THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

OF WIND POWER
Results from 2005 – 2007
within the Vindval research programme
 Orders
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Production
TEXT: Anna Norlin

DESIGN: IdéoLuck AB

PRINT: CM Gruppen AB

PHOTO: Hans Blomberg, cover photo, 21.

Ulf Huett Nilsson/Johner, 4.
Thord Norman, 6, 16. Matton, 10.
Ljudmiljögruppen, University of Gothenburg, 13.
Björn Fagerholm, 18. Ulla Falkdalen, 22.
Anders Tukler, 30. Matton, 34.
 THE ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF WIND POWER
Results from 2005 – 2007
within the Vindval research programme

SWEDISH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

 Preface
Our future energy supply faces multiple challenges. Electricity produc-
tion is one of the leading causes of the world’s climate and environmental
problems. If carbon dioxide emissions from the energy sector are to be
reduced, investment in alternative energy sources is a necessity, and wind
power has an important role to play.
The EU has set a goal for its member states to generate 20 percent of
their energy needs from renewable sources by 2020. To achieve this goal,
Sweden plans to expand wind power as an energy source. Sweden’s current
long-term goal is to reach a wind power capacity of 10TWh a year by 2015.
At the end of 2007, at the request of the Swedish Government, the Swedish
Energy Agency proposed a new goal for the expansion of wind power up
to 2020. The proposal would mean a significant increase in wind power
production, from 10TWh in 2015 to 30TWh in 2020. The proposed new
goal for wind power construction has not yet been adopted by the Riksdag.
At the end of 2007, based on numbers of green certificates issued,
Sweden had 860 wind turbines which generated a total of 1.4TWh of elec-
tricity. To achieve an annual production of 30TWh the number of wind
turbines would need to increase to between 3000 and 6000, depending on
capacity. Hence we may expect a rapid expansion of wind power in Sweden
in coming years if the planning goal is adopted.
In the course of the planning process ahead of a decision to build a wind
farm, the operator must investigate its impact on the environment. Vindval’s
task is to facilitate the growth of wind power by compiling background
data for environmental impact statements and permit application processes,
based on the results of scientific studies.
The present booklet presents results and ongoing research in the Vindval
programme. It opens with a summary of the relevant fields of research,
which are then described in greater detail. If you would like to know more
about the project areas we recommend that you consult the reports (see
Literature and References). We hope you find The Environmental Impact of
Wind Power rewarding reading.

Vindval i februari 2008

Kjell Grip Kerstin Jansbo

Chair, Vindval Programme Manager,
Programme Committee Vindval

2
Contents
Preface 2
The Vindval research programme 5
Research within Vindval provides knowledge
about the environmental consequences of wind power 7
Vindval facilitates the planning processes 9
– interview with Alexandra Norén, The Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency and Programme Committee for Vindval

How wind power affects humans 11

The sound created by wind turbines differs in sparsely
populated and densely populated areas 12
– interview with Eja Pedersen, researcher
Collaborations in Wind Power Projects 14
Vindval’s work is important for the establishment of future wind turbines 15
– interview with Robert Johannesson, The National Board of Housing,
Building and Planning and Programme Committee for Vindval

How wind power affects life in the sea 17

How does offshore wind power affect fish and fishing? 19
– interview with Lena Bergström, researcher and Håkan Westerberg,
The Swedish Board of Fisheries and Programme Committee for Vindval

How wind power affects birds and bats 23

We now know more about how birds see wind turbines 25
– interview with Jan Pettersson, researcher
Birds in mountain areas 26
As interest in wind power increases, more knowledge is required 28
– interview with Ingegärd Widerström, County Administrative Board
for Kalmar County and Programme Committee for Vindval
Planned wind farms 29

Wind power in Sweden 31

The research provides invaluable knowledge about the environmental
consequences of wind power 33
– interview with Lars Andersson, coordinator of issues relating
to wind power at the Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and
Communications and Expert Panel for Vindval

International outlook 35

More knowledge is still needed 38

Literature and References 39

3
4
The Vindval research
programme
Wind power is a renewable energy source that has huge, global environmental
benefits. It does not cause environmentally hazardous emissions and it uses a
resource that is infinite and free. All that we currently know about wind power
shows that it has a low, local impact on the environment.

At the same time, it is important from an environmental point of view for

wind farms to be positioned in optimal locations and for people living nearby
to feel part of the process to establish the farms. Therefore, it is necessary
to have reliable and scientific data. Compiling this basic data is one of the
Vindval research programme’s tasks.

Facilitate the expansion of wind power

Vindval’s objective is to facilitate an increase in the expansion of wind power
by compiling basic data for environmental impact assessments (EIA) and
permit application processes. Research within Vindval helps compile know-
ledge about how wind power affects plants and animals in the marine environ-
ment, how the landscape is affected and what effect it has on people.
Vindval will also contribute to the increase of competence in and know-
ledge about the environmental effects of wind power at Swedish universities,
colleges, institutes and companies. A collective national awareness is impor-
tant in order to urge on the general development of offshore wind power in
Sweden. This is currently the starting point for Vindval’s work.

Focus so far on offshore wind power

Vindval started in 2005 and will continue until 2009. Today, 18 projects
within the programme have been granted funds. Vindval will possibly be
extended and, if it does continue, new projects will start up in 2008. The
Swedish Energy Agency finances Vindval and has commissioned the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency to run the programme.
Vindval’s work is being conducted at planned and launched wind farms,
so-called pilot farms, supported by the Swedish Energy Agency. If Vindval

5
 is extended, the research and development projects within Vindval will be
conducted in parallel with the farms established during the continuation of
the pilot project between 2008 and 2012.
Studies of the environmental effects of offshore wind power will, hence-
forth, be up-to-date. If Vindval continues after 2009, the focus will also be
on the studies of the effects of land-based wind power. There is also a requi-
rement to carry out wind-related studies that are disconnected from the pilot
farms, such as multi-disciplinary studies within behavioural sciences and
social research.

Vindval – a model for continued research

In the government bill on wind power “Miljövänlig el med vindkraft
– åtgärder för ett livskraftigt vindbruk” (Environmental-friendly electricity
with wind power – measures for the viable use of wind), Vindval is described
as a model for the continued research on the environmental effects of wind
power by the Swedish Energy Agency as well as the Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency. The government also stresses the importance of munici-
palities, county administrative boards and other authorities actively contribu-
ting to improved conditions for the planning of locally rooted, renewable and
long lasting electricity production from wind.
Included in Vindval’s task is the distribution of information. The aim of
this report is to explain what Vindval stands for, what results have emerged
and to describe the research that is being conducted. Our hope is that the
information will be of help to politicians and decision-makers, to adminis-
trators and investigators within municipalities and on county administrative
boards and for various job types within the wind power industry.

6
Research within Vindval provides
knowledge about the environmental
consequences of wind power
Vindval helps compile more knowledge about how wind power affects
plants and animals in the marine environment, how the landscape is
affected and what effect it has on people.

Why do researchers within Vindval study how some species and not others
are affected by wind power? There are several reasons, economical and
ecological. For example, the species that are studied can be commercially
important. Any environmental changes can be hugely significant economi-
For example, more
cally for these species from a broad social perspective or for a certain job
people living in the
type. Some species are so-called key species in the food chains. This means
that any type of impact that causes these species to change in any way will countryside expe-
also affect other species in the food chains. Again, other species can possess rience disturbance
such qualities that are particularly interesting to study. For example, they than those that live in
can be benthic fish, fish particularly sensitive to sound, habitat-forming residential or densely
algae and important food organisms. populated areas.

How are people affected?

Environmental medicine research within Vindval shows that few people are
disturbed by the sound coming from wind turbines. However, a person’s
living environment is one of the factors that influence the extent of the
disturbance. For example, more people living in the countryside experience
disturbance than those that live in residential or densely populated areas.
A likely explanation for this is that the environment in densely populated
areas is more disorganised, both visually and in terms of noise, than in the
countryside where the sound coming from wind turbines can be made out
much clearer.
Two different research projects relating to people’s attitudes and accep-
tance of wind turbines being established are currently being conducted
within Vindval. In one of the projects, it is being studied how the various
methods and strategies for planning and communication relating to the
establishment of wind turbines influence the local population’s attitude
towards wind power. The other project identifies the different actors’ stra-
tegies in order to overcome opposition and gain more support from the
local population.

7
 How is life in the sea affected?
Knowledge about life in the sea and the environment that exists under the
surface of the water is still lacking in relation to other environments. Yet,
we know that the marine ecosystems have a rich diversity of species and
genetic variation. The marine ecosystems are affected by both a natural
course of events and human activities. All forms of human activity have
an impact on the environment. Wind power is a relatively new activity,
whose impact on the environment has not long been scientifically studied.
Maintaining the ecosystems’ natural structure, function and productivity
is fundamental in marine administration. An understanding of the factors
that trigger changes in the ecosystems is required for this work. Even if
research until now has shown that the impact of wind power on life in the
sea appears to be minor, the effects of a wind farm must be placed in rela-
tion to another form of impact that already exists so that the effects can be
assessed in comparison to each other. This is why environmental testing is
Studies show that necessary.
the risk of small According to a research project within Vindval, which studies how
migratory birds and sound affects the marine environment, predatory fish, such as perch, trout
seabirds colliding with and roach, are not particularly sensitive to sound and are thought not to be
offshore wind turbines disturbed by sound coming from wind turbines. Some benthic organisms,
is very low. such as the Limfjord oyster, are also thought not to be affected by the
sound of wind power either.
A larger research project is currently being conducted within Vindval
about the effects of offshore wind power on fish and fishing. One of the
questions at issue is to study whether the foundations of the wind turbines
act as an artificial reef that attracts fish to it or whether the fish avoid the
area surrounding the wind turbines due to the fact that they are disturbed
by the sound coming from the farms.

How are birds and bats affected?

Studies show that the risk of small migratory birds and seabirds colliding
with offshore wind turbines is very low. As a rule, seabird flocks tend to
keep their distance from wind turbines – at an average distance of 1.4 kilo-
metres in good daytime visibility.
However, there is some risk of bats colliding with the rotor blades, but
this can be redressed by positioning the turbines correctly and possibly
stopping the turbines when the wind blows at less than 4 metres per
second.
A study within Vindval shows that birds can clearly see wind turbines,
better than people, especially at short distances. Research about the effect
of wind power on birds in a mountain environment is another project
currently in progress. Detailed territory mapping and direct observations
have been carried out that will constitute comparative material for conti-
nued studies once wind parks have been erected.

8
Interview with Alexandra Norén:
Vindval facilitates
the planning processes
What are your expectations of Vindval and the
research being pursued within the programme?
– The objective is to compile scientific facts about
the environmental effects of wind power and to
facilitate the work with environmental conse-
quence descriptions making permit application
processes quicker and more reliable. Vindval will
also be a meeting place and a forum for researchers
where new research can be initiated – this is also
important. We will gain an increased understan-
ding about attitudes towards wind power and we
will be able to draw conclusions about how esta-
blishing wind turbines can be handled better and
facilitated. It is my expectation that these three
objectives will be fulfilled.
How do you think you have succeeded so far
in fulfilling these objectives?
– I think that Vindval has come a long way if you
look at the studies that have been reported. It is
already clear that Vindval plays an important role
in the planning process. For example, the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency refers to Vindval
when we comment on matters concerning the esta-
blishment of wind turbines.
Can Vindval contribute to a more comprehensive
shared view amongst authorities when it comes to
the environmental effects of wind power?
– Yes, I really hope so. We must take our task
seriously and use the results that emerge as a star-
ting point. Research thus far has shown that wind
power generally has a very limited local impact on
the environment, which can be very positive. For
example, the foundations of offshore turbines can
act as artificial reefs.
Alexandra Norén, handles issues
relating to wind power at the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency and
is a member of Vindval’s Programme
Committee
What are your visions for Vindval?
– We need to distribute the results from Vindval
to an even greater extent to county administrative
boards, municipalities and the wind power indu-
stry. Facts must be conveyed in an educational and
easy-to-understand manner. Those who deal with
planning, permit applications and expansion must
have access to concrete results that facilitate the
assessment of correct positioning for wind turbi-
nes. It is also interesting to know how any nega-
tive environmental consequences can be avoided or
reduced.
How do you see the future development
of Vindval?
– I believe it is time to focus more on the research
of wind parks on land, not least in the mountains
where the wind can blow as much as at sea. We
should be able to evaluate where wind power can
be coordinated with others interests such as hou-
sing, culture, environmental protection, outdoor
life, tourism and reindeer farming. I would also
like to see more research concerning people’s atti-
tudes. People’s participation in the decision making
process and good support for the establishment of
wind turbines amongst the local population is a
central issue and we must think long-term. Esta-
blishing turbines in the wrong place can change
people’s attitude and in time have an effect on the
expansion of wind power – people’s confidence is
easily damaged and takes a long time to rebuild.
9
10
How wind power
affects humans
How do different methods of working influence the general public’s attitudes
to wind power projects in the sea? Researchers ask themselves this general
question in one of Vindval’s projects.

Which methods and strategies for planning and communication that wind
power developers, politicians and civil servants, on a local and regional level,
adhere to has been studied within the project. How local and regional media
report about the plans and development concerning the wind parks being
studied is also analysed within the project.1

Comparison of acceptance
The researchers make comparisons between various places where the general
public has shown different levels of acceptance in relation to offshore wind
power. The municipalities of Torsås, Mörbylånga in Kalmar County and
Skurup in Skåne County are included in the study. The wind power projects
included are Utgrunden I, Utgrunden II, Yttre Stengrund and Trolleboda in
southern Kalmarsund. The Abbekås project is being studied in Skurup muni-
cipality (the project was put on ice in 2002). Lillgrund in Malmö municipality
is also included as an object of comparison.
How the different actors’ work, in relation to the general public and indu-
stry and trade, continues in the places where wind turbines are being esta-
blished will be followed up within the research project. In this way, the study
highlights both the time before and after the establishment of offshore wind
turbines.2 Results from the study are expected in 2009.3

1
The research project is entitled “Lokala förankringsprocesser vid vindkraftsetablering”
(Local support processes when establishing wind turbines). The researchers are Lars
Aronsson and Sanna Mels at the University of Kalmar.
2
Since Utgrunden II in Kalmarsund has been postponed, it is only included in the
preliminary study.
3
The project is being managed in close cooperation with Mikael Klintman and Åsa Waldo
at Lund University and their project entitled “Collaborations in Wind Power Projects”.
The cooperation will also end in a joint synthesis report.

11
 Interview with Eja Pedersen:
The sound created by
wind turbines differs in
sparsely populated and
densely populated areas
Few people are disturbed by the sound coming
from wind turbines. This is Eja Pedersen’s
observation, researcher within Vindval, who has
studied how people react to sound coming from
wind turbines and presented the results in a
doctoral thesis within Environmental Medicine in
2007. 4
There is a fear amongst the general public that the
sound coming from wind turbines is disturbing.
Therefore, an aim of Eja Pedersen’s study was to
find out how common it is for people living in the
vicinity of wind farms to be disturbed by them. The
study is the first of its type and fills a knowledge
gap since, previously, the studies focused mostly on
people’s attitudes towards wind power.
“I realised that data about how people are affec-
ted by the sound was missing and this is data that
is required for environmental consequence descrip-
tions, for example. An objective and systematic
foundation was missing”, explains Eja Pedersen.
Relatively low sound level
Eja Pedersen’s research describes what proportion
of the residents in the vicinity of wind turbines are
disturbed by various sound levels, which factors
influence the disturbance and whether the sound
affects people’s health. The study is based on two
questionnaire investigations and in-depth interviews
4
Eja Pedersen (2007) Human response to wind turbine noise. Perception, annoyance and moderating factors, University
of Gothenburg.
5
The guidelines apply at 8 metres per second at a height of 10 metres with a tailwind.
12
Eja Pedersen, researcher within
Environmental Medicine who,
within Vindval, has studied how
sound coming from wind turbines
affects people
with 15 people. Several areas in southern Sweden
have been included in the study: Laholm, Tjörn,
Öckerö, Lysekil, Varberg, Landskrona and Simris-
hamn among others. Different types of landscape,
from flat agricultural landscape to more hilly and
complex terrain as well as housing in rural areas,
suburbs and residential areas have been studied.
In Sweden, wind turbines must be positioned
so that the sound that reaches the local residents
does not exceed 40 decibels.5 This is a low sound
level when compared to other sources of noise such
as cars, aeroplanes and trains. Most of the local
residents in the study did not consider the sound
coming from wind turbines as being disturbing.
However, it was shown that people’s living envi-
ronment influences the disturbance experienced.
When asked, about five per cent of those living in a
varied landscape and in residential areas said that
they felt disturbed by a sound level of just under 40
decibels, while a good ten per cent of those living
in a flat landscape in the countryside felt disturbed
by the same sound level.
“In densely populated areas, those asked expe-
rienced, in principle, no disturbance at all from
the sound of wind power. The explanation can be
that this environment is disorganised, both visually
and in terms of noise. In the countryside, there is
open landscape and straight lines with the sound of
nature in the background”, explains Eja Pedersen.
Eja Pedersen has studied the impact of noise on people in the city and the country.
A caravan with a sound level meter attached.
Greater sound disturbance if the turbine
can be seen
The irregular sound of the rotor blades that continu-
ally increases and decreases in strength is a particu-
lar character of the sound of wind power that is per-
ceived especially well by the ear and can therefore
be considered disturbing. This sound is not as easily
concealed in the countryside where the background
noise level is low. People’s expectations of the living
environment can also play a part. Many people have
settled in the countryside for the peace and quiet and
therefore experience the sound as being more distur-
bing. The visual impression of wind turbines is also
significant. The risk of disturbance increases if the
wind turbine can be seen from where you live.
– The eye is naturally drawn towards move-
ment, which can mean that the sound becomes
much easier to notice. It can also be that if the wind
turbine cannot be seen, there may be a building in
between, which in itself dampens the sound”, says
Eja Pedersen.
– One of the questions that the research sought
an answer to was if there were any health risks
linked to the sound coming from wind turbines.
Any such direct link could not be found.
“However, some of the people who felt distur-
bed by wind turbines could experience reduced
well-being”, says Eja Pedersen.
Eja Pedersen’s research shows that there are pla-
ces that are less sensitive to disturbance than what
we had previously thought, such as more urban
environments. Today, wind turbines are most often
positioned in areas as isolated as possible, but the
study shows that it is the residents in these environ-
ments that risk becoming disturbed the most. Eja
Pedersen is now continuing to conduct similar stu-
dies in The Netherlands, which will provide some
interesting comparative material.
13
 Collaborations in Wind Power Projects
The planning and establishing process of wind turbines often involves
huge challenges when it comes to the coordination between the
population, Decision-makers and contractors. One of the challenges
is finding the right location – from a technical, ecological and human
perspective. This applies not least to the offshore and inshore wind
turbines.

Research is currently being conducted within Vindval to identify strategies

in order to overcome any opposition that may arise during the construction
of wind turbines. Knowledge about the obstacles that arise from the various
actors’ attitudes to the establishment of wind turbines will be used to develop
strategies in order to support the establishment of wind turbines better and
to facilitate the process of finding suitable locations for wind parks.6

Coordination between actors

The project follows the establishment of Lillgrund in Öresund and
Utgrunden II in Kalmarsund where the coordination between various
actors is being studied. Local politicians, civil servants, representatives for
wind power companies, special interest organisations and the local popu-
lation in the areas concerned are interviewed. The establishment of wind
turbines is followed over time in order to study which conceptions the
various actors have before, during and immediately after the establishment
of the turbine.7

National and international research is compared

Within the project, an international outlook is also conducted where local
experiences from the establishment of wind turbines in various places in
Europe are gathered together to form a joint analysis. Previous research
projects concerning the establishment of wind turbines have often been
initiated locally. There lacks comparative international overviews of the
local establishment of wind turbines, especially when it comes to offshore
wind turbines. The knowledge inventory will provide an overview relating
to which conclusions have been drawn in Swedish and international social
and behavioural scientific research with regards to people’s conceptions of
wind turbines on land and at sea. Results are expected at the end of 2008.

6
The research project is entitled “Collaborations in Wind Power Projects”. The project
leaders are Mikael Klintman and Åsa Waldo, Lund University.
7
Utgrunden II is only included in the preliminary study.

14
Interview with Robert Johannesson:
Vindval’s work is important
for the establishment
of future wind turbines
Even if it can be said that wind power generally
does not have a particularly large impact on the
environment, it does not make sense to turn a
blind eye towards the difficulties that can exist.
It is better to learn about objective knowledge.
Robert Johannesson believes that Vindval has
already created such knowledge.
What realistic opportunities have Vindval for
contributing to a better foundation for planning
work relating to wind power?
– The results that have already come from Vindval
will be hugely important when it comes to assessing
wind power projects in the future. For example, I
think about the study relating to birds in Kalmar-
sund and the research concerning bats. Both pro-
jects provide important knowledge, making it pos-
sible to say that, thus far, wind power has not had
any fundamental impact on seabirds as concerns
population level and that we must take bats into
special consideration during the localisation and
construction of the farms.
How do you think Vindval has succeeded so far
in fulfilling its objectives?
– I am positively surprised and hope that Vindval
provides more results along the same lines. Unam-
biguous and clear results are good as a basis for
decisions. Increased knowledge provides the opp-
ortunities for positioning the wind turbines cor-
rectly.
Robert Johannesson, investigator for
the National Board of Housing, Building
and Planning, member of Vindval’s
Programme Committee
What do you think about the generalisability
of Vindval’s results?
– I am amazed at how Vindval’s research is as close
to the field of application as it is. However, gene-
ralisability can be a little difficult to assess. Some
results are generalisable to a large extent, such as
those relating to seabirds, whilst others are proba-
bly more local. For example, research concerning
people’s attitudes can be difficult to generalise since
attitudes can change and are dependent on time
and place. In other words, there is a wide span of
results including everything from results that are
largely generalisable across the world to results
that are of more local or regional interest. Even
if some results cannot be directly applied in other
places, the research can still provide a vital hint as
to whether a certain aspect is important enough to
take a closer look at. For example, this is the case
concerning bats or the question about how people
perceive a new wind farm.
Which areas should Vindval focus on in the event
of a continuation of the programme in the future?
– It is interesting to look more at how the establish-
ment of wind turbines affects the environment in
forest landscapes in South Sweden and in northern
mountain areas, but not the mountaintops them-
selves. Even if the establishment of offshore wind
turbines is expected to take time, it is still impor-
tant to continue studies explaining the conditions
there. Long time series are often required in order
for the results to be truly reliable. Just because the
establishment of offshore wind turbines takes time,
the prerequisites for accomplishing this now exist.
15
16
How wind power affects
life in the sea
Do perch, trout and roach react to sound coming from wind turbines?
Within Vindval, research is being conducted about how wind power affects
life in the sea in a variety of different areas – one of them being how sound
affects the marine environment.

It deals with how sound from wind turbines affects everything from preda-
tory fish to smaller animals and organisms as well as sea plants.
Previous studies show that organisms in the sea rapidly become
accustomed to the sound and vibrations that wind turbines emit under the
surface of the water. However, there are still a few questions to answer, such
as those relating to the potential effects of stress and escape behaviour.

Certain species of fish are studied

Perch, trout and roach do not appear to be particularly sensitive to the
sound that is produced by wind turbines. This is highlighted by a study
within Vindval that has been carried out in a laboratory. The aim was to
study whether there is any sort of change in behaviour, such as stress and
escape response, when they are subjected to sound corresponding to that
produced by wind turbines.8
The experiment demonstrated that none of the species showed any
response to the sound. Perch and trout were mostly passive, both in the
control environment and in the environment that was subjected to sound.
The roach were more active and swam for most of the time, but their beha-
viour was the same in the control environment as it was in the environment
subjected to sound.9
Frequencies between 6 and 180 hertz were used during the experiments,
corresponding to the lowest peaks in the sound that has been documented

8
The project is entitled “Ljudeffekter av vindkraft på rovfisk” (Effects of the sound of
wind power on predatory fish). The project leader is Ulf Båmstedt at Umeå University.
9
Similar tests are currently being conducted in order to study whether sound from wind
turbines affects the level of stress and food intake of perch and trout. The results will
probably be released in May 2008.

17
 from the wind turbine at Utgrunden I.10 Combined troughs of 1 cubic metre
each were used where the fish could change trough by swimming through a
tube. There was artificial vegetation in the troughs where the fish could seek
cover. A similar trough set-up was used without sound for the control.

Studies of the Limfjord oyster

Neither was the Limfjord oyster considered to be affected by the sound
coming from wind turbines. Preliminary results show that there are not any clear
signs that the sound coming from wind turbines affects the speed with which an
oyster buries or its activity when it comes to searching for nutriment.11
The Limfjord oyster is common in marine soft-bottoms and is an impor-
tant source of food for many species of fish, especially flatfish. The Limfjord
oyster naturally lives buried in the seabed where it feeds on bacteria and
microscopic animals. In the event of danger, the Limfjord oyster buries down
into the sediment in order to seek cover.
The studies of the Limfjord oyster are included in a project where the
behavioural changes and activity patterns of marine benthos are studied
in a laboratory. The aim is to study how sound from wind turbines affects
different benthic organisms. Underwater sound is recreated in the laboratory
by relocating a mechanical sound wave in the water. The acoustic pressure
roughly corresponds to the maximum sound experienced at a distance of
80-100 metres from a wind farm the size of Utgrunden I in Kalmarsund.

Are fish attracted to wind turbine foundations as artificial reefs, or does the
noise drive them away? These are some of the questions that researchers at
Vindval hope to answer

10
Ingemansson 2003.
11
The project is entitled “Vindkraftens effekter av ljud- och ljus på mjukbottenfaunan”
(The effects of sound and light from wind power on the benthos). The project leader
is Åke Granmo.

18
Interview with Lena Bergström and Håkan Westerberg
How does offshore
wind power affect fish
and fishing?
Within Vindval, Lena Bergström and Håkan
Westerberg conduct research on the effects of
offshore wind power on fish when it comes to
sound sensitivity and migration behaviour. A
couple of general questions within the project’s
four study sections are: What are the effects of
offshore wind power on fish and fishing? How is
the migration behaviour of fish affected by the
establishment of wind turbines?
Researchers look at the effects wind power has on
fish that live in the open sea and on fish that live
near the seabed by the coast (pelagic and bottom-
dwelling fish). How the migration behaviour of eels
is affected by the establishment of wind turbines
is also studied. In addition, mapping of important
living environments for fish and of how fish distri-
bute themselves around offshore banks is carried
out. This mapping is carried out with the help of
GIS modelling.12
How are fish affected by the foundations
of wind turbines?
– Two key questions at issue provide us with our
starting point in our research relating to how fish
are affected by wind power; is there a reef effect,
where the foundations of the wind turbines att-
ract fish to them, or is it rather that the fish avoid
the area surrounding the wind turbines due to the
sound coming from the farms”, explains Lena
Bergström, who is a project leader.
Herring is the most common species when it
12
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system for gathering, storing, analysing and presenting
information linked to a location.
comes to fish that live in the open sea. The studies
are carried out in the vicinity of Utgrunden I in Kal-
marsund and in two comparative areas. The met-
hod used is echo sounding. There are still no results
available. The analysis is in progress and a final
report is expected to be ready in 2008. After that,
another project section will be addressed, which
deals with the distribution of fish in the immediate
vicinity of the wind turbines.
The effect of sound on fish
During 2008, another study section will commence
relating to bottom-dwelling fish, where cod and
flatfish are the most common species. This study
will be carried out at Lillgrund in Öresund. The
reef effect contra the sound sensitivity of the fish
will also be studied here. The effect of the sound
of the wind turbines on the fish represents a signi-
ficant knowledge gap for the research within Vind-
val to fill in. Does the sound from wind turbines
that is emitted in the water have a negative impact
on the behaviour of the fish?
– Today, we have too little knowledge about
how fish behave towards sound and if underwater
noise can affect their spawning behaviour and con-
sequently reproduction, believes Lena Bergström.
Fish population is mapped
Another study section within Vindval’s research
relating to fish is the mapping of the population of
fish in the Kattegat with the help of GIS modelling.
The objective is to develop analytical methods in
19
 order to map nature types that are important for
fish, which provide new opportunities and contri-
bute to a better foundation for the planning and
permit application processes concerning offshore
wind power. GIS modelling is a relatively new tech-
nique that is being requested more and more.
– Provisional maps of certain areas in the Kat-
tegat are being developed within the project. The
method provides us with knowledge about the
areas in which there is likely to be most fish and
how the environment looks in these areas. This is
then checked through test fishing with fish traps or
nets, informs Lena Bergström.
The impact of electrical cable
Another knowledge gap for Vindval to fill is how
the migration behaviour of fish is affected by wind
turbines and the electricity transmission cables that
are connected to the turbines. A special study has
been carried out here on the migration behaviour of
eels in relation to AC (Alternative Current) cables
and the potential effects of electromagnetic fields.
Previous studies concerning DC (Direct Current)
cables have shown that the inbuilt compass of the
fish experiences interference due to the electromag-
netic fields that surround the cables. The fish chan-
ges direction in the vicinity of the cable. When the
fish has escaped the field, it returns to its previous
course, but has then shifted sideways.
20
– We wanted to ask the same question concer-
ning AC cables, mostly to be able to rule it out. It
was our initial belief that there would not be any
effect since the earth’s magnetic field does not expe-
rience interference from alternating current in the
same way, where the magnetic field alternates 50
times a second, explains Håkan Westerberg, one of
the project leaders.
Cable studies between Öland and the mainland
The study was carried out on an AC cable between
Öland and the mainland. Four lines with recording
buoys were placed across the strait; north, south
and directly over the cable. A total of 60 silver
eels, tagged with transmitters, were released in two
experiments, slightly north of the buoy lines. In
this way, it could be measured how long it took for
the eels to pass the different buoy lines.
– All the eels that headed south passed through
the area being studied, but the results show that
their average speed was significantly lower through
the interval where the cable lies. There was a delay
of about half an hour, says Håkan Westerberg
– This is not a huge effect and, as a result, not
particularly worrying, rather more intriguing.
Something happens at the AC cable, but we do not
know what it is down to. It is an interesting obser-
vation that should probably be followed up even if
it is not done within Vindval.
21
22
How wind power affects
birds and bats
Vindval projects have studied the impact of wind turbines on birds and
bats. The collision risk for migrating passerines was found to be slight.
Bats hunt insects over the sea, but only when the wind is low. Studies
have also been conducted on birds in mountainous habitats, including an
ongoing study ahead of a wind farm project in Jämtland.

A study within Vindval about how a bird’s eye discerns wind farms shows
that birds see the wind turbines better than people do, especially at short
distances.

Bird’s ability to discern colour contrasts

Despite the fact that visibility varies greatly with weather, time of day,
season as well as direction and distance, the wind turbines’ present choice
of colour seems to be well suited to human observers as well as wild
birds.13 The study is the first of its kind to examine the visibility of offshore
wind turbines based on the bird’s ability to see wind farms. The focus of
the study has been on the bird’s ability to discern colour contrasts. Resear-
chers have studied both short distances, where the birds risk colliding with
the wind turbines, and distances from the coastline.

Offshore wind power and bats

Studies within Vindval show that bats fly over the sea in wind speeds of up
to 10 metres per second, but that the most activity takes place when the
force of the wind is lower than 5 metres per second. The larger species of

13
The project is entitled “Havsbaserad vindenergi ur ett fågelperspektiv: kraftverkens
synlighet för fågelögat” (Offshore wind energy from a bird’s perspective: a bird’s eye
view of the turbines). The project leaders are Anders Ödeen, Uppsala University and
Olle Håstad, University of Bristol.

23
 bat can endure stronger winds, but all species prefer light wind. It is mostly
during calm weather that bats go out to sea in search of nutriment.14
Bats do not avoid wind turbines. On the contrary, they often stop off in
order to hunt insects that gather around the turbine. Ten bat species have
been observed at sea where they go in search of nutriment. Both migra-
tory and stationary species pass or fly out to areas where there are a lot of
insects. It has not previously been known that so many bat species regu-
larly hunt insects far out to sea.15

Vary the starting of the rotor blades

Insects gather around offshore wind turbines when the winds are light
and the weather is fair and bats are tempted to hunt higher up at the same
height as the rotor blades, thus increasing the risk of collision. The study
also shows that some of the species, at least periodically, use wind turbines
as resting places. They can also then become subjected to other risks
For example, this can – inside the generator room, for example.
mean that the wind In order to avoid collisions, a measure that can be introduced for wind
turbines are stopped turbines that have already been built and exist within the bats’ flight path
when the wind speed can be to stop the rotor blades turning. For example, this can mean that
reaches less than 4 the wind turbines are stopped when the wind speed reaches less than 4
metres per second metres per second during that time of year when bat activity is at its grea-
during that time of test. In South Sweden, this is often during the period between 20 July and
year when bat activity 20 September. Since electricity production is negligible during these wind
is at its greatest. conditions, there will be no economic losses to speak of.

The migration route can be registered

Research within Vindval shows that when it comes to migratory bats, the
most important thing to know is the concentrated migration routes during
the autumn. There is knowledge of places around South Sweden’s coasts
that lie in the highly-frequented migration routes of bats. The most concen-
trated migration routes can be defined through observations and with auto-
matic registration.

14
Ahlén, Ingemar et al. (2007) Fladdermöss och havsbaserade vindkraftverk studerade
i södra Skandinavien (Bats and offshore wind turbines studied in southern
Scandinavia). Report No. 5748 of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.
15
Above all, the observations have been made in Kalmarsund, off the Blekinge coast
and in Öresund.

24
Interview with Jan Pettersson:

We now know more Jan Petterson, researches,

within Vindval, about the
about how birds see effects of offshore wind power
on small migratory birds and

wind turbines migratory seabirds

The risk of birds colliding with wind turbines is very flocks are flying at a low height, they start to veer away
low. Ten to twelve birds a year lose their lives at at a longer distance from the rotor blades of the turbi-
Utgrunden’s turbines and that is when about two nes and if they are flying at a higher height, they start to
million pass through the area every year. So says veer away closer to the turbines.
Jan Pettersson, who, within Vindval, researches
about the behaviour of small migratory birds and A bird’s vision is significant
migratory seabirds in Kalmarsund. – I believe that it can have something to do with how
birds discern wind turbines through vision. At a longer
distance and at a lower flying height, the rotor blades of
At Utgrunden’s lighthouse, right in the middle of
the turbine become silhouetted against the horizon and
southern Kalmarsund, there are two marine radar
constitute a greater contrast with the ultraviolet colour
units located. With their help, the height at which small
vision that birds have. They become easier to spot. At
migratory birds and migratory seabirds fly, their avoi-
a higher height, wind turbines are silhouetted against
dance behaviour and where they fly in the strait can be
the sea and can be more difficult to discern, says Jan
documented.
Pettersson.
Jan Pettersson has previously shown in a compre-
Flying behaviour looks different at night-time. In
hensive study that most seabird flocks veer away from
good visibility, the average flying height is considerably
wind turbines in Kalmarsund and Danish studies of
higher than during the day (110 metres) and the flocks
offshore wind power also show similar results.16
start to veer away somewhat later (on average, 413
metres before the turbines).
Connection between flying height and veering away
The height at which small migratory birds and mig-
Consideration for migration route
ratory seabirds fly over the open sea during migration
The basic facts that have been determined concerning
and at what distance the flocks veer away from the
the flying behaviour of migratory birds in Kalmarsund
wind turbines is currently being mapped.
are extremely useful for planning and drawing up envi-
The results show that seabird flocks start to veer to
ronmental consequence descriptions and also for the
the right or the left of Utgrunden’s seven wind turbines
establishment of wind turbines along other sections of
at a long distance away. The average distance from the
Sweden’s coast.
turbines that the flocks start to veer away is a full 1.4
– It is good that the studies are being conducted on a
kilometres – during the day and in good visibility. The
highly-frequented and extensive migration route as the
average flying height for the same conditions is 65 met-
one at Utgrunden. In comparison, the migration route
res above the sea.
in the Bay of Gävle is only about a third as extensive as
Jan Pettersson’s study shows that there is a connec-
those in Kalmarsund, says Jan Pettersson.
tion between the distance at which the flocks start to
veer away and the height at which they fly. When the
16
Pettersson, Jan (2005) Havsbaserade vindkraftverks inverkan på fågellivet i södra Kalmarsund (The impact of offshore
wind farms on bird life in southern Kalmar Sound). Pettersson, Jan (2006) Flyttande små- och sjöfåglar – en förstudie
med lokalradar i Kalmarsund (Small migratory birds and migratory seabirds – a pilot study using local radars in
Kalmarsund), Vindval. Danish offshore wind – key environmental issues (2006) Danish Energy Authority.

25
 Birds in mountain areas
A research project about how birds in mountain environments are affected
by wind turbines is also being conducted within Vindval. Studies are
currently being conducted in Oldfjällen in Jämtland where a wind park is
being planned at Storrun and Frösörun by Övre Oldsjön. Building is set
to start in summer 2008 and the wind park is expected to comprise 12
turbines.

The basic data taken from the bird studies shall be used as a comparison
for what happens with species richness and how the bird population is
affected after the wind park has been erected.17
Direct observations of migratory birds have been made during the birds’
Golden eagles and migration periods and comprehensive inventories of nesting bird fauna
gyrfalcons, which
have been carried out during the breeding season within the mountain
area that is affected by the wind park. Bird-rich wetlands that are part of
are also considered
a neighbouring Natura 2000 site have also been catalogued as well as the
especially vulnerable
gallinaceous birds of an adjoining forest and mountain area, which have
to the expansion of
been catalogued with the help of bird dogs.
wind power in the
mountains,are part of
Important to study the grouse population
a special study using
Studies in Norway show that willow grouse are so vulnerable to collisions
satellite transmitters.
with wind turbines that the local breeding stock can become affected.
Therefore, it is important to study what happens with the grouse popula-
tion once Storrun’s wind park has been put into operation. Golden eagles
and gyrfalcons, which are also considered especially vulnerable to the
expansion of wind power in the mountains, are part of a special study
using satellite transmitters in order to be able to create a map of their
movement patterns.

Species/specimen-poor bird fauna

The results of the studies show that bird fauna in the area is relatively
species/specimen-poor, but correspond with other low mountain areas
with surrounding wetlands. The existence of species worthy of protection
is judged as normal. During territory mapping, 18 territorial species were
found where willow warblers, tree pipits, hedge-sparrows, golden plovers,
redstarts and willow grouse were the most common species. The direct
observations showed that bramblings, meadow pipits, common redpolls
and redwings dominate amongst the birds that are in the area during

17
The project is entitled “Vindparkers påverkan på fågelfaunan i fjällområden”
(The impact of wind parks on bird fauna in mountain areas). The project leader is
Charlotte Boesson.

26
the migration periods. Among the birds of prey and owls that have been
observed in the area, golden eagles, hen harriers, rough-legged buzzards,
merlins, kestrels, gyrfalcons, short-eared owls and hawk owls can be
mentioned.

Eagles are more vulnerable

After one year of using satellite transmitters on gyrfalcons and two years
with transmitters on golden eagles, it appears as if gyrfalcons and young
golden eagles stay for a relatively short period of time in the planned wind
power area during the young bird’s first year, but that they return the follo-
wing year after passing the winter further south and then spend about five
months in the mountains. The study’s material on birds of prey is too small
to draw any general conclusions.
For now, there is too little data about how birds of prey behave in
areas with wind parks, however a lot of studies in the US and Norway
show that birds of prey prove to be especially vulnerable to wind turbines.
There is a reason for assuming that the larger birds of prey, such as eagles,
are more vulnerable than the smaller birds of prey, since the ability to
manoeuvre decreases with increased size and weight.18

18
Follestad, A. et al. (2007) Vindkraft og fugl på Smøla 2003-2006 (Wind power and
birds on Smøla 2003-2006). NINA report 248.
Hunt, W.G et al. (1998) A population study of golden eagles in the Altamont Pass
Wind Resource Area: population trend analysis 1997. Report to National Renewable
Energy Laboratory.

27
 Interview with Ingegärd Widerström:
As interest in wind
power increases, more
knowledge is required
– We are a small cadre working with coastal
counties that have dealt with the expansion
of wind power since the end of the 1980s.
However, for many counties, wind power is a new
phenomenon. It is only in the last few years that
the interest in wind power has increased on a
broader front. This means that there is confusion
and ignorance about what the distribution of
responsibility between authorities and central
plants looks like, for example. In this context,
people wonder what Vindval is all about, explains
Ingegärd Widerström.
What benefits do you expect Vindval to offer when
it comes to developing a better foundation for
planning?
– Clear and concrete results about the environmen-
tal effects of wind power are good for planning and
environmental consequence descriptions – such as,
that people are not generally disturbed by sound
at 35 decibels. The problem is that there is still too
little knowledge about Vindval.
What can be done about it?
– I believe it is important to make an effort to
spread information. More information must be
sent out to municipalities, county administrative
boards and the industry as a whole making it clea-
rer what Vindval stands for and what the aim of
the programme is. Apart from reports from the
studies, Vindval now also has web information,
printed information leaflets and compilations of
research results. These must be heavily distributed.
28
Ingegärd Widerström, County
Architect, County Administrative
Board for Kalmar County,
member of Vindval’s Programme
Committee
We should also participate more actively at confe-
rences and the like. Perhaps the county adminis-
trative boards also need to be better at referring to
Vindval when decisions are reached.
How would you assess the generalisability in
Vindval’s results?
– It exists with a certain amount of modification.
The research must be conducted linked to actual
projects. We cannot research all areas of hard-
ground nor can we ask for people’s opinions in
every municipality. Therefore, it is important to
conduct research on full-scale experiments and
pilot projects. The results must be able to be made
generalisable to as great an extent as possible.
Which fields of research do you think it is
important to bring out more facts about?
– As it looks now, the focus will increasingly be
on the expansion of large wind parks on land.
We have several large parks underway in Kalmar
County – for example, in the municipalities of Tor-
sås, Mönsterås, Hultsfred and Oskarshamn, where
there are plans for parks of 10-15 turbines each and
up to 20-50 turbines located in the forest. In the
event of a continuation of the Vindval programme,
it would be good to include research projects that
address how land-based wind parks affect sur-
rounding forest landscape – for example, relating
to opportunities for continued hunting. There are
also large parks underway in the mountain district,
in Dalarna and along the coast of Norrland, where
research is also required.
Planned wind farms
The map shows projected wind farms with installed capacity exceeding
25MW.

Legend

Under construction

In design
Lakes
Land
Submarine banks

Source: Swedish Energy Agency website. Illustration: Fredric Dahlström, the Swedish Energy Agency

29
30
Wind power in Sweden
At year-end 2007 Swedish wind farms generated 1.4TWh of electric power
a year, around one percent of the country’s total electricity production. The
rate of construction of wind farms in Sweden has speeded up remarkably in
the last three years. From 2005 to 2006 the increase in installed capacity
was 10 percent, while that from 2006 to 2007 was 42.7 percent. For
comparison, the worldwide increase in capacity in 2007 was 26.6 percent.

Nevertheless, the potential for the expansion of wind power in Sweden is

estimated as being very strong. With our long coastline and relatively sparse
population, Sweden has good conditions for exploiting wind as a source
of power. The Parliament has set up objectives for the expansion of wind
power, where the production of 10 TWh of electricity from wind power
should be possible by 2015.
At the end of 2007, at the request of the Swedish Government, the
Swedish Energy Agency proposed a new goal for the expansion of wind
power up to 2020. The proposal would mean a significant increase in wind
power generation, from 10TWh in 2015 to 30TWh in 2020. The proposed
new goal for wind power construction has not yet been adopted by the
Riksdag. 19
The proposal for a new national objective for wind power assumes
that wind power will be heavily extended on land and at sea. The Swedish
Energy Agency estimates that today’s meagre 900 wind turbines must
increase to between 3,000 and 6,000 turbines depending on size. It believes
that two thirds of the planning objective of 30 TWh should be covered by
land-based wind power and one third by offshore wind farms.

Planned expansion at sea

There are already plans for the expansion of offshore wind power correspon-
ding to approximately 10 TWh of electricity. Due to technical and economical
problems, the construction of some of the offshore wind farms has been post-
poned until a later date. Utgrunden II in Kalmarsund, which will consist of 24

19
The proposed goal for wind power construction 2020 (2007) Report ER 2007:45 the
Swedish Energy Agency.

31
 wind turbines that are estimated to produce approximately 0.285 TWh per
year, is an example of this. Kriegers Flak in the southern part of the Baltic Sea
is another large wind farm that is being planned. The wind farm comprises
128 wind turbines with an estimated yearly production of 2.1 TWh.
Lillgrund, on the other hand, which is located to the south east of the
Öresund Bridge, approximately 7 kilometres from the Swedish coast, has
been ready since October 2007. With its 48 turbines, Lillgrund is Sweden’s
largest wind farm and the third largest offshore wind farm in the world. Lill-
grund has the capacity to produce 0.33 TWh of renewable electricity per year.
This is the equivalent of the electricity required for over 60,000 homes.

Planned expansion on land

Today, there are also plans for several large wind parks on land. Svevind
want to build the world’s largest wind park in the deserted forests of Piteå
municipality, which, when fully developed, can account for 8 TWh of
Lillgrund has the electricity, which is the equivalent of the electricity produced by a nuclear
capacity to produce power plant. Vattenfall and Sveaskog have plans for a large wind power
0.33 TWh of venture in five counties in southern Sweden. The plans include 550 wind
renewable electricity turbines with a total power output of 1,500 MW.
per year. This is the In 2006, the government’s first bill on wind power was issued, emphasi-
equivalent of the sing the increased significance of wind power in the Swedish energy system.
electricity required for One of the measures for facilitating the increased expansion of wind power
over 60,000 homes. is that the government has appointed four regional wind power coordina-
tors. Their task is to strengthen the interaction between wind power project
managers, authorities and other actors on a central, regional and local
level. The aim is to create the conditions for a large-scale expansion of wind
power so that the political energy objectives can be achieved.
The wind power coordinators will act as instigators in ongoing processes
and emphasise wind power in various contexts. They should also assist
wind power project managers when necessary and contribute to the work
by directing larger wind parks.

National network for wind usage

In the budget proposal for 2007, the government also proposes that a
national network for wind usage should be created in 2008. The network
shall receive financial support in order to make specific investments in wind
power and to reinforce the build up of knowledge and facilitate coordina-
ting efforts when it comes to information and knowledge issues concerning
wind power. An important task is to take charge of ongoing and newly esta-
blished regional initiatives of national importance. A budget of 20 million
Swedish kronor a year is planned for 2008 and 2009 in order to promote
the expansion of wind power. It is proposed that the Swedish Energy
Agency takes responsibility for the network.20

20
Budget prop. 2007/08:1 p.76-77.

32
Interview with Lars Andersson:
The research provides invaluable knowledge about
the environmental consequences of wind power
– For politicians and civil servants on a central
level it is invaluable to obtain research reports in
order to explain what is relevant. It is important
to be rid of apprehension and, instead, have
information about what the environmental
impact of wind power actually is. It is good
when clear results are obtained, such as
those relating to seabirds and bats, says Lars
Andersson, coordinator of issues relating to wind
power at the Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and
Communications and Expert Panel for Vindval.
What are your expectations of the research
within Vindval?
– Vindval has focused on offshore wind power and
covers this area well. Some of the planned offshore
wind power expansion projects have now been post-
poned due to economical and technical reasons. This
means that perhaps we need more research on land-
based wind power. For example, how it affects birds
of prey and reindeer husbandry. It is important to
elicit clear information and perform mapping even
if my guess is that wind power does not have such a
great impact.
What is your perception of the generalisability
of Vindval’s results?
– The generalisability is good to a certain extent. For
example, the results from the research on bats and
birds have revealed a lot and these results are easy
to generalise.
How can regional wind power coordinators benefit
from Vindval’s research?
– They value Vindval’s work and benefit greatly
from the results that are obtained, particularly in
their contact with the county administrative boards.
One problem, however, is that there is not enough
distribution of information – more easily-accessible
material is being requested by all the county admi-
nistrative boards. It is an extremely important part
of Vindval’s work to develop user-friendly summa-
ries that are clear. Not everyone understands what
Vindval is and what it stands for.
What is your perception of the continuing expansion
of wind power from a national perspective?
– Much is said about the EU’s objectives for rene-
wable energy, which should be 20 per cent by
2020. Today, renewable energy comprises about
6-7 per cent within the EU, therefore an enormous
expansion is required. Wind power is important in
this perspective and will play a large part. Today,
wind power is a cost-effective way of producing
renewable electricity. Wind power is still conside-
red in many contexts to be somewhat strange as
a source of energy, but it will soon become more
common. In ten years, it will be ranked alongside
every other energy source. The forecast is that 8-9
TWh of electricity produced in Sweden will derive
from wind power by about 2015.
Will this mean a strong increase in tempo for
the expansion of wind power?
– Yes, but wind power already experienced a
breakthrough in 2007. 200-240 megawatts have
been installed this year compared to about 50
megawatts previous years. Next year, we will reach
a total of 1,000 megawatts, which means that we
have built more in the last two years than the pre-
vious 20 years put together. The expansion means
that we can reach 2 TWh of electricity from wind
power by 2008, which is about one and a half per
cent of Sweden’s electricity production.
33
34
International outlook
There is an increasing awareness throughout the world about the risks of
global warming and that we must reduce our carbon dioxide emissions,
which largely come from the combustion of carbon, oil, natural gas
and other fossil fuels. This has led, today, to many countries setting
up national objectives and developing strategies for the expansion of
renewable energy sources, where wind power plays an essential part.

Wind power is among the world’s fastest-growing energy sources, with

global capacity increasing by 26.6 percent in 2007. Germany is the world
leader with a total installed capacity of 22.2GW, while the US holds second
place with 16.8GW. They are followed by Spain with 15.1GW, India with
7.9GW and China with 5.9GW. Denmark’s installed wind power capacity
in 2007 was 3.1GW. 21

Denmark the leader in wind power share

In terms of wind power as a percentage of total electricity production,
Denmark leads the world with a share of 17 percent. In November and
December 2006, all-time highs were reached when between 27 and 29 per
cent of the electricity supply in Denmark consisted of electricity from wind
power.
Second, in this respect, is Spain who has just less than 9 per cent of
electricity from wind power. Portugal is third with 6 per cent and Germany
ends up in fourth place with 5.65 per cent of electricity from wind power.
Comprehensive research work relating to offshore wind farms is also
currently being conducted in Germany, which is one of the countries that
invest heavily in wind power. There are about 30 different research projects
on the go. The research is associated with the FINO 1 research platform. In
2007, two new research platforms were put into use, FINO 2 and 3.22

21
www.ewea.org
22
www.fino-offshore.com

35
 Increased interest for offshore wind power
The interest in expanding offshore wind power has increased in recent
years. The best conditions for building major wind farms can be found at
sea. There are also good wind conditions at sea and wind turbines can be
placed far away from buildings.
In several countries in Europe, and in other parts of the world, there are
plans for the increased expansion of offshore wind power. Great Britain
intends to build several large offshore wind farms and there are plans for
building the world’s largest offshore wind farm outside London. “The
London Array” will be built at the mouth of the River Thames. With an
extended capacity of 1,000 MW, The London Array will be able to supply
one fourth of London’s homes with electricity. Other than Denmark and
The Netherlands, Great Britain, today, has a large proportion of offshore
wind turbines. Great Britain’s objective is, together with Denmark, to
become world leaders in developing offshore wind power.23
Great Britain’s
objective is, together Research in Great Britain
with Denmark, Great Britain is also investing in research relating to the environmental
to become world effects of offshore wind power within a programme known as COWRIE
leaders in developing (Collaborative Offshore Wind Research Into The Environment). The effects
offshore wind power. of wind power on birds, the impact of electromagnetic fields on marine life
as well as the sound and vibrations from wind power is being researched.24

Experiences from Danish wind power

Nevertheless, Denmark is the country that has the longest experience of
offshore wind power on a major scale and that has two wind farms of
considerable size in Nysted and Horns Rev. The wind farms are each 160
MW and 165.5 MW and are located ten to twenty kilometres from the
Danish coast.
A comprehensive research programme has been conducted concerning
these two wind farms that has strong similarities to Vindval when it comes
to the directionality and planning of the research. The research covers the
effects of wind power on certain bird species, on fish communities, on seals
(mainly harbour seals) and porpoises, on benthic organisms as well as the
social and economic effects of wind power.

23
Statement by Great Britain’s Energy Minister, Malcolm Wicks, in press release
07-11-2007, www.gnn.gov.uk.
24
www.offshorewind.co.uk

36
Results from Denmark facilitate planning
Danish experiences from the last 15 years show that offshore wind farms,
if they are positioned correctly, can be built and operated without any
obvious, negative environmental effects on the marine environment and
sensitive species. The results from the comprehensive environmental
research programme also confirm that, under the right conditions, large
wind farms expose birds, mammals and fish to low risk even if they lead to
changes in the living environment of some species through the increase of
biodiversity.25
The research programme also shows that the correct positioning of
offshore wind farms is necessary in order to limit the environmental impact
and that meticulous planning is necessary in order to avoid negative envi-
ronmental impact.

Valuable Danish results The research

The compiled account of the research results in Denmark show: programme also
• that, together, the wind farms at Horns Rev and Nysted have had little shows that the correct
impact on the environment. positioning of offshore
wind farms is neces-
• that there are local effects on plants, animals and other organisms sary in order to limit
that live on the seabed, mostly in the form of increased biomass and the environmental
increased biodiversity. A so-called reef-effect occurs where the founda- impact and that
tions of the wind turbine act as an artificial reef. meticulous planning is
necessary in order to
• that the development of technology and methods, partly for measuring avoid negative
bird collisions and partly for studying the porpoises’ clicks, has been an environmental impact.
important investment.

• that the effects are more complex and the generalisability is less than
first thought when it comes to some research. Some results have a good
generalisability and are valid for several areas, but the fact remains that
each location has its own unique conditions.

25
Danish offshore wind – key environmental issues (2006) Danish Energy Authority.

37
 More knowledge
is still needed
While we know a lot today, more knowledge is still needed about the
environmental impact of wind power on-shore and off-shore. In the event
of the possible continuation of Vindval with the addition of a second stage,
more focus will probably be applied to the research and investigation into
the environmental and socio-economic effects of land-based wind parks.

This research and development work will be linked to the areas where
knowledge is either missing or is inadequate. For example, we need to
know more about how networks of maintenance routes and wind turbines
– together with other factors – affect the living environments of the forest’s
mammals and birds, reindeer husbandry, outdoor life and nature tourism
and, at the same time, it is important to be aware of the population’s atti-
tudes to wind power in forest and mountain areas.

The combined effect is important to study

When it comes to offshore wind energy, there is still too little knowledge
about the combined effect of several large wind farms on marine ecosys-
tems, inclusive of fish and birds. Even if the impact from a single wind farm
can be minimal, the combined effect is important to study since several
major offshore wind farms are being built. In order to be able to establish
wind power’s effects on the environment and on humans, some sampling
and studies are required. The content and design of such a sampling and
study programme or checking programme, adapted to the current situa-
tion, needs to be studied closer.

38
Literature
and references
Vindval Report Series
Havsbaserad vindenergi – synlighet för fågelöga [Offshore wind energy
– a bird’s eye view]. An ocular physiological study of how birds view wind
turbines. Author: Jan Pettersson, 2007

Bats and offshore wind turbines studied in southern Scandinavia. The

report, written in English, describes collision risks for bats. Author:
Ingemar Ahlén, 2007

Vindkraftens effekter på ålvandring [Impact of wind farms on eel migra-

tion]. A study of eel migration at planned wind farm sites in Kalmar Sound
and Oresund Sound. Authors: Håkan Westerberg and Ingvar Lagenfelt,
2006

Flyttande små- och sjöfåglar – en förstudie med lokalradar i Kalmarsund

[Migrating passerines and waterfowl—a pilot study at Kalmar Sound using
local radar]. A pilot study of radar surveillance and flight altitude measu-
rement to investigate passerine and waterfowl behaviour during migration
over sea, in low visibility, and at night. Author: Jan Petterson, 2006

Effekter på fisk av marina vindkraftparker [Impacts of offshore wind farms

on fish]. A fish survey in Kalmar Sound ahead of the construction of a wind
farm. Author: Sture Hansson, 2006

Hur vindkraften påverkar livet på botten [How wind farms affect benthic
communities]. A survey of benthic organisms at five candidate offshore
wind farm sites. Author: Torleif Malm. 2006

Havsbaserade vindkraftsverks inverkan på fågellivet i södra Kalmar-

sund [The impact of offshore wind farms on bird life in southern Kalmar
Sound]. Author: Jan Pettersson, 2005

39
 Resultat från förstudier och jämförelser med dansk havsbaserad vind-
kraft [Results of pilot studies and comparisons with Danish offshore wind
farms], 2007. Download from www.naturvardsverket.se/vindval

Vindval reports can be downloaded or ordered in hard copy from the

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Bookshop at www.naturvards-
verket.se/bokhandeln. A search on Vindval will find all the reports.

References
Vindkraft og fugl på Smøla 2003-2006 [Wind power and birds at Smøla
2003–2006], NINA Report 248. Follestad, A. et al. (2007)

A population study of golden eagles in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource

Area: population trend analysis 1997. Report to National Renewable
Energy Laboratory. Hunt, W.G. et al. (1998)

Human response to wind turbine noise. Perception, annoyance and mode-

rating factors, Göteborg universitet. Pedersen E. (2007)

Danish offshore wind – key environmental issues. Danish Energy Authority

(2006)

40
Information about Vindval
Information about the Vindval programme and projects can be found at
www.naturvardsverket.se/vindval

Programme Secretariat
Kerstin Jansbo, Programme Manager, Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency
Phone +46(0)8698 1456, email kerstin.jansbo@naturvardsverket.se

Åsa Elmqvist, Programme Secretary.

Phone +46(0)70395 6677, email asa.elmqvist@arwen.nu

Fredrik Dahlström, Programme Manager, Swedish Energy Agency

Phone +46(0)16544 2231, email fredrik.dahlstrom@energimyndigheten.se

Lars Alfrost, Programme Coordinator, Swedish Energy Agency

Phone +46(0)16544 2034, email lars.ahlfrost@energimyndigheten.se

Anna Richter, Information Officer, Swedish Environmental Protection

Agency
Phone +46(0)8698 1213, email anna.richter@naturvardsverket.se

The Vindval Programme Secretariat welcomes questions about Vindval.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
OF WIND POWER
Results from 2005 – 2007
within the Vindval research programme

How are people affected by wind farms? What is their impact on marine
life? Can birds see the turbines? Could bats crash into the blades while
hunting insects off-shore?

In this booklet we answer such questions, as far as they can be

answered, from the results of the Vindval knowledge programme. You
can also meet some of the people involved in wind power and gain an
overview of the Swedish wind power project as well as an international
perspective.

The Vindval Knowledge Programme seeks to learn more about the

impact of wind farms on fauna and flora, on the marine environment
and on the landscape, and about public perceptions. Vindval is run by
the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency with funding from the
Swedish Energy Agency.

Since 2005 nearly twenty research projects have been commenced under
Vindval’s auspices, resulting in a lot of new and useful knowledge.
We hope that this booklet will be of use to those working in the field of
wind power as well as to members of the public who have an interest in
its environmental impacts.

Swedish EPA SE-106 48 Stockholm. Visiting address: Stockholm – Valhallavägen 195, Östersund – Forskares väg 5 hus Ub, Kiruna – Kaserngatan 14.
Phone: +46 8-698 10 00, fax +46 8-20 29 25, e-mail: natur@naturvardsverket.se Internet: www.naturvardsverket.se Orders Ordertel: 46+ 8-505 933 40,
orderfax: +46 8-505 933 99, e-mail: natur@cm.se Address: CM-Gruppen, Box 110 93, SE-161 11 Bromma. Internet: www.naturvardsverket.se/bokhandeln