Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
profession (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL], 2011).
International policies and practices influence individual countries and states in the practices
that they adopt in their systems for the improvement of educational outcomes (Scott et al.,
2018; Tan, 2017). Various challenges can arise from adopting certain approaches, even
research which highlights effective practices (Tan, 2017). The research article by Kirschner,
Sweller, and Clark (2006) emphasise the importance of following evidence-based practices
recommendations for practice are applicable across subjects, and have been used to alter the
lesson plan on developing problem-solving skills for stage 3 and 4 mathematics classes
consistently arise in response to static or depleting educational outcomes. Despite age old
debates on the constructivist vs. direct teaching methods (Null, 2004), confusion about both
methods and their effectiveness in the classroom has been brought to public attention in
recent times (Donnelly, 2018; Holland, 2015). Constructivism comes from an understanding
individuals (Null, 2004). Constructivist views arose from past understandings by Rousseau
and others about the importance of providing children with the chance to direct their own
learning (Null, 2004). This view opposes traditional methods of teaching (Direct/Explicit
instruction) which include lecture-only classes, memorisation etc. and in recent times, it aims
to foster deep knowledge in students which seemingly traditional methods have been unable
Various research articles have been published which demonstrate the effectiveness or
lack thereof of both approaches, advocating for the use of one over the other (Scott, Smith,
Chi & Friesen, 2018). Furthermore, the NSW Department of Education (n.d.) validates and
provides resources on methods which relate to both constructivist and direct instruction
approaches (e.g. Experiential and Explicit learning). In addition, the NSW Quality Teaching
and integration of student experiences and cultural knowledge whilst also pointing out the
importance of explicit methods (Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation [CESE],
2013). The above may seem to be quite conflicting and not very informative for teacher
practice, but this feature of complexity in educational research has been highlighted in the
report by the CESE (2013), stating that at times educational research is “inconsistent,
Moreover, the advocacy of both approaches has been prevalent in all subjects
subject (Bano, Zowghi, Kearney, Schuck & Aubusson, 2018). Various constructivist methods
have been introduced to the subject, including Project/Problem -based learning (PBL) and
inquiry learning (Bano et al. 2018; Capaldi, 2015). The main purposes for the implementation
enhance mathematical understandings (Capaldi, 2015). Pedagogical practices have one of the
most significant effects on student learning and engagement (Gore, 2007). With various
conflicting sources on the topic, it is important for teachers to be critical readers of research
Critical Summary
The research article “Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An
based teaching” by Kirschner et al. (2006) reviews the evidence concerning the effectiveness
instruction. The authors reviewed 50 years of empirical research, and using a human
constructivist views for novice to intermediate learners are ineffective and sometimes
The research article has been conducted in the form of a professional literature
implications for improving educational practice” (p. 56). Kirschner et al. (2006) did not
provide detail about their search procedures and how they located the articles which they
synthesized, which is a general feature of professional literature reviews (Ullman, 2015). This
review, the criteria used for article selection and how balanced the review may be in terms of
providing a range of views on the topic area (Ullman, 2015, p. 77). Looking at the article,
however, it does overall demonstrate a breadth of search in terms of time and sources as well
has a strong focus on research in mathematics and science areas with multiple research
articles and examples provided in those subject areas e.g. PBL in medicine & inquiry-based
instruction in science (Kirschner et al. 2006). Hence, it could be argued that the
reviews; hence, it is important to establish the authority and credentials of the articles authors
to ensure it is authoritative (Ullman, 2015). In this article, the authors are well-known in the
instructional methods in education. The article itself references the authors own work as part
of the literature at times, but also includes various other authors’ works which provide further
evidence and support to their arguments e.g. Worked example effect (Kirschner et al. 2015).
Although the articles reviewed were current for the time it was published, the
literature review now dates to over a decade. According to Ullman (2015), due to the lack of
rigor and emphasis on methodology in a professional literature review, many times the
findings and recommendations are only relevant for its time. However, looking at some
research articles on the benefits of direct instruction over constructivist methods in more
recent times, it seems that the findings of Kirschner et al. (2006) have been further supported
2012).
Although the article lacks the structure and explicit mention of search procedures
present in quality research articles, the goal of this article to recommend evidence-based
teaching practices in a simple manner has generally been achieved. Kirschner et al. (2006)
have demonstrated how various empirical articles argue for guidance in instruction rather
than minimal guidance. Hence the authors recommend that teachers employ direct/explicit
instructional methods which they define as “providing information that fully explains the
concepts and procedures that students are required to learn as well as learning strategy
support that is compatible with human cognitive architecture” (p. 75). In the article some
examples are provided which include worked examples and process worksheets (p. 80). In
line with this, the authors recommend teachers avoid constructivist instructional methods
such as PBL, Inquiry-learning etc. and suggest a focus on explicit teaching of discipline
processes (science and mathematics) rather than a ‘discovery’ of such processes through
The lesson plan “Patch wants to fly, problem solving lesson plan” (Castle, 2014) was
obtained from the Australian Curriculum Lessons website, and can be used to demonstrate
the use of Kirschner et al.’s (2006) recommendations for practice. The lesson plan aims to
develop students’ problem-solving skills using mathematical operations and unit conversions.
It does this through a problem-solving activity which involves a hypothetical scenario that
students must engage with. It specifically addresses outcomes in the year 6 Australian
Kirschner et al. (2006) states that one of the underlying assumptions of constructivist
instructional methods is “that knowledge can best be acquired through experience based on
the procedures of the discipline” (p. 76). The lesson plan has been designed with a
constructivist outlook, with no instruction provided by the teacher about unit conversions or
mathematical operations, but rather the students use and learn those strategies by working
through a problem-based scenario (Castle, 2014). One of the main arguments of the review
by Kirschner et al. (2006) is that it is ineffective for novices to engage in such tasks (specific
explicitly explain to students the disciplines’ procedures rather than be in the form of the
disciplines’ procedures. Hence, the lesson plan will be altered using the understandings of
Kirschner et al. (2006) about direct instructional methods in favour of the constructivist
The lesson plan activity contains no instructional guidance on approaching the question
by the teacher. Only the scenario is provided to the students and they are expected to devise
their own strategies to solve the problem which, after the lesson, will be brought forth in a
class discussion (Castle, 2014). Without prior knowledge of how to solve such problems this
lesson plan would be ineffective for novice and fail to increase their problem-solving skills in
similar situations (Krischner et al., 2006). Rosenshine (2012) describes the importance of
providing quality time explicitly teaching content before giving students time to work on
who spent more time on explicit instruction of mathematical steps and engaging with the
students over teachers that allowed students more time on solving problems independently
(Rosenshine, 2012).
To achieve best practices from the lesson plan, there should be an inclusion of direct
instructional guidance from the teacher about the procedures that are to be used in the
problem-solving scenario (Kirschner et al., 2006; Rosenshine, 2012). At the start of the
lesson activity, the teacher should explicitly teach or review (if previously learned) the
methods of unit conversions (mass, currency, percentages, fractions). When providing the
students with the problem-solving scenario, teachers should also provide guidance through
process worksheets. In this case, it would be useful to indicate the rules related to unit
conversions (e.g. 1kg = 1000g) as “hints or rules of thumb” that can assist students
(Kirschner, 2006, p. 80). These changes emphasise the role of the teacher as a strong guide in
the learning process of students, providing them with the knowledge they require to solve
mathematical problems.
Furthermore, another key issue in the lesson plan is the lack of instructional methods that
align with human cognitive architecture as described in Kirschner et al. (2006). The lesson
plan activity focuses students’ attention on solving one scenario and discussing the students
range of strategies used for this purpose. It does not demonstrate how such problem-solving
practices are going to be retrieved into the students’ long-term memory through continuous
practice and automation (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). According to Kirschner et al.
(2006), altering long-term memory to store information within it is the main purpose of
each time in working memory, causing unnecessary load, but rather automatically retrieved
from long-term memory schemas. Hence, instructional methods which do not focus on this
The lesson plan would improve through the inclusion of instructional methods that are
“compatible with human cognitive architecture” (Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 75). Worked
examples can assist students in acquiring “problem-solving schemas” (Chi, Glaser, & Rees as
cited in Kirschner et al., 2006, p. 80). They do not cause unnecessary load on working
memory, and provide a basis for students to practice and understand how to solve problems
(Kirschner et al., 2006). In the lesson plan, worked examples on unit conversions should be
provided to students to study, detailing the various steps required to answer the problem (see
calculations involve detailed steps and formulas that can be articulated in worked examples.
This was similarly demonstrated in Cooper and Sweller’s (1987) study demonstrating the
emphasised in recent times with the increased need to improve student performance. Given
that the area of educational research is quite complex, various topics of research are quite
controversial. This includes the debate surrounding direct instruction vs. constructivist
instructional methods. Kirschner et al. (2006) have successfully drawn out evidence-based
methods over minimally-guided instruction. The implications of this study have been evident
in how research articles after its publishing confirm its findings and its applications to
classroom practice. This was demonstrated in the application of the study’s recommendations
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. (2011). Australian professional
source/apst-resources/australian_professional_standard_for_teachers_final.pdf
Bano, M., Zowghi, D., Kearney, M., Schuck, S., & Aubusson, P. (2018). Mobile learning
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math (STEM) programs: A conceptual and practical resource for educators (283-
Castle, D. (2014). Patch wants to fly, problem solving lesson plan – year 4/5/6/7. Retrieved
from https://www.australiancurriculumlessons.com.au/2014/04/28/patch-wants-fly-
problem-solving-lesson-plan-year-4567/
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learning: What does the evidence tell us about effective teaching? Retrieved from
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https://www.cese.nsw.gov.au/images/stories/PDF/What-works-best_FA-
2015_AA.pdf
Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation
Donnelly, K. (2018). Child-led learning has dragged Australia down. Retrieved from
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down-20180425-p4zbmb.html
Gore, J. (2007). Improving pedagogy: The challenges of moving teachers towards higher
levels of quality teaching. In J. Butcher, L. McDonald (Eds.). Making a difference:
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Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during
https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/curriculum/learning-for-the-
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Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructiona l design:
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Scott, D. M., Smith, C. W., Chu, M., & Friesen, S. (2018). Examining the efficacy of
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Scott45/publication/324968843_Exa
mining_the_Efficacy_of_Inquiry-
based_Approaches_to_Education/links/5af113950f7e9ba366452ae7/Examining-
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Tan, C. (2017). Constructivism and pedagogical reform in China: Issues and challenges.
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Ullman, J. (2015). Applying educational research: How to read, do, and use research to solve
Q. Bob bought some boxes of tools to put in his garden. He wants to carry as many boxes as
he can from his car to his garden. Bob can only carry 5kg in one go. Each box weighs 500
Step 3: Conclusion