PRACTICAL SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

ON
COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALLING
IN ESTEEMED ORGANIGATION
OF
INDIAN RAILWAYS

SITE OF TRAINING
SIGNAL AND TELE ENGINEERING DEPTT.
NORTHERN CENTRAL RAILWAYS,
MATHURA

Submited to- Submited by-

Mr. Rameshwar Meena Gaurav Sikarwar
Sr. DSTE R.no.0836631010
AGRA E.C.(3rd year)
N.I.E.M.
Farah(Mathura)

1
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Gaurav Sikarwar, a III year student of
Electronics and Communication branch from NIKHIL
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT,
FARAH (MATHURA) had completed a 4-5 week training
with North Central Railways (NCR),AGRA CANTT in the
following modules:-
1. MTRC(Mobile train Radio Communication)

2. Optical Fiber Equipment & cables

3. Exchange

4. Networking

During this period he showed keen interest in every field.

We wish her success for his future.

Date:- 16th July, 2011

____________________
Mr.Rajeshwar Meena
(Senior DSTE)

2
 Table of Contents

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4

 PREFACE 5

 INDIAN RAILWAY(HISTORY) 6

 MTRC 8

 OFC EQUIPMENT 24

 OFC CABLES 30

 EXCHANGE 47

 NETWORK 70

 REFRENCE 99

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Any collateral activity cannot be truly finished without the help &
enthusiasm of the supervisors involved.
Additional technical assistance was provided by many individuals.

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to the

Senior DSTE Mr.RAJESHWAR MEENA,AGRA CANTT for the
guidance and persistent throughout the training period.

Also, I would like to thank the employees and SSE (Signal &
Telecommunication) Mr. JAI KISHAN, MATHURA who elaborated the
technical details of the various technologies ongoing in their department.

It has been a pleasure working with the Employees, MATHURA

JUNCTION in the enhancement of my technical knowledge.
I owe gratitude to many individuals involved in the development of
this report.

4
 PREFACE

Engineering students gain theoretical knowledge only through

books. Only theoretical knowledge is not sufficient for absolute mastery
in any field. Theoretical knowledge in our books is not of much use
without knowing its practical implementation. It has been experienced
that theoretical knowledge is volatile in nature; however practical
knowledge imparts solid foundation in our mind.
To accomplish this aspect, “UTTAR PRADESH TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY” has included training for students of IIIrd
Year of 30 days in our curriculum.

We have covered in this report the history, latest developments in

Railway EC interface as well as related fields. We have studied the
various uses of EC in railways like PRS, DataLogger, IVRS, MTRC,
OFC, EXCHANGE, NETWORKING, FOIS and CRIS.
We have also covered the Rail Net, its objectives, various phases
of implementation, utility of Rail Net and various issues in Rail Net.
This report is infecting a summary of, what I have learnt and seen
during my training in “Railway Organization, AGRA.” Succeeding
chapters give details what I have learnt in Divisional Railway
Manager (DRM) Office, AGRA.

Gaurav Sikarwar
R.no.0836631010
E.C.(3rd year)
N.I.E.M.
Farah(Mathura)

5
 INDIAN RAILWAY

INTRODUCTION:-
Indian Railway (Hindi: ) is the state-owned railway company of

India, which owns and operates most of the country's rail transport. It is
overseen by the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India.

India boasts one of the world’s largest railway network in the world.
Every day, 20million people travel around the country in hundreds of trains
running between various stations smoothly and safely.

The formal inauguration ceremony of IR was performed on 16th April

1853 with the first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station destined for
Hooghly, a
distance of 36 km, on 15th August, 1854.

Snapshots:-

1 . It encompasses 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than

63,028 kilometers of route length and a track length of 111,600
km.

2 . It is one of the world's largest commercial or utility employers, with more

than 1.6 million employees.

6
3 . It grossed a revenue of 88,355 cr and bagging a net income of 951
cr in the financial year 2009-10 .

4 . It moves 2 million tons of freight & 20 million people daily

across the county with the help of 200,000 (freight) wagons.

5 . 7,000 passenger trains across the country services 20 million

people to their destinations .

6 . VINAY MITTAL is the current Chairman of railway board .

Principles of Train working and need for signaling

All over the world Railway transportation is increasingly used, as this

mode of transport is more energy efficient and environmentally friendly than
road transportation. Trains move on steel rail tracks and wheels of the railway
vehicle are also flanged Steel wheels. Hence least friction occurs at the point of
contact between the tracks & wheels.
Therefore trains carry more loads resulting in higher traffic capacity since trains
move on specific tracks called rails, their path is to be fully guided and there is
no arrangement of steering. Clear of obstruction as available with road
transportation, so there is a need to provide control on the movement of trains in
the form of Railway signals which indicate to the drivers to stop or move and
also the speed at which they canvass a signal.
Since the load carried by the trains and the speed which the trains can attain are
high, they need more braking distance before coming to the stop from full
speed. Without signal to be available on the route to constantly guide the driver
accidents will take place due to collisions.

7
MOUDLE – 1

MTRC

8
 MOBILE TRAIN RAILWAY COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

Mobile Communications Principles

Each mobile uses a separate, temporary radio channel to talk to the cell site.
The cell site talks to many mobiles at once, using one channel per mobile.
Channels use a pair of frequencies for communication. One for transmitting
from the cell
Site, the forward link, and one frequency for the cell site to receive calls
from the
users, the reverse link.

Communication between mobile units can be either half-duplex or full-

duplex. In case of half-duplex, transmit and receive communications
between the mobile units are not at the same time.

In case of full-duplex communication, transmit and receive

communication is at the same time, i.e. one can talk and listen at the
same time.
When communications between mobile units are within a cell, and if the
same is
Half-duplex, then it shall require only one pair of frequency. If the same is
full-
Duplex, then requirement of frequency pair shall be two.
When a mobile unit is communicating with a mobile unit outside the cell, then
The requirement of frequency pair shall be one per cell for both half-duplex
and
Full-duplex communication. Hence the system resources are utilized more if
the
Mobile units communicate with each other in full-duplex mode.

9
10
 GSM-R
is GSM for Railways
a Global Communication Platform
integrating the railways transport world wide

This GSM-Rail web-site provides information on the GSM-R Industry Group,

its role as a conveyor of the GSM-R technology all over the world, its company
members and representatives and its activities.

Additionally this site gives you overall information on the GSM-R technology,
the associated EIRENE (European Integrated Radio Enhanced Network)
standards and specifications, its advantages and the magnitude of the
technology spread in the railway world.

To give you a quick access to the rapidly-evolving world of GSM-R we have

introduced links to web-sites from the GSM-R Industry Group company
members and its partners like UIC (International Railways Association),
ERTMS (European Railways Train Management System), ERA (European
Railway Agency).

11
12
The Mobile Station

The Mobile Station (MS) is the user equipment in GSM. The MS is what the user can see of
the GSM system, the cellular phone itself. Production of Mobile Stations is done by many
different manufacturers, and there will almost always be a wide range of different Mobile
Stations in a mobile network. Therefore the specifications specify the workings of the MS in
great detail. On the radio interface the specifications series 05 specify the workings of the
link-level, defining the frequencies and the access methods between the MS and the network.
Series 04 specifies the higher layers of the radio-interface, defining signaling procedures for
call control, and information exchange. The radio-interface will be described in . In order to
verify the conformal of the specifications by Mobile Stations, equipment must obtain type
approval from the standardization body.

The MSs in GSM are independent from networks-providers. The identity of the subscriber is
obtained from a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) that has to be inserted into the MS to
make it work. The SIM contains the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) which
uniquely indentifies the subscriber to the network.

It also contains information necessary to encrypt the connections on the radio interface. The
MS itself is identified by an IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity), which can be
obtained by the network upon request. Without the SIM, calls to and from the mobile station
is not allowed. This has one exception. Calls to the international emergency number, 112, is
allowed without the SIM.

The Base Transceiver Station

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is the entity corresponding to one site communicating
with the Mobile Stations. Usually, the BTS will have an antenna with several TRXs (radio
transceivers) that each communicate on one radio frequency. The link-level signaling on the
radio-channels is interpreted in the BTS, whereas most of the higher-level signaling is
forwarded to the BSC and MSC. Speech and data-transmissions from the MS is recoded is
the BTS from the special encoding used on the radio interface to the standard 64 Kbit/s
encoding used in telecommunication networks. Like the radio-interface, the Abis interface
between the BTS and the BSC is highly standardized, allowing BTSs and BSCs from
different manufacturers in one network.

13
The Base Station Controller

Each Base Station Controller (BSC) controls the magnitude of several hundred BTSs. The
BSC takes care of a number of different procedures regarding call setup, location update and
handover for each MS. The handover control procedures will come especially into focus in
this thesis. It is the BSC that decides when handover is necessary. This is accomplished by
analyzing the measurement results that are sent from the MS during a call and ordering the
MS to perform handover if this is necessary. The continuous analyzing of measurements from
many MSs requires considerable computational power. This put strong constraints on the
design of the BSC.

The Mobile Switching Centre

The Mobile Switching Centre is a normal ISDN-switch with extended functionality to handle
mobile subscribers. The basic function of the MSC is to switch speech and data connections
between BSCs, other MSCs, other GSM-networks and external non-mobile-networks. The
MSC also handles a number of functions associated with mobile subscribers, among others
registration, location updating and handover.

There will normally exist only a few BSCs per MSC, due to the large number of BTSs
connected to the BSC. The MSC and BSCs are connected via the highly standardized A-
interface. However, due to the lack of standardization on Operation and Management
protocols, network providers usually choose BSCs, MSCs and Location Registers from one
manufacturer.

The Location Registers

With each MSC, there is associated a Visitors Location Register (VLR). The VLR can be
associated with one or several MSCs. The VLR stores data about all customers who are
roaming within the location area of that MSC. This data is updated with the location update
procedure initiated from the MS through the MSC, or directly from the subscriber Home
Location Register (HLR). The HLR is the home register of the subscriber. Subscription
information, allowed services, authentication information and localization of the subscriber
are at all times stored in the HLR. This information may be obtained by the VLR/MSC when
necessary. When the subscriber roams into the location area of another VLR/MSC, the HLR
is updated.

14
The radio interface

The radio interface in GSM uses a combination between frequency (FDMA) and time
(TDMA) multiplexing. The frequency division in GSM 900 allocates 125 frequencies in each
direction for GSM. The uplink (MS to BTS) frequencies is in the area 890 - 915 MHz and the
downlink (BTS to MS) frequencies in the are 935-960 MHz. The carrier frequencies are
separated with 200 kHz on each side. The frequencies are allocated in pair, so that each
uplink/downlink pair is separated with exactly 45 MHz.

15
Each of the carrier frequencies are divided into 8 logical channels, using TDMA. A TDMA
frame contains one time-frame from each of the eight channels, and lasts 4.615 ms. The time-
frames from each channel lasts 0.577 ms. The total bitrate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s,
whereas the bitrate for each channel is 22.8 kbit/s.

In order to get the TDMA scheme to work, the time-frames from each mobile station must be
synchronized when received by the BTS. This synchronization is achieved by using the
concept of Timing Advance (TA). The degree of synchronization is measured by the BTS on
the uplink, by checking the position of the training sequence. This training sequence is
mandatory in all frames transmitted from the MS. From these measurements, the BTS can
calculate the Timing-Advance and send it back to the MS in the first downlink transmission.
From the TA value received from the BTS, the MS know when to send the frame, so that it
can arrive at the BTS in synchronism.

The TA can take values from to . These values are coded by 6 bits, where defines 0 to
be no timing-advance, and 63 to be the maximum timing advance. This gives a time-
difference of .

16
Signaling

In order to be able to implement Mobile Station Location (MSL) in a GSM network, it is very
important to understand the signaling protocols and procedures used in GSM. In this section,
an overview of the signaling protocols and some important signaling sequences will be given.

MS-BSS-MSC

17
18
19
 MOUDLE – 2

OFC EQUIPMENT
AND
CABLES

20
 OPTICAL FIBRE EQUIPMENT

STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical Converter

Valiant VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter provides a simple and cost-
effective conversion between STM-1 optical interface to STM-1 electrical interface.

VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter is an interface conversion equipment

supplied with one STM-1 electrical interface and one STM-1 optical interface.

VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter is a compact solution housed in a 19"

rack 1U high, which can be placed on the desktop or installed in a standard 19 inch rack.

21
This unit offers dual (1+1) power supply options. Options for the power supply to the
equipment include:

1. Dual DC -48V Inputs (range -18V DC to -72V DC)

2. Dual AC Inputs (range 110V AC to 240V AC, 50 / 60Hz)

STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converters converter complies with ITU-T and the
relevant SDH specifications.

The rear panel includes power socket and alarm output terminal interface.

22
Features and Highlights

 1+0 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical

 1+1 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical options available
 SFP based design. Provides field removable / upgradeable optical SFPs
 Short haul (1310nm), long haul (1550nm) and multi mode (850nm) optical SFP
modules
 Provides low cost STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical conversion
 Management options:
o Serial RS232 Port (COM Port)
o 10/100 BaseT Remote Management over LAN Telnet
o 10/100 BaseT Telnet over TCP-IP Network
o SNMP V2
o USB interface
o Network Management System (NMS)
 High reliability, complies to ITU-T G.703 and G.957
 State-of-the-art design, ensure normal working under difficult environments
 Supports local and remote loop-back on electrical or optical interface for system
diagnostics

 Simple operation and maintenance

 Compact design and low power consumption
 75 Ohms compliant with ITU-T G.703 and Telcordia GR-253 155Mbps electrical
interfaces (BNC connector)
 ITU-T G.783 compatible loss of signal detect
 Handles over 12.7dB of cable loss
 Duplex LC optical interface
 Hot-pluggable
 Supports DDM function for read back of transmit and received optical power
 Class 1 laser safety
 Compliant with ITU-T G.957 STM-1

Management options

 Serial RS232 Port (COM Port)

 10/100 BaseT Remote Management over LAN Telnet
 10/100 BaseT Telnet over TCP-IP Network
 SNMP V2
 USB interface
 Network Management System (NMS)

23
 INTRODUCTION

The demand for high-capacity long-haul Signal & telecommunication systems is

increasing at a steady rate, and is expected to accelerate in the next decade. At the same time,

communication networks which cover long distances and serve large areas with a large

information capacity are also in increasing demand.

To satisfy the requirements on long distances, the communication channel must have a
very low loss. On the other hand, a large information capacity can only be achieved with a
wide system bandwidth which can support a high data bit rate (> Gbit/s).
Reducing the loss whilst increasing the bandwidth of the communication channels is
therefore essential for future telecommunications systems.
Of the many different communication channel available optical fiber proved to the most
promising due to its low attenuation, low losses and various other advantages over twisted
cables and other means of transmission

Communication between stations and signalmen is done through telephone. In some places,
IR still uses twisted pair cables and elderly Stronger exchanges. Drivers and guards were
equipped with VHF radio systems in 1999 to communicate with each other and with station
masters.

24
 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A thin glass strand designed for light transmission. A single hair-thin fiber is capable of
transmitting trillions of bits per second. In addition to their huge transmission capacity,
optical fibers offer many advantages over electricity and copper wire. Light pulses are not
affected by random radiation in the environment, and their error rate is significantly lower.
Fibers allow longer distances to be spanned before the signal has to be regenerated by
expensive "repeaters." Fibers are more secure, because taps in the line can be detected, and
lastly, fiber installation is streamlined due to their dramatically lower weight and smaller size
compared to copper cables.

Optical fiber v/s copper cable

The optical fiber acts as a low loss, wide bandwidth transmission channel. A light source
is required to emit light signals, which are modulated by the signal data.
To enhance the performance of the system, a spectrally pure light source is required.
Advances in semiconductor laser technology, especially after the invention of double hetero
structures (DH), resulted in stable, efficient, small-sized and compact semiconductor laser
diodes (SLDs). Using such coherent light sources increases the bandwidth of the signal which
can be transmitted in a simple intensity modulated (IM) system.
Other modulation methods, such as phase shift keying (PSK) and frequency-shift keying
(FSK), can also be used. These can be achieved either by directly modulating the injection
current to the SLD or by using an external electro or acousto-optic modulator

25
ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL

FIBER

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, telephone companies began to use fibers extensively to
rebuild their communications infrastructure. According to KMI Corporation, specialists in
fiber optic market research, by the end of 1990 there were approximately eight million miles
of fiber laid in the U.S. (this is miles of fiber, not miles of cable which can contain many
fibers). By the end of 2000, there were 80 million miles in the U.S. and 225 million
worldwide. Copper cable is increasingly being replaced with fibers for LAN back bones as
well, and this usage is expected to increase substantially.

Pure Glass
An optical fiber is constructed of a transparent core made of nearly pure silicon dioxide
(SiO2), through which the light travels. The core is surrounded by a cladding layer that
reflects light, guiding the light along the core. A plastic coating covers the cladding to protect
the glass surface. Cables also include fibers of Kevlar and/or steel wires for strength and an
outer sheath of plastic or Teflon for protection.

26
27
Enormous Bandwidth
For glass fibers, there are two "optical windows" where the fiber is most transparent and
efficient. The centers of these windows are 1300 nm and 1550 nm, providing approximately
18,000GHz and 12,000GHz respectively, for a total of 30,000GHz. This enormous bandwidth
is potentially usable in one fiber. Plastic is also used for short-distance fiber runs, and their
transparent windows are typically 650 nm and in the 750-900 nm range.

Single mode and Multimode

There are two primary types of fiber. For intercity cabling and highest speed, single mode
fiber with a core diameter of less than 10 microns is used. Multimode fiber is very
common for short distances and has a core diameter from 50 to 100 microns. See laser,
WDM, fiber optics glossary and cable categories.

28
 OPERATION OF OPTICAL FIBER

In an optical fiber, a refracted ray is one that is refracted from the core into the cladding.
Specifically a ray having direction such that where r is the radial distance from the fiber axis,
φ(r ) is the azimuthally angle of projection of the ray at on the transverse plane, θ(r )is the
angle the ray makes with the fiber axis, n (r ) is the refractive index at r, n (a ) is the
refractive index at the core radius, a . Refracted rays correspond to radiation modes in the
terminology of mode descriptors.

For the fiber to guide the optical signal, the refractive index of the core must be slightly
higher than that of the cladding. In different types of fibers, the core and core-cladding
boundary function slightly differently in guiding the signal. Especially in single-mode fibers,
a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding.

The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing
from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because the
cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances.
However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the
glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the
wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75percent/km; 1,300 nm =
50 to 60 percent/km ; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km).

29
Some premium optical fibers show much less signal degradation -- less than 10percent/km at
1,550 nm.

30
 A FIBER-OPTIC RELAY SYSTEM

To understand how optical fibers are used in communication systems, let's look at an example
from a World War II movie or documentary where two naval ships in a fleet need to
communicate with each other while maintaining radio silence or on stormy seas.

One ship pulls up alongside the other. The captain of one ship sends a message to a sailor on
deck. The sailor translates the message into Morse code (dots and dashes) and uses a signal
light (floodlight with a Venetian blind type shutter on it) to send the message to the other
ship.

A sailor on the deck of the other ship sees the Morse code message, decodes it into English
and sends the message up to the captain.

Now, imagine doing this when the ships are on either side of the ocean separated by
thousands of miles and you have a fiber-optic communication system in place between the
two ships.

Fiber-optic relay systems consist of the following:

Transmitter - Produces and encodes the light signals

Optical fiber - Conducts the light signals over a distance

Optical regenerator - May be necessary to boost the light signal (for long distances)

Optical receiver - Receives and decodes the light signals

Transmitter - The transmitter is like the sailor on the deck of the sending ship. It receives

and directs the optical device to turn the light "on" and "off" in the correct sequence, thereby

generating a light signal.

The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and may even have a lens to focus the
light into the fiber. Lasers have more power than LEDs, but vary more with changes in
temperature and are more expensive. The most common wavelengths of light signals are 850
nm, 1,300 nm, and 1,550 nm (infrared, non-visible portions of the spectrum).

31
32
Optical Regenerator
As mentioned above, some signal loss occurs when the light is transmitted through the fiber,
especially over long distances (more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as with undersea
cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators is spliced along the cable to boost the
degraded light signals.

An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with a special coating (doping). The doped
portion is "pumped" with a laser. When the degraded signal comes into the doped coating, the
energy from the laser allows the doped molecules to become lasers themselves. The doped
molecules then emit a new, stronger light signal with the same characteristics as the incoming
weak light signal. Basically, the regenerator is a laser amplifier for the incoming signal.

Optical Receiver
The optical receiver is like the sailor on the deck of the receiving ship. It takes the incoming
digital light signals, decodes them and sends the electrical signal to the other
user's computer, TV or telephone (receiving ship's captain). The receiver uses a photocell or
photodiode to detect the light.

USES OF OPTICAL FIBER

The optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it
is flexible and can be bundled as cables. Although fibers can be made out of either
transparent plastic or glass, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications
are always glass, because of the lower optical absorption. The light transmitted through the
fiber is confined due to total internal reflection within the material. This is an important
property that eliminates signal crosstalk between fibers within the cable and allows the
routing of the cable with twists and turns. In telecommunications applications, the light used
is typically infrared light, at wavelengths near to the minimum absorption wavelength of the
fiber in use.

33
Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels.

Cladding- Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the
core.

Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture.

Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the pair carrying a signal in each
direction, however bidirectional communications is possible over one strand by using two
different wavelengths (colors) and appropriate coupling/splitting devices.

Fibers, like waveguides, can have various transmission modes. The fibers used for long-
distance communication are known as single mode fibers, as they have only one strong
propagation mode. This results in superior performance compared to other, multi-mode
fibers, where light transmitted in the different modes arrives at different times, resulting in
dispersion of the transmitted signal.

34
 Typical single mode fiber optic cables can sustain transmission distances of 80 to 140 km
between regenerations of the signal, whereas most multi-mode fiber has a maximum
transmission distance of 300 to 500 meters.

Single mode equipment is generally more expensive than multi-mode equipment. Fibers used
in telecommunications typically have a diameter of 125 µm. The transmission core of single-
mode fibers most commonly has a diameter of 9 µm, while multi-mode cores are available
with 50 µm or 62.5 µm diameters.
Because of the remarkably low loss and excellent linearity and dispersion behavior of single-
mode optical fiber, data rates of up to 40 gigabits per second are possible in real-world use on
a single wavelength. Wavelength division multiplexing can then be used to allow many
wavelengths to be used at once on a single fiber, allowing a single fiber to bear an aggregate
bandwidth measured in terabits per second.

Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so the performance
of optical networks easily accommodate even today's demands for bandwidth on a point-to-
point basis. However, unused point-to-point potential band width does not translate to
operating profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of the optical fiber buried in recent
years is actually 'lit'.
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications
such as direct burial in trenches, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles,
submarine installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent years the cost of small fiber-
count pole mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean
demand for Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations.
Recent advances in fiber technology have reduced losses so far that no amplification of the
optical signal is needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly
reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost
reliability of amplifiers is one of the key factors determining the performance of the
whole cable system. In the past few years several manufacturers of submarine cable line
terminal equipment have introduced upgrades that promise to quadruple the capacity of older
submarine systems installed in the early to mid 1990s.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER

 Low loss, so repeater-less transmission over long distances is possible

35
 Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching speeds of up to 3TB/s).

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (but can

be damaged by alpha and beta radiation)

 No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop

 High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with
different earth potentials

 Low weight Signals contain very little power.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

 Fibers can be used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs

to be brought to bear on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.

 Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other

parameters.

 Bundles of fibers are used along with lenses for long, thin imaging devices called
endoscopes, which are used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are
used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial
endoscopes (see fiberscope or bore scope) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach,
such as jet engine interiors.

36
 In some high-tech buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other

parts of the building.

 Optical fibers have many decorative applications, including signs and art, articifal Christmas

tree & lighting.

MOUDLE – 3

EXCHANGE

37
 Telephone exchange
)

A telephone operator manually connecting calls with cord pairs at a telephone switchboard.

In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of

electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building
used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone
calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information.

The term exchange area can be used to refer to an area served by a particular switch, but is
typically known as a wire center in the US telecommunications industry. The exchange code
or Central Office Code refers to the first three digits of the local number (NXX). It is
sometimes confused with the area code (NPA). In the United States, local exchange areas
together make up a legal entity called local access and transport areas (LATA) under the
Modification of Final Judgment (MFJ).

38
 Manual service exchanges

With manual service, the customer lifts the receiver off-hook and asks the operator to
connect the call to a requested number. Provided that the number is in the same central office,
the operator connects the call by plugging into the jack on the switchboard corresponding to
the called customer's line. If the call is to another central office, the operator plugs into the

39
trunk for the other office and asks the operator answering (known as the "inward" operator) to
connect the call.

Most urban exchanges were common-battery, meaning that the central office provided power
for the telephone circuits, as is the case today. In common-battery systems, the pair of wires
from a subscriber's telephone to the switch (or manual exchange) carry -48VDC (nominal)
from the telephone company end, across the conductors. The telephone presents an open
circuit when it is on-hook or idle. When the subscriber goes off-hook, the telephone puts a
DC resistance short across the line. In manual service, this current flowing through the off-
hook telephone flows through a relay coil actuating a buzzer and lamp on the operator's
switchboard. The buzzer and lamp would tell an operator the subscriber was off-hook
(requesting service).[10]

In the largest U.S. cities, it took many years to convert every office to automatic equipment,
such as panel switches. During this transition period, it was possible to dial a manual number
and be connected without requesting an operator's assistance. This was because the policy of
the Bell System was that customers should not need to know whether they were calling a
manual or automated office. If a subscriber dialed a manual number, an inward operator
would answer the call, see the called number on a display device, and manually connect the
call. For instance, if a customer calling from TAylor 4725 dialed a manual number, ADams
1233, the call would go through, from the subscriber's perspective, exactly as a call to
LEnnox 5813, in an automated exchange.

In contrast to the common-battery system, smaller towns with manual service often had
magneto, or crank, phones. Using a magneto set, the subscriber turned a crank to generate
ringing current, to gain the operator's attention. The switchboard would respond by dropping
a metal tab above the subscriber's line jack and sounding a buzzer. Dry cell batteries
(normally two large "No 6" cells) in the subscriber's telephone provided the DC power for
conversation.

Magneto systems were in use in one American small town, Bryant Pond, Woodstock, Maine
as late as 1983. In general, this type of system had a poorer call quality compared to
common-battery systems.

Many small town magneto systems featured party lines, anywhere from two to ten or more
subscribers sharing a single line. When calling a party, the operator would use a distinctive
ringing signal sequence, such as two long rings followed by one short. Everyone on the line
could hear the rings, and of course could pick up and listen in if they wanted. On rural lines
which were not connected to a central office (thus not connected to the outside world),
subscribers would crank the correct sequence of rings to reach their party.

40
Circuit Diagram

41
The analogue circuitry comprises the following parts:

Call sensor

Originating loop

Destination loop

Transmission bridge

Tone generator

Ring Trip

Call sensor

When the exchange is idle, power is applied to the call sensor via a TLP598G photo-relay.
The sensor comprises 8 CNX35U opto-isolators - one for each line. When an extension is
lifted "off-hook", its associated opto-isolator asserts a sense line. If only one sense line is
asserted, the controller latches the binary code of the originating extension and initiates a call.
The call sensor is powered-down until the end of the call.

Originating Loop

The calling line is connected to the originating loop by an opto-triac. Loop current flows
through transformer T1 secondary, and through the CNX35U loop status opto-isolator which
detects dialling pulses and, ultimately, hang-up.

A small time delay is allowed for things to settle down before dial tone is delivered
to the caller via the primary of transformer T1. If the loop is not closed at the end of the time
delay, the exchange reverts to the idle state.

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Destination loop

The called extension is connected to the destination loop by an opto-triac. There are two
paths through the loop: for DC only via transformer T2 and a TLP598G photo-relay; and for
AC via the AC ringing generator and a TLP3043 opto-triac. The paths are switched
alternately producing the required ring-ring effect interspersed with silence. The 598 and
3043 light emitting diodes are connected back-to-back as a safety interlock. The TLP3043
contains a zero-crossing circuit to ensure a clean switch.

Ring Trip

The ringing voltage applied to the line is that of the ringing generator plus a DC offset. The
average voltage equals the DC supply. Only AC can flow during ringing because telephone
bells are AC coupled. Answering creates a DC path through the telephone allowing DC to
flow.

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The 47-ohm resistor samples the line current. The voltage across it is low-pass filtered to
attenuate the AC component. When the call is answered, the DC component operates the
BC640 PNP transistor which asserts the Trip input to the controller. A high voltage PNP
transistor is required. The BC640 has a VCEO of 80V.

Transmission bridge

The secondaries of transformers T1 and T2, and the 2µ2 coupling capacitor form the
transmission bridge. The transformers act as low frequency chokes, passing DC to the carbon
microphones whilst presenting a high impedance to audio frequencies.

The transformers were salvaged from an old cordless telephone. Similar types can
also be found in modems and other mains-powered telephone appliances.

The primary of T1 is connected to the tone generator. The primary of T2 could be used for
an outside line facility.

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Tone generator

The tone generator takes up approximately one quarter of the analogue board area. It was felt
that high quality sinusoidal tones were worth having. Square waves and /or 50Hz mains hum
sound unpleasant and are not user-friendly. This little exchange sounds like the real thing!

An LM324 quad op-amp generates three independent sine waves. The fourth amplifier is
used as a supply splitter to generate a 2.5V virtual earth. Wien bridge oscillators are used
with a simple diode shaping circuit to control the amplitude. The resultant harmonic
distortion is minimised by adjustment of the presets and by subsequent low pass filtering.

The tones are coupled to the originating loop via transformer T1. An emitter follower drives
the primary. The required tone combination is selected using a 4016 quad bilateral switch. To
prevent clicks, the 2.5V virtual earth is connected in the gaps between rings. When all the
switches are off, the emitter follower goes tri-state and thus does not load the speech path.

Controller

The controller, comprising 3 programmable logic devices (PLDs) plus discrete HCMOS,
occupies an entire eurocard. RC delays and Schmitt triggers are used for timing. I would use
a single chip micro-controller if I were making more than one of these!

The Atmel ATF16V8B PLDs were programmed using the Atmel version of WinCUPL
downloaded from www.atmel.com for free.

The master PLD is a state machine with the following states:

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Idle 111 7

Off-hook 011 3

Dial tone 010 2

Dialling 001 1

Ringing 110 6

Answered 000 0

Engaged 101 5

Unobtainable 100 4

46
IC INSIDE

47
 MOUDLE – 4

NETWORKING

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 RAILNET

The Indian Railways is Asia's largest and the world's second largest rail network.
Adopting e-Governance in right earnest and to reap the benefit of IT explosion, Indian
Railways have established a 'Corporate Wide Information System' (CWIS) called
RAILNET.

It provides smooth flow of information on demand for administrative purposes, which would

enable taking quicker and better decisions?

Realizing the important role that information plays in customer services and in
railways operations, IR had embarked on its computerization program. IR developed
dedicated skeletal communication network, as a basic requirement for train operation.

After the early introduction of basic computer applications e.g. Pay rolls, Inventory
Control and Operating Statistics, Railways went for deployment of computers for
productivity improvement through building up operational databases.

IVRS

(INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM)

Interactive voice response (IVR) is a technology that allows a computer to interact with
humans through the use of voice and DTMF keypad inputs.

In telecommunications, IVR allows customers to interact with a company’s database via a

telephone keypad or by speech recognition, after which they can service their own inquiries
by following the IVR dialogue. IVR systems can respond with prerecorded or dynamically
generated audio to further direct users on how to proceed. IVR applications can be used to
control almost any function where the interface can be broken down into a series of simple
interactions. IVR systems deployed in the network are sized to handle large call volumes.

49
IVR technology is also being introduced into automobile systems for hands-free operation.
Current deployment in automobiles revolves around satellite navigation, audio and mobile
phone systems.

It has become common in industries that have recently entered the telecommunications
industry to refer to an automated attendant as an IVR. The terms, however, are distinct and
mean different things to traditional

telecommunications professionals, whereas emerging telephony and VoIP professionals often

use the term IVR as a catch-all to signify any kind of telephony menu, even a basic automated
attendant. The term voice response unit (VRU), is sometimes used as well.

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PRS – PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM

Reserved travel by Indian Railways is facilitated by the Passenger Reservation System (PRS).
PRS provides reservation services to nearly 1.5 to 2.2 million passengers a day on over 2500
trains running throughout the country. The PRS Application CONCERT (Country-wide
Network of Computerized Enhanced Reservation and Ticketing) is the world’s largest online
reservation application, developed and maintained by CRIS. The system currently operates
from 5 Data centers. The server clusters are connected together by a core network that
enables universal terminals across country, through which the travelling public can reserve a
berth on any train, between any pair of station for any date and class.

PRS web site was awarded Web Ratna Platinum Icon Award in year 2009 under Citizen
Centric Service category. PRS application has been awarded by Computer Society of India
for best IT usage in the year 1999. If you have any further questions or suggestions email us
at prs@cris.org.in.

ROUTER

A router is a device that forwards data packets between telecommunications networks,

creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from
different networks. When data comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address
information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in
its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey or
drops the packet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through
networks that constitute the internetwork until it gets to its destination node.[1]

The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data,
such as web pages and email, between the home computers and the owner's cable or DSL
modem, which connects to the Internet (ISP). However more sophisticated routers range from
enterprise routers, which connect large business or ISP networks up to the powerful core
routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone.

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A PICTURE OF ROUTER-BY CISCO

52
 REFERENCE

1. Books –

 MTRC , form Indian Railway Institute of Signal and Telecom,

SECUNDRABAD.
 Signal And Telecom , from Indian Railway Institute of Signal and
Telecom, SECUNDRABAD.

2. Website-

 www.iriset/ebooks/htm
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.Railnet.com
 www.indianrailway/organization/htm

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