused on NACE
Technical Exchange Group (TEG) 080X,
Well Casings, Corrosion Control:
Information Exchange. The meeting was
attended by 22 professionals well-repre-
sented from different parts of the world,
80 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
manager of the IMPACT (International
Measures of Prevention, Application, and
Economics of Corrosion Technologies) study.
Chalker discussed how organizations can
benefit from being members and participat-
ing in NACE, and Bowman provided an
overview of IMPACT.
With the joint knowledge of two sections
together with the support from the West Asia
& Africa Area office, from preparation through
execution, the event was very successful and a
valuable experience for all involved.
including Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, the United
Arab Emirates, Kingdom of Bahrain,
Korea, and the United States.
The West Asia & Africa Area will
continue to support all NACE Technical
Coordination Committee activities in the
area.
NACE Senior Manager of the West Asia & Africa
Area offce Gasem Fallatah, Abu Dhabi UAE
Section Trustee Elvis Sequeira, and newly elected
Chair Fatima Al Mazrouei were among the
attendees of a recent general meeting.
The NACE Dhahran Saudi Arabia
and NACE Abu Dhabi UAE Sections held
their Annual General Meetings (AGMs) to
celebrate the end of the 2014-2015 term
and to welcome the new fiscal year with
the new set of officers.
The Dhahran Saudi Arabia Section
conducted its AGM at Le Meridian Hotel,
Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia on June 3, 2015.
The joint meeting with the NACE West
Asia and Africa Area was attended by more
than 120 members and their families. Area
Director Abdullah Al-Ghamdi started the
program with his welcoming remarks,
followed by a presentation by outgoing
section Chair Tony Rizk.
The section and area shared their
achievements and recognized all section
officers and active members. The new set
of section officers, to be led by Chair
Abdullah Al-Dossary, was then presented.
The work program for this term includes
the organization of the 16th Middle East
Corrosion Conference and Exhibition in
February 2016 and a goal to increase the
section membership by 10%.
The meeting was attended by the
Aramco Consulting Services department
manager. This reflects the company’s
continuous support and partnership with
the section to emphasize the importance
of corrosion and the critical role played by
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 Your Association in Action

the section, as the region is being developed into an industrial
hub to be the global capital of energy providers.
The NACE Abu Dhabi UAE Section had its AGM on June 4,
2015 at the Park Hyatt Hotel, Saadiyat, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Approximately 200 members attended with their families. The
event started with welcoming remarks by Abu Dhabi UAE Section
Trustee Elvis Sequeira, followed by a short presentation on the
upcoming events this year and the 2015-2016 Strategic Plan.
The section’s three main strategies for next year are
Awareness, Membership, and Technical. Each strategy is going to
be supervised by a chair of a team to execute the plans. Assigned
chairs will report to the section chair and trustee on progress
every quarter.
The election for the new members of the board was also held
in this AGM. Fatima Al Mazrouei is the newly elected chair of the
section. She gave a spontaneous speech showing how dynamic
and dedicated she is to NACE and the corrosion industry.
(—Reygie De Borja)

East Asia and Pacifc Area

CIP 1 class in Beijing, May 2015. CIP 2 class in Beijing, May 2015.

CIP 1 class in Taiwan, June 2015. CIP 2 class in Taiwan, June 2015.

N
ACE International Instructor for the Coatings Inspector Program (CIP) Phil Fouche recently led CIP courses in Beijing and Taiwan.
Other instructors included Ben Chang and Gary Cheung. NACE conducts hundreds of courses each year in all areas of corrosion
control throughout the world.

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 81

 NACE NEWS
NACE Foundation Hosts First Mini-Camp
for High School Students
High school students from the Dallas, Texas area join corrosion students and professionals at the NACE Foundation’s mini-camp, CORROSION: Opportunities
Realized.
High school students at CORROSION: Opportunities Realized learn about
pipe-to-soil potential readings from NACE Instructor Tom Fowler at the
Cathodic Protection Test Field.
C
ORROSION 2015 in Dallas, Texas was the site of
CORROSION: Opportunities Realized, a new program
created by the NACE Foundation to educate and
spread corrosion awareness to the future of our in-
dustry. Sixty high school juniors and seniors from North Dallas
High School, Trinidad Garza Early College High School, and
Waxahachie Global High School were invited to the conference
to participate in corrosion-related activities during this day-long
mini-camp.
Led by Master Teachers Andy Nydam and Debbie Goodwin,
students conducted hands-on corrosion experiments from the
NACE Foundation’s popular cKit™ (Corrosion Toolkit) and learned
several basic scientific principles of corrosion, such as oxidation,
electrochemistry, and the activity series of metals. Students were
also given the opportunity to learn about research and career
opportunities from industry professionals and NACE U (univer-
sity) students, who volunteered to lead the student tours of the
CORROSION 2015 Exhibit Hall, stopping at areas such as the
82 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
Students create fruit batteries in a popular, hands-on corrosion experiment from
the NACE Foundation cKit™.
Cathodic Protection Test Field, the Student Poster Session, and
the CoatingsPro Virtual Spray Booth.
Among the industry professionals was special guest speaker
Carol Knox of Bayer MaterialScience, who explained to students the
environmental and economical impact of corrosion, and what poten-
tial career opportunities are available in the corrosion industry.
During their tour of the CORROSION 2015 show floor, students also
had the privilege of learning about microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC) from expert Rick Eckert at DNV GL’s booth.
CORROSION: Opportunities Realized was a huge success, and
was made possible by the generous support of our program
sponsor, Bayer MaterialScience. The NACE Foundation would also
like to thank the more than 30 volunteers, teachers, NACE
members, NACE student members, and staff, who shared their
knowledge and expertise in corrosion with the future of our
industry. For more information on how to get involved with
CORROSION: Opportunities Realized at CORROSION 2016, please
contact Autumn Tran at e-mail: autumn.tran@nace.org.
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
 2015
September 20-24, 2015 • Austin, Texas, USA

CTW 2015 JW Marriott Austin

Register at
ctw.nace.org

NACE and IEEE Publish Joint Standards
for Power Utility Industry
T
hree new joint standard prac-
tices have been developed by
NACE International and the
Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) to address
the need to control corrosion attack and
degradation of structures used in the
power utility industry and other indus-
tries that own or operate metal structures
exposed to the risks of corrosion.
NACE SP0215-2015/IEEE Std 1839
The first joint standard, NACE SP0215-
2015/IEEE Std 1839, “NACE/IEEE Joint
Standard Practice for Below-Grade
Corrosion Control of Transmission,
Distribution, and Substation Structures by
Coating Repair Systems,” combines the
working knowledge and expertise of indus-
try professionals in asset management who
provide guidance on inspection, assessment,
and corrosion control for power utility struc-
tures. It addresses below-grade corrosion
control and provides general coating repair
guidelines for in-service carbon steel and
galvanized steel electric transmission struc-
tures coated with polyurethanes, moisture
cure urethane (MCU), coal tar, epoxy, coal
tar epoxy, and cold-applied tape systems
including petrolatum and polyethylene.
The standard includes procedures for
identifying structures that may be at higher
risk for below-grade coating degradation;
excavating and inspecting the selected
structure; assessing the level of corrosion at-
tack and degradation risk to the structure’s
existing coating system; prioritizing the
structures to be repaired; and applying re-
pair coatings to the structure when required.
In addition to these procedures, the
standard includes five tables with informa-
tion ranging from basic guidelines for
determining corrosion risks to coating
system condition assessments, and guide-
lines for determining the suitability of
select tape systems. This standard is a
companion to NACE SP0315-2015/IEEE
NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8
Your Association in Action
Std 1835 for atmospheric (above grade) Joint Standard Practice for Below-Grade
corrosion control on steel transmission, Inspection and Assessment of Corrosion on
distribution, and substation structures; Steel Transmission, Distribution, and
and to NACE SP0415-2015/IEEE Std 1895 Substation Structures,” is the third of the
for below-grade inspection and assessment companion standards written to address the
of these structures. need to control corrosion attack and degra-
NACE SP0215-2015/IEEE Std 1839 is dation of structures that are used in the
available from the NACE Store as Item power utility industry and other industries
#21187-SG. that own and/or operate metal structures
exposed to the risks of corrosion. This is the
NACE SP0315-2015/IEEE Std 1835
first NACE standard to include access to an
NACE and IEEE members with the
interactive spreadsheet that can be
working knowledge and expertise in corro-
downloaded to electronic devices and
sion assessment and control and utility
customized for data collection in the field.
structure management and maintenance
The purpose of this standard is to
teamed up to write the second joint
provide guidance for using common
standard practice, NACE SP0315-2015/IEEE
inspection practices and technology on
Std 1835, “NACE/IEEE Joint Standard
the below-grade areas of steel transmis-
Practice for Atmospheric (Above Grade)
sion towers, poles, and substation
Corrosion Control of Existing Electric
structures, to include galvanized, self-
Transmission, Distribution, and Substation
weathering, and painted mild steel
Structures by Coating Systems.” The
structures, and other similar structures.
standard applies to the repair of above-grade
The standard includes a section on data
atmospheric coatings and defines the
collection/prioritization and a graduated,
atmospheric area to be coated. It provides
three-tier field inspection system.
guidance for assessing structures for
Before the publication of this standard,
atmospheric corrosion and the level of risk
an industry practice to help electric utilities
to the structure from corrosion attack and
determine a prioritized listing of structures
degradation to the existing coating system,
to be inspected or describe an inspection
and can serve as a resource for preparing
and assessment procedure to evaluate
specifications to achieve the successful
below-grade corrosion problems did not
coating of utility structures.
exist. This standard, written by industry
It includes sections that address safety,
professionals with working knowledge and
inspection and assessment, coating
expertise in corrosion assessment and
system selection, application methods,
control and utility structure management
contractor qualification, and performance
and maintenance, fills that void.
monitoring. Also included are three tables
There are four appendixes, including a
that provide an example rating system to
soil condition table and three example
assess coating systems, surface prepara-
tables for collecting data and prioritizing
tion methods for electric utility support
work. These tables also are made interac-
structures, and a coating chart.
tive via a link to customizable spreadsheet
NACE SP0315-2015/IEEE Std 1835 is
templates that can be used to develop a
available from the NACE Store as Item
company-specific inspection and assess-
#21188-SG.
ment system.
NACE SP0415-2015/IEEE Std 1895 NACE SP0415-2015/IEEE Std 1895 is
This new joint standard practice, NACE available from the NACE Store as Item
SP0415-2015/IEEE Std 1895, “NACE/IEEE #21189-SG. (—Trudy Schreiner)
MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 85
 NACE NEWS
NACE Corporate Members
MP publishes the names of all Diamond and Gold Corporate Members in each issue, in addition to that month’s new
corporate members of all levels. Following are the companies that are in these categories as of June 15, 2015:

DIAMOND
BP Exploration & Production Operating Co.,
Ltd., Middlesex, United Kingdom
Carboline Company, St. Louis, Missouri,
USA
Sherwin-Williams Co., Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Southern California Gas Co., Los Angeles,
California, USA
U.S. Department of Defense Corrosion
Prevention and Control Integrated Product
Team, Arlington, Virginia, USA
Marathon Pipeline, LLC, Findlay, Ohio, USA
NRI Neptune Research, Inc., Lake Park,
Florida, USA
NTPC, Ltd., New Delhi, India
Oceaneering International, Inc., Houston,
Texas, USA

Chinese National Environmental Corrosion Petronas Carigali, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Platform, Beijing, China
Colonial Pipeline Co., Alpharetta, Georgia,
USA
Corrpro, Houston, Texas, USA
Denso North America, Houston, Texas, USA
DNV, Dublin, Ohio, USA
Dorf Ketal Chemicals, LLC, Houston, Texas,
USA
Dunn-Edwards Corp., Los Angeles,
California, USA
Elcometer, Rochester Hills, Michigan, USA
Exova, West Midlands, United Kingdom
Harouge Oil Operations, Tripoli, Switzerland
Integrated Global Services, Richmond,
Virginia, USA
International Paint, LLC, Strongsville, Ohio,
USA
International Union of Painters and Allied
Trades, Hanover, Maryland, USA
Kuwait Oil Co., Ahmadi, Kuwait
MATCOR, Inc., Chalfont, Pennsylvania, USA
MESA, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
GOLD Pluspetrol, Caba, Argentina
PMAC Group, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
Alpha Pipeline Integrity Services, Kemah,
Texas, USA RK&K, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
Atmos Energy, Jackson, Mississippi, USA Southern Star Central Gas Pipeline,
Owensboro, Kentucky, USA
Baker Hughes, Sugar Land, Texas, USA
TransCanada Pipelines, Calgary, Alberta,
Bechtel Group, Inc., Houston, Texas, USA
Canada
Beijing BSS Corrosion Protection Industry
Turner Industries Group, LLC, Port Allen,
Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
Louisiana, USA
BP US Pipeline, Naperville, Illinois, USA
United States Coast Guard, Baltimore,
Brand Energy & Infrastructure Services, Maryland, USA
Kennesaw, Georgia, USA
Valspar Corp., Chicago, Illinois, USA
ConocoPhillips Co., Bartlesville, Oklahoma,
Williams, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
USA
Xodus Group, Richmond, Texas, USA
Corrosion Technology Services, LLC,
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Corrosion Testing Services, Taft, Tennessee,
USA NEW CORPORATE MEMBERS
Deepwater Corrosion Services, Houston,
Texas, USA Kuwait Oil Co., Ahmadi, Kuwait—Diamond
Dong Yang Corrosion Engineering Co., Ltd., Recal Recubrimientos, SA DE CV,
Seoul, South Korea Tlajomulco de Zuniga, Mexico—Diamond
Duke Energy, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

NALCO Champion, an Ecolab Co., Houston,
Texas, USA
National Grid, Braintree, Massachusetts,
USA
Oil & Natural Gas Corp., Ltd., Mumbai, India
Oneok Partners, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
Pacific Gas & Electric Co., San Ramon,
California, USA
Enbridge Pipelines, Inc., Schereville,
Indiana, USA
Evraz, Inc., Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
Formosa Plastics Group (FPG), Taipei,
Taiwan
Galvotec Companies, McAllen, Texas, USA
Haynes International, Inc., Kokomo, Indiana,
USA
Total NACE membership was 35,451 as of
June 15, 2015 For more information about
NACE corporate membership levels and
individual member benefits, contact the
FirstService department at phone:
+1 281-228-6223 or e-mail: firstservice@
nace.org.

Pioneer Natural Resources USA, Inc., Irving, High Performance Alloys, Inc., Windfall,
Texas, USA Indiana, USA

PMAC Group, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
Polyguard Products, Inc., Ennis, Texas, USA
Recal Recubrimientos, SA DE CV,
Tlajomulco de Zuniga, Mexico
Research Institute of Lanzhou Petrochemical
Co., Lanzhou, China
Saipem SpA, Milanese, Italy
Sandvik AB, Gavlenorg, Sweden
Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
HoldTight Solutions, Inc., Houston, Texas,
USA
Integrated Global Services, Richmond,
Virginia, USA
Interprovincial/International Corrosion
Control, Inc., Burlington, Ontario, Canada
Kuwait Pipe Industries and Oil Services Co.,
Safat, Kuwait
Ledcor Industrial Maintenance, Ltd.,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Seal for Life LLC BVBA, Stadskanaal, LLC Gazpromneft Science & Technology
The Netherlands Centre, Saint Petersburg, Russian
Federation

86 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

 Coating Inspector
Program (CIP)

NACE’s Coating Inspector Program is the world’s most recognized coating inspector
certifcation program. CIP trains coating professionals to properly inspect the surface
preparation and application of a protective coating system on a variety of structures in
any industry.

Courses include:
§ CIP Level 1
§ CIP Level 2
For information on
§ CIP Level 3 Peer Review earning your CIP
§ Nuclear Power Plant Training for Coating Inspectors Certifcation, visit
§ CIP One-Day Bridge naceinstitute.org
§ Marine Coating Technology

To register or for more information, visit nace.org/cip

* All certifcations are administered by the NACE International

Institute, an independent afliate of NACE International.

MORE Money Opportunities GET MORE Did you know?

In 2014, the average annual corrosion salary in the U.S. was $108,615.
NACE
with Recognition Education
MONEY Source: 2014 NACE International Annual Corrosion Career Survey
 NACE NEWS
NACE OFFICERS
Calendar of Events PRESIDENT
Jim Feather*
Retired, ExxonMobil Research & Engineering
Fairfax, VA
AUGUST 2015 OCTOBER 2015
VICE PRESIDENT
Sandy Williamson*
NACE CENTRAL AREA RISK MANAGEMENT FOR Ammonite Corrosion Engineering Inc.
CONFERENCE INTEGRITY OF OIL Calgary, AB, Canada

August 31-September 2, 2015 PRODUCTION AND TREASURER

St. Louis Union Station—A DoubleTree
REFINING FACILITIES Terry Greenfeld*
CorroMetrics Services, Inc.
by Hilton Hotel CONFERENCE Mobile, AL
St. Louis, MO, USA October 12-14, 2015 PAST PRESIDENT
More Info: CaLae McDermott, NACE The Kuwait Hilton Resort Harvey P. Hack, FNACE*
International, tel: +1 281-228-6263, Al-Manqaf, Kuwait Northrup Grumman Corp.
e-mail: calae.mcdermott@nace.org Annapolis, MD
More Info: Abdul Hameed
Al-Hashem, NACE Kuwait Section, tel: CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
Robert H. Chalker*
SEPTEMBER 2015 +965-99059239, e-mail: ahashem_kisr@
NACE International
hotmail.com Houston, TX

FLEET MAINTENANCE & DIRECTORS

MODERNIZATION SYMPOSIUM
(FMMS)
September 1-2, 2015
San Diego, CA, USA
More Info: Frankie Hamme,
ASNE, tel: +1 703-836-6727, Web
site: navalengineers.org/events/
individualeventwebsites/FMMS2015/
NORTHERN AREA Abdullah Al-Ghamdi | 2013-2016
EASTERN 2015 Saudi Aramco
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
October 18-21, 2015
Jane Brown | 2013-2016
Courtyard by Marriott Ottawa Brown Corrosion Services
Ottawa, AB, Canada Houston, TX
More Info: Katie Flynn, tel: Steven Hoff | 2013-2016
+1 281-228-6210, e-mail: katie.flynn@ South Carolina Electric and Gas
nace.org, Web site: nae.nace.org Camden, SC

Pages/ASNELandingPage.aspx Scott Lillard, FNACE | 2013-2016

WESTERN AREA University of Akron
Akron, OH
BRING ON THE HEAT CONFERENCE 2015
CHINA 2015 October 28-30, 2015 Sam McFarland | 2013-2016
Shell
September 2-4, 2015 DoubleTree Resort by Hilton Hotel Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Qingdao, China Paradise Valley Scottsdale
Fabian Sanchez | 2013-2016
More Info: Bei Gu, e-mail: bei.gu@nace. Scottsdale, AZ, USA OCP Ecuador S.A.
org, Web site: asiacoat.com/bothchina More Info: Web site: wac.nace.org Quito, Ecuador

Bruce Cookingham | 2014-2017

NOVEMBER 2015 BP
EUROCORR 2015 Houston, TX
September 6-10, 2015 Peter Harkins | 2014-2017
Graz, Austria 2015 DEPARTMENT OF Tinker & Rasor Co.
More Info: Yvonne Dworak, tel: +43 DEFENSE–ALLIED NATIONS San Bernardino, CA
(0)3842 402 2290, e-mail: eurocorr2015@ CORROSION CONFERENCE Michelle Lau | 2014-2017
asmet.at, Web site: eurocorr2015.org November 15-19, 2015 Mach3 Engineering
Selangor, Malaysia
Wyndham Grand Pittsburgh Downtown
CORROSION TECHNOLOGY Pittsburgh, PA, USA Debra Boisvert | 2015-2018
Target Products Ltd.
WEEK 2015 More Info: CaLae McDermott, NACE Burnaby, BC, Canada
September 20-24, 2015 International, tel: +1 281-228-6263,
Richard B. Eckert | 2015-2018
JW Marriott Austin e-mail: calae.mcdermott@nace.org,
DNV GL
Web site: dod.nace.org Dublin, OH
Austin, TX, USA
More Info: Lesley Williams, tel: Darby Howard | 2015-2018
+1 281-228-6413, e-mail: lesley.williams@ CORCON 2015 JDH Corrosion Consultants, Inc.
Concord, CA
nace.org November 19-21, 2015
Chennai Convention Centre Thomas Ladwein/2015-2018
Aalen University of Applied Science
Chennai, India Aalen, Germany
More Info: Kamachi Mudali, e-mail:
kamachi@igcar.gov.in EX OFFICIO DIRECTORS
Keith Perkins
President, NACE International Foundation
Chris Fowler, FNACE
Denotes NACE International event President, NACE International Institute
*Executive Committee members

88 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

 NACE Northern Area Eastern Conference 2015
October 18 – 21, 2015 | Ottawa, Ontario, Canada | Courtyard by Marriott Ottawa

Controlling Corrosion to Improve Reliability and Safety

Featuring unique educational presentations, forums, and new technologies from more than 30 exhibiting
companies, the Northern Area Eastern conference is your opportunity to learn about local Canadian
corrosion issues from experienced local experts.

Technical Program Highlights Include:

• Materials Selection • Design • Case Histories of Failures Due to
• Coatings and Linings • Oil & Gas (Ofshore & Onshore) Corrosion
• Surface Modifcation • Power Generation • Student Session and Student
Poster Competition
• Electrochemical Protection • Corrosion in Concrete Structures
• Inhibitors • Research and Development

Advance Registration Ends September 18, 2015.

Register Today and Save $100 on Your Registration Fees

For more information and to register, go to

nae.nace.org
OFFICIAL MEDIA PARTNERS

MATERIALS
PERFORMANCE
CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL WORLDWIDE
 NACE COURSE SCHEDULE
ARGENTINA INDIA
CIP LEVEL 1 CIP LEVEL 1
Buenos Aires, Argentina September 7-12, 2015 Kolkata, India August 31-September 5, 2015
CIP LEVEL 2 Mumbai, India September 7-12, 2015
Buenos Aires, Argentina September 14-19, 2015 Chennai, India September 14-19, 2015
AUSTRALIA Chennai, India October 5-10, 2015
CIP LEVEL 1 CIP LEVEL 2
Sydney, NSW, Australia September 7-12, 2015 Delhi, India September 14-19, 2015
Melbourne, VIC, Australia October 12-17, 2015 Chennai, India September 21-26, 2015
CIP LEVEL 2 Chennai, India October 12-17, 2015
Melbourne, VIC, Australia October 19-24, 2015 INDONESIA
BRAZIL CIP LEVEL 1
CIP LEVEL 1 Batam, Indonesia September 7-12, 2015
Recife, PE, Brazil September 21-26, 2015 CIP LEVEL 2
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil October 19-24, 2015 Batam, Indonesia September 14-19, 2015
MARINE COATING TECHNOLOGY ITALY
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil October 26-29, 2015 CIP LEVEL 1
CANADA Lombardo, Italy September 27-October 2, 2015
CIP LEVEL 1 JAPAN
Red Deer, AB, Canada September 13-18, 2015 CIP LEVEL 2
Red Deer, AB, Canada October 18-23, 2015 Nagasaki, Japan October 15-20, 2015
CIP LEVEL 2 MALAYSIA
Red Deer, AB, Canada September 20-25, 2015 CIP LEVEL 1
Red Deer, AB, Canada October 25-30, 2015 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia October 19-24, 2015
PIPELINE COATING APPLICATOR TRAINING Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia October 26-31, 2015
Edmonton, AB, Canada October 19-23, 2015 CP1—CATHODIC PROTECTION TESTER
CHINA Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia September 7-12, 2015
CIP LEVEL 1 CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN
Shanghai, China August 30-September 4, 2015 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia September 14-19, 2015
Shanghai, China October 11-16, 2015 PIPELINE CORROSION INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT
CIP LEVEL 2 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia October 5-9, 2015
Shanghai, China September 6-11, 2015 MEXICO
Shanghai, China September 24-29, 2015 BASIC CORROSION
Shanghai, China October 18-23, 2015 Cuernavaca, MOR, Mexico September 21-25, 2015
CIP EXAM COURSE 1 INTERNAL CORROSION FOR PIPELINES—ADVANCED
Shanghai, China September 20-22, 2015 Cuernavaca, MOR, Mexico September 7-11, 2015
CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN—MARITIME PIPELINE CORROSION INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT
Beijing, China October 12-17, 2015 Cuernavaca, MOR, Mexico September 7-11, 2015
COLOMBIA THE NETHERLANDS
CP4—CATHODIC PROTECTION SPECIALIST CIP LEVEL 1
Bogota, Colombia September 14-19, 2015 Ridderkerk, The Netherlands September 14-19, 2015
INTERNAL CORROSION FOR PIPELINES—ADVANCED NEW ZEALAND
Bogota, Colombia October 19-23, 2015 CIP LEVEL 2
EGYPT Auckland, New Zealand October 5-10, 2015
CORROSION CONTROL IN THE REFINING INDUSTRY PERU
Cairo, Egypt September 12-16, 2015 CIP LEVEL 1
INTERNAL CORROSION FOR PIPELINES—BASIC Lima, Peru October 5-10, 2015
Cairo, Egypt October 17-21, 2015 SAUDI ARABIA
INTERNAL CORROSION FOR PIPELINES—ADVANCED CIP LEVEL 1
Cairo, Egypt October 24-28, 2015 Dammam, Saudi Arabia August 29-September 3, 2015

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90 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

For the most up-to-date information and to obtain sponsor contact information, visit nace.org/eduschedule

Dammam, Saudi Arabia October 3-8, 2015 CP3—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNOLOGIST

CIP LEVEL 2 Dubai, UAE September 26-October 1, 2015
Dammam, Saudi Arabia October 10-15, 2015 PIPELINE CORROSION INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT
CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN Dubai, UAE October 18-23, 2015
Dammam, Saudi Arabia August 29-September 3, 2015 UNITED KINGDOM
SINGAPORE CIP LEVEL 1
CIP LEVEL 2 Newcastle, UK September 28-October 3, 2015
Singapore October 19-24, 2015 Newcastle, UK October 5-10, 2015
CIP EXAM COURSE 1 Newcastle, UK October 12-17, 2015
Singapore October 21-23, 2015 Harrogate, UK October 26-31, 2015
CIP EXAM COURSE 2 CIP LEVEL 2
Singapore October 26-28, 2015 Newcastle, UK September 28-October 3, 2015
SOUTH AFRICA Newcastle, UK October 5-10, 2015
CIP LEVEL 1 Newcastle, UK October 12-17, 2015
Cape Town, South Africa August 31-September 5, 2015 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
CIP LEVEL 2 BASIC CORROSION
Midrand, South Africa October 12-17, 2015 Houston, TX September 21-25, 2015
CIP PEER REVIEW Houston, TX October 12-16, 2015
Johannesburg, South Africa October 17-20, 2015 CIP LEVEL 1
CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN Houston, TX August 30-September 4, 2015
Midrand, South Africa September 14-19, 2015 Houston, TX August 31-September 5, 2015
CP INTERFERENCE Baton Rouge, LA September 13-18, 2015
Midrand, South Africa October 26-31, 2015 Pittsburgh, PA September 13-18, 2015
SOUTH KOREA Houston, TX September 13-18, 2015
CIP EXAM COURSE 1 Miami Beach, FL September 14-19, 2015
Geoje, South Korea September 18-20, 2015 Newington, NH September 20-25, 2015
Ulsan, South Korea October 12-14, 2015 Houston, TX September 20-25, 2015
CIP EXAM COURSE 2 Houston, TX September 21-26, 2015
Geoje, South Korea September 21-23, 2015 Denver, CO September 27-October 2, 2015
Ulsan, South Korea October 15-17, 2015 Houston, TX September 27-October 2, 2015
CIP PEER REVIEW Houston, TX October 4-9, 2015
Geoje, South Korea September 21-26, 2015 Anaheim, CA October 11-16, 2015
SPAIN Philadelphia, PA October 11-16, 2015
CIP LEVEL 1 Seattle, WA October 11-16, 2015
Madrid, Spain October 19-24, 2015 Houston, TX October 11-16, 2015
CIP LEVEL 2 Houston, TX October 12-17, 2015
Madrid, Spain October 26-31, 2015 Albuquerque, NM October 18-23, 2015
CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN Houston, TX October 18-23, 2015
Madrid, Spain October 5-10, 2015 Houston, TX October 19-24, 2015
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Houston, TX October 24-29, 2015
CIP LEVEL 1 Houston, TX October 25-30, 2015
Dubai, UAE September 26-October 1, 2015 Houston, TX October 26-31, 2015
Dubai, UAE October 24-29, 2015 CIP LEVEL 2

CIP LEVEL 2 Houston, TX September 13-18, 2015

Dubai, UAE August 29-September 3, 2015 Pittsburgh, PA September 20-25, 2015

Dubai, UAE October 3-8, 2015 Newington, NH September 27-October 2, 2015

CP1—CATHODIC PROTECTION TESTER Houston, TX September 27-October 2, 2015

Dubai, UAE August 29-September 3, 2015 Denver, CO October 4-9, 2015

CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN Houston, TX October 11-16, 2015

Dubai, UAE September 5-10, 2015 Anaheim, CA October 18-23, 2015

LIMITED SEATS AVAILABLE

REGISTER NOW—SEATS AVAILABLE WAIT LIST ONLY CONTACT LOCAL SPONSOR
(5 OR LESS)

NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 91

 NACE COURSE SCHEDULE

Philadelphia, PA October 18-23, 2015 Houston, TX October 11-16, 2015

Seattle, WA October 18-23, 2015 CP3—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNOLOGIST
Houston, TX October 18-23, 2015 Houston, TX October 4-9, 2015
CIP ONE DAY BRIDGE COURSE CP4—CATHODIC PROTECTION SPECIALIST
Houston, TX September 5, 2015 Anchorage, AK August 30-September 4, 2015
CIP PEER REVIEW CP INTERFERENCE
Houston, TX September 18-21, 2015 Houston, TX September 13-18, 2015
Houston, TX October 16-19, 2015 DESIGNING FOR CORROSION CONTROL
Seattle, WA October 23-26, 2015 Houston, TX October 5-9, 2015
COATINGS IN CONJUNCTION WITH CATHODIC PROTECTION INTERNAL CORROSION FOR PIPELINES—BASIC
Houston, TX September 13-18, 2015 Houston, TX August 31-September 4, 2015
CORROSION CONTROL IN THE REFINING INDUSTRY Dublin, OH September 14-18, 2015
Houston, TX September 28-October 2, 2015 Houston, TX October 26-30, 2015
CP1—CATHODIC PROTECTION TESTER INTERNAL CORROSION FOR PIPELINES—ADVANCED
Houston, TX August 30-September 4, 2015 Houston, TX September 28-October 2, 2015
Houston, TX September 13-18, 2015 PCS 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Tulsa, OK September 27-October 2, 2015 Houston, TX September 20-22, 2015
Rosebush, MI October 4-9, 2015 PCS 2 ADVANCED
Houston, TX October 4-9, 2015 Houston, TX September 23-25, 2015
Houston, TX October 25-30, 2015 PIPELINE INTEGRITY CORROSION MANAGEMENT (P-CAFT)
CP2—CATHODIC PROTECTION TECHNICIAN Houston, TX October 19-23, 2015
Houston, TX August 30-September 4, 2015 SHIPBOARD CORROSION ASSESSMENT TRAINING (S-CAT)
Houston, TX September 20-25, 2015 Houston, TX October 5-9, 2015
Houston, TX September 27-October 2, 2015 Visit nace.org/eduschedule for more information.

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92 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

CORROSION ENGINEERING DIRECTORY
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NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE AUGUST 2015 93

 CORROSION ENGINEERING DIRECTORY

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94 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8

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Tel: 1 800-4CORTEC, Web site: cortecvci.com
Polyguard Products, Ennis, Texas ...............................................................IFC
Dairyland Electrical Industries, Stoughton, Wisconsin ............................. 44 Tel: +1 214-515-5000, Web site: polyguardproducts.com
Tel: +1 608-877-9900, Web site: dairyland.com
Roxar, Stavanger, Norway ................................................................................ 21
Houston, Texas......................................................................... 6 Tel: 1 47 51 81 8800, Web site: roxar.com
Tel: +1 713-928-3437, Web site: dalecompany.com
ROXUL® TECHNICAL INSULATION, Ontario, Canada ............................. 67
Dampney Co., Inc., Everett, Massachusetts ................................................. 22 Tel: 1 800-265-6878, Web site: roxul.com
Tel: 1 800-537-7023, Web site: thurmalox.com
Cleveland, Ohio .............................................. 61
DeFelsko Corp., Ogdensburg, New York ................................................. 51, 53 Tel: 1 800-524-5979, Web site: sherwin-williams.com/protective
Tel: 1 800-448-3835, Web site: defelsko.com
Tinker & Rasor, San Bernardino, California .................................................... 45
De Nora T Concord, Ohio ........................................................................ 52 Tel: +1 909-890-0700, Web site: tinker-rasor.com
Tel: +1 440-710-5300, Web site: denora.com
Tnemec Co., Inc., Kansas City, Missouri ....................................................... 73
Houston, Texas ....................................................... 63 Tel: +1 816-483-3400, Web site: tnemec.com
Tel: +1 281-821-3355, Web site: densona.com
ULC Robotics, Inc., Hauppauge, New York .................................................. 27
Shreveport, Louisiana ............................................. 49 Tel: +1 631-667-9200, Web site: ulcrobotics.com
Tel: +1 318-635-5351, Web site: destearns.com

Elcometer, Rochester Hills, Michigan ................................................................ 7 NACE International

Tel: +1 248-650-0500, Web site: elcometer.com Phone: +1 281/228-6223, Web site: nace.org
Middlefeld, Ohio ...................................... 58 An Introduction to Asset Corrosion Management in the Oil and
Tel: +1 617-484-9085, Web site: edi-cp.com Gas Industry ....................................................................................................... 76

Enduro Pipeline Services, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma ........................................ 5 Coatings Inspector Program ............................................................................... 87
Tel: 1 800-752-1628, Web site: enduropls.com
CTW 2015 ......................................................................................................... 84
Downey, California ................................. 19
Department of Defense—Allied Nations Technical Corrosion
Tel: 1 888-532-7937, Web site: farwestcorrosion.com
Conference ........................................................................................... Belly Band
GMA Garnet Group, The Woodlands, Texas ................................................... 8
MP Advertising Opportunities ............................................................................. 72
Tel: +1 832-243-9300, Web site: garnetsales.com

GMC Electrical, Inc., Ontario, California....................................................... 14 MR0175/ISO 15156 .......................................................................................... 79

Tel: +1 909-947-6016, Web site: gmcelectrical.net NACE Central Area Conference 2015 ................................................................ 83
HoldT Houston, Texas ........................................................... 10
NACE Northern Area Eastern Conference 2015................................................. 89
Tel: 1 800-319-8802, Web site: holdtight.com
Publish Your Work .............................................................................................. 92
Industrial Fabrics, Inc., Baton Rouge, Louisiana ......................................... 25
Tel: 1 800-848-8500, Web site: rockguard.biz The Marine Coatings User’s Handbook .............................................................. 95

96 AUGUST 2015 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE NACE INTERNATIONAL: VOL. 54, NO. 8