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Overview on Basic
Materials’ Properties
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Only for Teaching 1
Materials’ Categories
• Metallic Materials
---Inorganic and have crystalline structure.
---Good thermal and electric conductors.
• Polymeric (Plastic) Materials
¾ Organic giant molecules and mostly noncrystalline.
¾ Some are mixtures of crystalline and noncrystalline regions.
¾ Poor conductors of electricity and hence used as insulators.
¾ Strength and ductility vary greatly.
¾ Low densities and decomposition temperatures.
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Materials’ Categories
• Ceramic Materials
Metallic and nonmetallic elements are chemically
bonded together.
Inorganic but can be either crystalline, noncrystalline
or mixture of both.
High hardness, strength and wear resistance.
Very good insulator. Hence used for furnace lining for
heat treating and melting metals.
Also used in space shuttle to insulate it during exit and
reentry into atmosphere.
Other applications : Abrasives, construction materials,
utensils etc.
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Materials’ Categories
• Composite Materials
Mixture of two or more materials.
Consists of a filler material and a binding material.
Materials only bond, will not dissolve in each other.
Mainly two types :-
---Fibrous: Fibers in a matrix
---Particulate: Particles in a matrix
---Matrix can be metals, ceramic or polymer
Examples :-
Fiber Glass ( Reinforcing material in a polyester or
epoxy matrix)
Concrete ( Gravels or steel rods reinforced in cement
and sand)
Applications:- Aircraft wings and engine, construction.
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Materials’ Categories
Electronic Materials
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Space Lattice & Unit Cells
Space Lattice
• Unit cell is that block of
atoms which repeats itself
to form space lattice.
• Materials arranged in
short range order are
called amorphous materials
Unit Cell
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Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattice
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Unit Cells
• Cubic Unit Cell
• a=b=c
• α = β = γ = 90°
• Tetragonal
• a =b ≠ c
• α = β = γ = 90°
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Unit Cells
• Hexagonal
¾ a = b =a ≠ c
¾ α = β = 900, γ = 1200 Simple
• Monoclinic
¾ a≠ b≠ c
Base
¾ α = γ = 900, β ≠ 900
Centered
Simple
• Triclinic
¾ a≠ b≠ c
¾ α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900
Simple
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Direction Indices
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Miller Indices
• Miller Indices are used to refer to specific lattice
planes of atoms.
• They are reciprocals of the fractional intercepts (with
fractions cleared) that the plane makes with the
crystallographic x,y and z axes of three nonparallel
edges of the cubic unit cell.
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Polymorphism or Allotropy
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XRD
nλ = MP + PN (n = 1,2…)
n is order of diffraction
Then MP = PN = dhkl.Sinθ
Therefore, λ = 2 dhkl.Sinθ
Ref: A.G. Guy and J.J. Hren, “Elements of Physical Metallurgy,” 3d ed., Addison-Wesley, 1974, p.201.)
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Example of XRD
λ = 2 dhkl.Sinθ
Solvent atoms
Solute atoms
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Substitutional Solid Solution
• No crystal is perfect.
• Imperfections affect mechanical properties,
chemical properties and electrical properties.
• Imperfections can be classified as
¾ Zero dimension point defects.
¾ One dimension / line defects (dislocations).
¾ Two dimension defects (planar defects).
¾ Three dimension defects (cracks).
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Point Defects – Vacancy
• Vacancy is formed due to a missing atom.
• Vacancy is formed (one in 10000 atoms)
during crystallization or mobility of atoms.
• Energy of formation is 1 eV.
• Mobility of vacancy results in cluster of
vacancies.
• Also caused due to
plastic deformation,
rapid cooling or particle
bombardment.
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Point Defects in Ionic Crystals
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Dislocations
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Grain Boundaries (GB)
• Grain boundaries separate grains.
• Formed due to simultaneously growing crystals
meeting each other.
• Width = 2-5 atomic diameters.
• Some atoms in grain boundaries have higher energy.
• Restrict plastic flow and prevent dislocation movement.
3D view of
grains
Grain Boundaries
In 1018 steel
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(ref:A.G. Guy, “ Essentials of materials Science,” McGraw-Hill, 1976.)
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Planar Defects
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Atomic Diffusion in Solids
• Examples:
---Movement of smoke particles in air : Very fast.
---Movement of dye in water : Relatively slow.
---Solid state reactions : Very restricted movement due
to bonding.
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Diffusion mechanism
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Substitutional Diffusion
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Steady State Diffusion
Distance x
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Fick’s First Law
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Diffusivity
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Non-Steady State Diffusion
• Concentration of solute atoms at any point in metal
changes with time in this case.
• Fick’s second law:- Rate of compositional change is
equal to diffusivity times the rate of change of
concentration gradient. Plane 2
Plane 1
dC x d ⎛ dc x ⎞
= ⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
dt dx ⎝ dx ⎠
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Phase Diagram of Pure Substances
• Pure substance exist as solid, liquid and vapor.
• Phases are separated by phase boundaries.
• Example : Water, Pure Iron.
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Phase Diagram from Cooling Curves
• Series of cooling curves at different metal composition
are first constructed.
• Points of change of slope of cooling curves (thermal
arrests) are noted and phase diagram is constructed.
• More the number of cooling curves, more accurate is
the phase diagram.
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The Lever Rule
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Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
• Plain carbon steel: 0.03% to 1.2% C, 0.25 to 1% Mn and
other impurities.
• α Ferrite: Very low solubility
of carbon. Max 0.02 % at 7230C
and 0.005% at 00C.
• Austenite: Interstitial solid
solution of carbon in γ
iron. Solubility of C is
2.08% at 11480C and 0.8%
at 00C.
• Cementite: Intermetallic compound.
6.67% C and 93.3% Fe.
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Binary Eutectic Alloy System
• In some binary alloy systems, components have limited
solid solubility.
Example : Pb-Sn alloy.
Eutectic temperature
Liquid α solid solution + β solid solution
Cooling
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Intermediate Phases and Compounds
• Terminal phases:
Phases occur at the end
of phase diagrams.
• Intermediate phases:
Phases occur in a
composition range inside
phase diagram.
• Examples: Cu-Zn
diagram has both
terminal and
intermediate phases.
• Five invariant peritectic
points and one eutectic
point.
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Intermediate Phases in Ceramics
• In Al2O2 – SiO2 system, an intermediate phase called
Mullite is formed, which includes the compound
3Al2O3.2SiO2.
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張宏宜 Ref: A. G. Guy, “Essentials of Materials Science, “McGraw-Hill, 1976
Ternary Phase Diagrams
• Three components
• Constructed by using a equilateral triangle (等邊三角形)
as base.
• Pure components at each
end of triangle.
• Binary alloy composition
represented on edges.
Temperature can be
represented as uniform
throughout the
Whole Diagram -----
Isothermal section.
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Ternary Phase Diagram
• Example:- Iron-Chromium-Nickel phase diagrams.
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張宏宜 Ref: “Metals Handbook,” vol. 8: American Society of Metals, 1973, p. 425.
Ceramics
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Zinc Blende (ZnS) Crystal Structure
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ref: W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, D. R. Uhlmann, “ Introduction to Ceramics,”2nd ed., Wiley, 1976
Important Crystal Structures
• Perovskite (CaTiO3) : Ca2+ and O2- ions form FCC unit
cell.
¾ Ca2+ Ions occupy corners
¾ O2- Ions occupy face centers.
¾ Ti4+ ions are at octahedral
sites.
• Graphite : Polymorphic form
of compound.
• Layered structure with carbon
atoms in hexagonal arrays.
• Good lubricating properties.
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張宏宜 Ref: W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, D. R. Uhlmann, “ Introduction to Ceramics,”2nd ed., Wiley, 1976.
Silicate Structures
• Silicate (SiO44-) is building block of silicates.
• 50% ionic and 50% covalent.
• Many different silicate structures
can be produced.
• Island structure: Positive ions
bond with the oxygen of SiO44-
tetrahedron.
• Chain/ring structure: Two
corners of each SiO44- tetrahedron
bonds with corners of other
tetrahedron.
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Ref: M. Eisenstadt, “Mechanical properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.82.
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Sheet Structures of Silicates
• Sheet structure: Three corners of same planes of silicate
tetrahedron bonded to the corners of three other silicate
tetrahedra.
• Each tetrahedron has one
unbounded oxygen and hence
chains can bond with other
type of sheets.
• If the bondings are weak,
sheets slide over each other
easily.
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張宏宜 Ref: M. Eisenstadt, “Mechanical properties of Materials,” Macmillan, 1971, p.83.
Silicate Networks
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Ref: W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, D. R. Uhlmann, “ Introduction to Ceramics,”2nd ed., Wiley, 1976
Traditional Ceramics
• Made up of clay, silica and feldspar.
• Clay: Provide workability and hardness.
• Silica: Provide better temperature resistance and MP.
• Potash Feldspar: Makes glass when ceramic is fired.
SEM of Porcelain
Quartz
grain High-silica
glass
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張宏宜 Source: F. Norton, Elements of Ceramics, 2nd ed., Addision-Wesley,1974, p.140 .
Engineering Ceramics
• Alumina (Al2O3): Aluminum oxide is doped with
magnesium oxide, cold pressed and sintered.
¾ Uniform structure. Used for electric applications.
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Ceramic Materials for Capacitors
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Ceramic Semiconductors
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Thermal Properties of Ceramics
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Insulation for Space Shuttle Orbital
• About 70% of external surface is protected from heat by
24000 ceramic tiles.
• Material: Silica fiber compound.
• Density is 4kg/ft3 and withstands temperature up to 12600C.
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Oxidation – Reduction Reactions
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
or
Zn + 2H+ Zn2+ + H2
also
Zn Zn 2+ + 2e- (oxidation half cell reaction)
2H+ + 2e- H2 (Reduction half cell reaction)
• Oxidation reaction: Metals form ions at local anode.
• Reduction reaction: Metal is reduced in local charge at
Local cathode.
• Oxidation and reduction takes place at same rate.
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Macroscopic Galvanic Cells with 1M Electrolyte
• Two dissimilar metal electrodes immersed in
solution of their own ions.
• Electrode that has more
negative oxidation potential
will be oxidized.
Zn Zn2+, Cu2+ Cu
Half cell reactions are
Zn Zn 2+ + 2e- E0 = -0.763 V
Cu Cu2+ + 2e- E0 = + 0.337 V
Or Cu2+ + 2e- Cu E0 = -0.337 V (negative sign)
Adding two reactions,
Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu E0cell = -1.1V
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Galvanic Cells With Electrolytes not 1M
0.0592
E=E + 0
log Cion
n
E = Net emf of half cell
E0 = Standard emf of half cell
n = Number of electrons transferred
Cion = Molar concentration of ions.
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Galvanic Cells With Acid or Alkaline Electrolytes
• Consider iron and copper electrodes in acidic electrolyte.
• Since standard electrode potential of Fe to oxidize is
–0.44 , compared to 0.337 of copper,
Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
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張宏宜 Ref: J. Wulff et al., “ The Structure and Properties of Materials,” vol. II, Wiley, 1964, p.164.
Grain – Grain boundary Electrochemical cells
Cartridge Brass
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