National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia: Environment

National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia ENVIRONMENT
Contents
Contents
Contents .............................................................................................................................................................. i
Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment ......................................................................................................... 1
1. Definition and basic concept of Ecosystem. ..................................................................................... 1
1.1 Terminology ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Ecosystem............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Environment ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Photosynthesis vs. Respiration ............................................................................................. 2
1.5 Major roles of organisms in ecosystems............................................................................... 3
1.6 Food chain and food webs .................................................................................................... 4
2. Population issues and environment .................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Terminology ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 A population growth curve ................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2 Environment, Energy and Materials ................................................................................................. 8
1. Terminology ...................................................................................................................................... 8
2. Energy principles .............................................................................................................................. 8
3. Energy relationships in ecosystem .................................................................................................... 8
4. Carbon Cycle .................................................................................................................................... 8
5. Nitrogen (N) Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 9
6. Phosphorus (P) Cycle ....................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 3 Energy Issues ................................................................................................................................... 11
1. History of energy consumption........................................................................................................ 11
2. Energy sources ................................................................................................................................. 11
Fig. 11 Energy Sources ........................................................................................................................ 11
3. Fossil fuels ....................................................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Coal ..................................................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Oil and natural gas ............................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Environmental issues related to the use of fossil fuels ....................................................... 12
4. Renewable sources of energy ......................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Biomass .............................................................................................................................. 12
4.2 Hydroelectric power ........................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Solar energy ........................................................................................................................ 12
4.4 Wind energy ....................................................................................................................... 12
4.5 Geothermal energy ............................................................................................................. 12
4.6 Tidal power ......................................................................................................................... 13
5. Energy conservation ....................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues .................................................................................................. 14
1. Atmosphere ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2. Self-purification of air .................................................................................................................... 14
3. Categories of air pollutants ............................................................................................................. 14
Contents i
3.1 Carbon monoxide (CO) ...................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) ........................................................................................................... 14
3.3 Nitrogen oxide (NOx) ......................................................................................................... 15
3.4 Lead (Pb) ............................................................................................................................ 15
3.5 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) .................................................................................. 15
3.6 Particulate matter (PM) ...................................................................................................... 15
4. Ground-level ozone and photochemical smog. ............................................................................... 15
4.1 Photochemical smog........................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Thermal inversion............................................................................................................... 16
Fig. 12 Thermal Inversion .................................................................................................................. 16
5. Acid deposition (Acid rain) ............................................................................................................ 16
6. Ozone depletion .............................................................................................................................. 16
7. Global warming and climate change .............................................................................................. 17
7.1 Causes of global warming and climate change .................................................................. 17
7.2 Potential consequences of global warming and climate change ......................................... 18
7.3 Addressing climate change ................................................................................................. 18
Chapter 5 Water Quality .................................................................................................................................. 19
1. Water (H2O) .................................................................................................................................... 19
2. Water quality issues ........................................................................................................................ 19
3. Physical parameters of water quality .............................................................................................. 19
3.1 Turbidity ............................................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Temperature ........................................................................................................................ 19
3.3 Color, Taste, and odor ......................................................................................................... 19
4. Chemical parameters of water quality ............................................................................................ 20
4.1 Dissolved oxygen (DO) ...................................................................................................... 20
4.2 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ................................................................................. 20
4.3 Solids .................................................................................................................................. 20
4.4 Hardness ............................................................................................................................. 20
4.5 Metals ................................................................................................................................. 20
4.6 Anions................................................................................................................................. 21
4.7 Acidity, alkalinity, and pH .................................................................................................. 21
5. Biological parameters of water quality ........................................................................................... 21
5.1 Indicator organisms ............................................................................................................ 21
5.2 Coliforms ............................................................................................................................ 21
Chapter 6 Water Pollution ............................................................................................................................... 22
1. Water issue ...................................................................................................................................... 22
2. Kinds and sources of water pollutants ............................................................................................ 22
2.1 A Point source pollutant ..................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Nonpoint source pollutant .................................................................................................. 22
2.3 Pathogenic organisms (Pathogens) ..................................................................................... 22
2.4 Organic materials................................................................................................................ 22
Contents ii
2.5 Toxic organic and inorganic chemicals .............................................................................. 23
2.6 Plant nutrients ( Lake pollution) ..................................................................................... 23
3. Groundwater pollution- Arsenic problem (ref: www. rdic. org). .................................................... 23
Chapter 7 Water Treatment (Purification) ....................................................................................................... 25
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 25
2. How can we purify raw water for a safe drinking water? ............................................................... 25
2.1 Conventional drinking water treatment steps ..................................................................... 25
2.2 Point-Of Use (POU) household water treatment systems .................................................. 26
References .......................................................................................................................................................... i
Contents iii
Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment

1. Definition and basic concept of Ecosystem.
1.1 Terminology
- Environment: everything including human that affects an organisms during its life time.
- Ecosystem: A group of interacting species along with their physical environment.
- Ecology: A branch of science that deals with the interrelationship between organisms and
their environment. The study of the ways organisms interacts with each other and with their
nonliving surroundings.
- Ecosphere: divided into four sub-classes, Atmosphere (Air), Hydrosphere (Water)
Geosphere (Land, Soil) and biosphere.
1.2 Ecosystem
A. The concept of environment (ecosystem) is divided into abiotic (nonliving, physical)
and biotic (living) factors.
- Abiotic factors: nonliving things that influence an organism.
Energy, climate, weather, minerals, water, air, pH, salinity, temperature, soil,
sunlight, etc.
- Biotic factors: all forms of life with which it interacts. Plants that carry on
photosynthesis, animals that eat other organisms, bacteria and fungi that cause
decay, bacteria, viruses and other parasitic organisms that cause disease, etc.
B. Limiting factors
- Although organisms interact with their surroundings in many ways, a shortage or
absence of a factor can restrict the success of the species
- Limiting factors may be either abiotic or biotic and can be different from one
species to another.
Ex:
 Plants: Many plants are limited by scarcity of water, light, or specific soil
nutrient such nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P).
 Butterflies are limited by the number of available milkweed plants, since their
developing caterpillars use this plant as their only food source.
 Climate factors such as temperature range, humidity, periods of drought, or
length of winter are often limiting factors.
1.3 Environment
A. Environment is a very broad concept.
For example, during its lifetime, an animal is likely to interact with millions of other
organisms (bacteria, food organisms, parasites, mates, predators), drink copious amounts of
water, breathe huge quantities of air, and respond to daily changes in temperature and
humidity.
B. Environmental problems are complex and interrelated.
Ex: Wolf reintroduction in USA
The reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park initiated changes that
rippled through the Yellowstone ecosystem. Wolves kill and eat elk and directly
compete with coyote and kill them if they have the chance. As wolves increased, elk
and coyote populations decreased. Decreases in these populations resulted in increases
in the populations of willow and aspen trees, beaver, foxes, and songbirds.
[Detailed story]
The reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park has resulted in many
changes to the Yellowstone ecosystem. The initial introduction of 31 wolves in 1995
and 1996 has resulted in a current population of about 320 wolves. Several changes to
Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 1

the Yellowstone ecosystem can be directly attributed to the alterations brought about
by wolves.
Wolves kill and eat elk. This has resulted in a significant reduction in the size of the
elk herd from about 19,000 prior to wolf reintroduction to about 11,000 now. The
presence of wolves also has modified the behavior of elk. Because they must be more
vigilant and move about more because of the predatory behavior of wolves, elk spend
less time feeding on willow, cottonwood, and aspen. Both the change in behavior and
the reduced size of the elk herd have allowed the regeneration of stands of willow and
aspen. This has in turn resulted in increased numbers of beavers that use these trees
for food. The dams built by beavers tend to slow the flow of water and increase the
recharge of groundwater. Furthermore, the stands of willow along the banks of
streams cool the water and improve fish habitat. The stands of willow also provide
needed habitat for some songbirds.
Wolves directly compete with coyotes and kill them if they have the opportunity.
Thus, since the reintroduction of wolves the coyote population has fallen to half its
previous level. There is evidence that the populations of the prey of coyotes-mice, and
other rodents-have increased. The increased availability of this food source has
resulted in an increase in the number of foxes, hawks and owls.
1.4 Photosynthesis vs. Respiration

A. Photosynthesis
The process plants use to convert inorganic material into organic matter, with the
assistance of light energy. Light energy enables the smaller inorganic molecules (water
(H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)) to be converted into organic sugar molecules
(C6H12O6) releasing molecular oxygen (O2).
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll is responsible for trapping the sunlight energy needed in the process of
photosynthesis. Therefore, photosynthesis takes place in the green portions of the plant,
usually the leaves. The organic molecules as a result of photosynthesis can be used as
an energy source by the plants and by organisms that eat the plants.
Fig. 1 Photosynthesis
B. Respiration
Respiration involves the use of atmospheric oxygen to break down large, organic
molecules (sugars, fats, and proteins) into smaller, inorganic molecules (carbon dioxide
and water). The process releases energy the organisms can use.

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
All organisms, including plants, must carry on some form of respiration, since all
organisms need a source of energy to maintain life. Respiration involves of energy from
organic molecules when they react with oxygen. In addition to providing energy in a
usable form, respiration produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
Fig. 2 Respiration
1.5 Major roles of organisms in ecosystems

Organism’s roles in ecosystems divided into three broad categories;
A. Producers
Organisms that are able to use sources of energy to make complex, organic molecules
from the simple inorganic substances in their environment.
In nearly all ecosystems, energy is supplied by the sun, and organisms such as plants,
algae, and phytoplankton use light energy to carry on photosynthesis. Since producers
are the only organisms in an ecosystem that can trap energy and make new organic
material from inorganic material, all other organisms rely on producers as a source of
food, either directly or indirectly.
B. Consumers
Organisms that require organic matter as a source of food. They consume organism
matter to provide themselves with energy and the organic molecules necessary to build
their own bodies. An important part of their role is the process of respiration in which
they break down organic matter to inorganic matter.
- Primary consumers (Herbivors): animals that eat producers (Plants or

phytoplankton) as a source of food. Ex: Deer, elk, rabbits, etc.
- Secondary consumers (Carnivores): animals that eat other animals. Ex: Wolf,
Coyote, Rats, human, Tiger, etc.
- Parasite: Lives in or on another living organism and gets food from it. Ex:
Tapeworm, bacteria, insect.

C. Decomposers
- Organisms that use nonliving organic matter as a source of energy and raw
materials to build their bodies. Whenever an organism sheds itself, excretes waste
products, or dies, it provides an source of food for decomposers. Since
decomposers carry on respiration, they are extremely important in recycling matter
by converting organic matter to inorganic material. Ex: many small animals, fungi,
and bacteria, some insects and worms.
Fig. 3 Categories of organisms within an ecosystem
1.6 Food chain and food webs

Each step in the flow of energy through an ecosystem is known as a trophic level. Producers
contribute the first trophic level, and primary consumers (Herbivores) are the second trophic level.
Secondary consumers (Carnivore) that eat herbivores are the third trophic level, and carnivores that
eat other carnivores are the fourth trophic level. Decomposers occupy different trophic levels,
depending on what they happen to be eating at the time. If we eat a piece of steak, we are at the
third trophic level, if we eat carrot; we are at the second trophic level.
A. Food chain: Food chain is a series of organisms occupying different trophic level
through which energy passes as a result of one organism consuming another. As one
organism feeds on another organism, energy flows through the series. Each organism
occupies a specific niche and has special abilities that fit it for its niche, and each organism
in the food chain is involved in converting energy and matter from one form to another.
B. Food web: As organisms feed on one another, they establish a web of relationship known
as a food web.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Food chain (a) and food web (b)

2. Population issues and environment

2.1 Terminology
A. Population: A group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area
B. Natality (Birth rate): the number of individuals added to the population through
reproduction over a particular time period
C. Mortality (Death rate): the number of deaths in a population over a particular time
period
D. Population growth rate: Birth rate – death rate
2.2 A population growth curve

2.2.1 Typical population growth curve
Population growth often a particular pattern, consisting of a lag phase, an exponential
growth phase, a deceleration phase, and a stable equilibrium phase. During the first
portion of the curve, known as the lag phase, the population grows a very slowly
because there are few births, since the process of reproduction and growth of offspring
takes time. Organisms must mature into adults before they can reproduce. While the
offspring begin to mate and have young, the parents may be producing a second set of
offspring. Since more organisms now are reproducing, the population begins to
increase at an accelerating rate. This stage is known as the exponential growth phase
(log phase). The population will continue to grow as long as the birth rate exceeds the
death rate. Eventually, however, the population growth rate will begin to slow as the
death rate and the birth rate come to equal one another. This is the deceleration phase.
When the birth rate and death rate become equal, the population will stop growing and
reach a relatively stable population size. This stage is known as the stable equilibrium
phase.
Fig. 5 Typical population growth curve
2.2.2 A bacterial growth curve

The initial change in population size follows a typical population growth curve until
waste products become lethal. The buildup of waste products lowers the carrying
capacity. When a population begins to decline, it enters the death rate.
Ex: Bacteria
The population growth pattern begins with a lag phase, continues through an
exponential growth phase, and eventually levels off in a stable equilibrium phase.
However, in this small, enclosed space (e.g. bacteria on petri dish with nutrient agar),
there is no way to get rid of the toxic waste products, which accumulate, eventually
killing bacteria. This decline in population size is known as the death phase.

Fig. 6 A bacterial growth curve
2.2.3 Limiting factors for population growth

- Availability of raw materials: Water, minerals, sunlight,
Ex: Plants need nitrogen (N) and magnesium (Mg) from soil as raw materials for
the production of chlorophyll.  Application of fertilizers
Animals also require certain minerals as raw material, which they obtain in their
diets.
- Availability of energy
Ex: Plants requires sunlight energy for photosynthesis, so the amount of light can
be a limiting factor for many plants.
- Accumulation of waste products
Ex: Bacteria, other tiny organisms, and many kinds of aquatic organisms that live in
small ecosystem such as pools.
- Interacts among organisms
2.2.4 Limiting factors for human population growth

- Disease
- War
- Climate (Weather)
- Artificial regulation (control)
- Etc.
2.2.5 Human population growth

- The human population growth curve has a long lag phase followed by a sharply
rising exponential growth phase that is still rapidly increasing.
- Increase of food production (nutrition)
- Control of disease by improving medical science (medicine)
- Technical development
- Improvement of life quality
- Improvement of sanitary facilities

Fig. 7 Historic human population growth
- Influence of rapid growing population of human

High human density in a small space
Shortage of natural resource
Shortage of house
Increment of social stress
Environmental pollution (Water, air, noise, waste etc.)

Chapter 2 Environment, Energy and Materials

1. Terminology
A. Energy: The ability to do work
Ex: Heat, Electricity, and chemical energy etc.
B. Kinetic energy: Energy contained by moving objects
C. Potential energy: Energy that matter has because of its position, ex: Water behind Dam
2. Energy principles
A. First law of thermodynamics
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
 It can be changed from one form into another
(ex: solar energy  chemical energy + Heat)
ABC
 The total energy remains constant
A= B+ C
B. Second law of thermodynamics

 Whenever energy is converted from one to another, some of useful energy is lost.
A > B, C; B  C
Ex:
- Gasoline (chemical energy) can be burned in an automobile engine to turn the wheels.
The heat from the burning gasoline is used to move the pistons, which turns the
crankshaft and eventually causes the wheels to turn. At each step in the process, some
heat energy is lost from the system. During combustion, heat is lost from the engine.
Therefore, the amount of useful energy is much less that the total amount of chemical
energy present in the gasoline that was burned.
- Plant (photosynthesis): sunlight energy  chemical energy (sugar molecules) + Heat
- Animal (respiration): chemical potential energy found in food  kinetic energy + Heat
3. Energy relationships in ecosystem

A. The only significant source of energy for most ecosystem is sunlight
B. Tropic level: the position on organism holds on the food chain, each step in the flow of
energy through an ecosystem
C. Producers trap solar energy through the process of photosynthesis and making it available to
the ecosystem. The energy is stored in the form of chemical bonds in large organic
molecules such as sugar, starch, and proteins. The energy stored in the molecules of
producers is transferred to other organisms when the producers are eaten.
D. Energy flow through ecosystem: As energy flows through an ecosystem, it passes through
several levels known as tropic levels. Each tropic level contains a certain amount of energy.
Each time energy flows to another tropic level, approximately 90% of the useful energy is
lost, usually as heat to the surroundings. Therefore, in most ecosystems, in most
ecosystems, higher tropic levels contain less energy and fewer organisms.
E. The amount of energy contained in higher tropic levels is considerably less than that at
lower levels. Approximately 90% of the useful energy is lost with each transfer to the next
highest tropic level. Ex: Producer (100)  Herbivore (10)  Carnivore (1).
4. Carbon Cycle
A. Carbone (C) compose of organic molecules of all living things
B. Carbon atoms are cycled through ecosystems. Plants can incorporate carbon atoms from
carbon dioxide into organic molecules when they carry on photosynthesis. The carbon-
containing organic molecules are passed to animals when they eat plants or other animals.
Chapter 2 Environment, Energy and Materials 8
Organic wastes or dead organisms are consumed by decay organisms. All organisms, plants,
animals, and decomposers return carbon atoms to the atmosphere when they carry on
respiration. Oxygen atoms are being cycled at the same time that carbon atoms are being
cycled.
Fig. 8 Carbon Cycle
5. Nitrogen (N) Cycle

A. 78% of the gas in air is made up of molecules of nitrogen gas (N2)
B. Producers (e.g. Plants) make new nitrogen containing molecules, such as protein and
DNA. Plants and other producers are unable to use the nitrogen in the atmosphere and
must get it in the form of nitrate (NO3-) or ammonia (NH3)
C. Nitrogen atoms are cycled in ecosystems. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted by nitrogen-
fixing bacteria to a form that plants can use to make protein and other compounds.
Proteins are passed to other organisms when one organism is eaten by another. Dead
organisms and waste products are acted on by decay organisms to form ammonia, which
may be reused by plants or converted to other nitrogen compounds by other kinds of
bacteria. Denitrifying bacteria are able to convert inorganic nitrogen compounds into
atmospheric nitrogen.
Fig. 9 Nitrogen Cycle
6. Phosphorus (P) Cycle

A. Phosphorus is an element common in the structure of living things and is present in DNA
and in the membrane structure of cells, bonds, and teeth of animals
B. Phosphorus is not present in atmosphere as a gas and come from rock.
C. In nature, new phosphorus compounds are released by the dissolved phosphorus
compounds to construct the molecules they need. Animals obtain the phosphorus they
need when they consume plants or other animals. When an organism dies or excretes
waste products, decomposer organisms recycle the phosphorus compounds back into the
soil. Phosphorus compounds that are dissolved in water are ultimately precipitated as
deposits.
Fig. 10 Phosphorus Cycle
In naturally occurring soil, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are often a limiting factor for
plant growth. Therefore, famers provide extra sources of nitrogen and phosphorus in several ways
such as providing inorganic fertilizers containing ammonia (NH3), nitrate (NO3-) and phosphate
(PO43-).

Chapter 3 Energy Issues

1. History of energy consumption
- Every form of life and all societies require a constant input of energy. Energy is essential to
maintain life.
- The first transfer of energy occurs during photosynthesis, when plants convert light energy
into the chemical energy in the organic molecules they produce. Then the energy is
transferred from producer to consumers in food chain.
- Early in human history, people used biomass (i.e. Wood, wild plant etc) as a source of
energy for transportation, cooking, farming, and other tasks.
2. Energy sources
- The energy sources most commonly used by industrialized nations are the fossil fuels; Oil,
coal and natural gas, which supply about 80% of the world’s energy.
- They are the accumulation of energy-rich organic molecules produced by organisms as a
result of photosynthesis over millions of years.
- Since we are using these resources much faster than they can be produced and the amount
of these materials is finite, they are known as nonrenewable energy sources (Fossil fuels:
Oil, Coal, and Natural gas).
- Nonrenewable energy sources: Those energy sources that are not replaced by natural
processes within a reasonable length of time.
- Renewable energy sources: Those energy sources that can be regenerated by natural
processes.
Other renewable energy: Wind, Solar, Geothermal etc.
Fig. 11 Energy Sources
3. Fossil fuels
- Fossil fuels are the remains of once-living organisms that were preserved and altered as a
result of geologic forces.
3.1 Coal
- Coal was formed from plant material that has been subjected to heat and pressure.
3.2 Oil and natural gas

- Oil and natural gas probably originated from microscopic marine organisms. When these
organisms died and accumulated on the ocean bottom and were buried by sediments, their
breakdown released oil droplets.
- Natural gas also forms from fossil remains. If the heat generated within the earth reached
high enough temperatures, natural gas could have formed along with or instead of oil. This
would have happened as the organic material changed to lighter, more volatile
Chapter 3 Energy Issues 11
hydrocarbons than those found in oil. The most common hydrocarbon in natural gas is the
gas methane (CH4).
3.3 Environmental issues related to the use of fossil fuels

- Of the world’s commercial energy, about 80% is furnished by the three nonrenewable
fossil-fuel resources; Oil, Coal and Natural gas.
- Coal: the mining, transportation, and use of coal as an energy source present several
significant environmental problems such as landscape disturbance, great deal of dust
generation, acid mine drainage, acid deposition, and release of carbon dioxide (CO2) from
the burning of coal causing global warming.
- Oil: huge amount of oil is carried by giant spertankers cross the ocean. All of the
extraction, transportation of oil and refining activity create opportunities for accidental or
routine releases (leaks and spill oil) that may cause air or water pollution.
- Natural gas: Of the three fossil fuels, natural gas is the least disruptive to the environment.
Natural gas poses no harm to the environment during transport. Since it is clean burning, it
causes almost no air pollution. The products of its combustion are carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H2O). Although the burning of natural gas produces carbon dioxide, which
contributes to global warming, it produces less carbon dioxide than does coal or oil.
4. Renewable sources of energy

The burning of fossil fuels provides over 80% of the energy used in the world, Nuclear
energy provides an additional 6.3%. However, the burning of fossil fuels causes several
environmental problems such as air and water pollution. Additionally, since fossil fuels are
nonrenewable, they will eventually become scarce and the price will rise. Therefore, renewable
sources certainly will become much more important.
Currently, alternative energy sources are biomass, hydroelectricity, wind turbines, solar
energy, geothermal energy and tidal energy, which supply about 12.7% of the world’s total energy.
4.1 Biomass
Fuel wood, solid waste, crop residues and animal wastes etc. There are several technologies
capable of converting biomass into energy. These include direct combustion, and cogeneration,
ethanol production (biofuels, biodisel), anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis.
4.2 Hydroelectric power

Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity.
4.3 Solar energy

Solar energy is utilized in three ways:
1. In a passive heating system, the sun’s energy is converted directly into heat for use at the
site where it is collected.
2. In an active heating system, the sun’s energy is converted into heat, but the heat must be
transferred from the collection area to the place of use.
3. The sun’s energy also can be used to generate electricity by heating water to turn turbines
or by using photovoltaic cells.
4.4 Wind energy

Fields of wind-powered generators can produce large amounts of electricity.
4.5 Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is obtained in two different ways. In geologically active areas where hot
magma approaches the surface, the heat from the underlying rock can be used to heat water. The

heated water can then be used directly either to heat buildings or to generate electricity by way of a
steam turbine.
4.6 Tidal power

Convert tidal energy into electricity.
5. Energy conservation
- Conservation is not a way of generating energy, but it is way of reducing the need for
additional energy, and is saves money for the consumer.
- More efficient and less energy-intensive industry and domestic practices could save large
amounts of energy. Improved automobile efficiency, better mass transit, use of fluorescent
light bulbs, energy-efficient appliances, low-emissive glass etc.

Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues

1. Atmosphere
A. The atmosphere (air) is composed of 78.1% nitrogen (N2), and 20.9% oxygen (O2), and
other gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and water vapor.
B. The atmosphere is composed of four layers.
1. Troposphere: from the earth’s surface to about 10 km above the earth. It actually
varies from about 8 to 18 km depending on the position of the earth and the season
of the year. The temperature of the troposphere declines by about 6℃ for every km
above the surface. The troposphere contains most of the water vapor of the
atmosphere and is the layer in which weather takes place.
2. Stratosphere: from the top of the troposphere to about 50 km and contains most of
the ozone (O3). The ozone is a band between 15 and 30 km above the earth’s
surface. Because ozone layer absorbs sunlight, the upper layers of the stratosphere
are warmer than the lower layers.
3. Mesosphere: a layer with decreasing temperature from 50 to 80 km above the
earth.
4. Thermosphere: a layer with increasing temperature that extends to about 300 km
above the earth’s surface.
2. Self-purification of air
When a population is small and the energy use is low, the impact of people is minimal. The
pollutants released into the air are diluted, carried away by the wind, washed from the air by rain, or
react with oxygen in the air to form harmless materials. Thus the overall negative effect is slight.
However our urbanized, industrialized civilization has dense concentrations of people that use large
quantities of fossil fuels for manufacturing, transportation, and domestic purposes. These activities
release large quantities of polluting by-products into our environment.
3. Categories of air pollutants

3.1 Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is produced when organic materials such as gasoline, coal, wood and
trash are burned with insufficient oxygen. (2C + O2  2CO). The major source of carbon monoxide
is the internal combustion engine, which is used to provide most of our transportation (motor
vehicles, e.g. car, motorbike etc). The more concentrated the number of automobiles, the more
concentrated the pollutants.
- Heath effect: CO is dangerous because it binds to the hemoglobin in blood and makes the
hemoglobin less able to carry oxygen. Even small amounts of CO tend to accumulate and
reduce the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity. Thus, several hours of exposure to air
containing only 0.001% of CO can cause death. In addition, the amount of CO produced in
heavy traffic can cause headache, drowsiness, fatigue, and dizziness.
3.2 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

A compound of sulfur and oxygen that is produced when sulfur-containing fossil fuels are
burned (S + O2 SO2). There is sulfur (S) in coal and oil because they were produced from the
bodies of organisms that had sulfur as a component of some of their molecules. The sulfur combines
with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2) when fossil fuels are burned. Today, over 70% of sulfur
dioxide released into the atmosphere is from power plants, primarily those that burn coal.
- Health effect: a sharp odor, irritates respiratory tissue, aggravates asthmatic and other
respiratory conditions. Damage of lung tissue (SO2 react with water, oxygen, and other
materials in the air to form sulfur-containing acids which can become attached to
particles).
Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues 14

3.3 Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
The burning of fossil fuels (particularly in internal combustion engines) produces a mixture
of nitrogen containing compounds commonly known as oxides of nitrogen or nitrogen oxides (NOx:
NO, NO2). The two most common molecules are nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). The primary molecule produces is nitrogen monoxide (N2 + O2  2NO), but nitrogen
monoxide can be converted to nitrogen dioxide in the air (2NO + O2  2NO2) to produce a mixture
of NO and NO2.
- Health & environmental effect: NO2 is a reddish brown, highly reactive gas that is
responsible for much of the haze seen over cities, causes respiratory problems and is a
component of acid precipitation (acid rain). NO2 is also important in the production of
photochemical smog.
3.4 Lead (Pb)

Lead can enter the body when we inhale airborne particles or consume lead that was
deposited on surfaces. Lead was added to gasoline to help engines run more effectively (gasoline
addictives). The major source of lead contamination is lead paints and gasoline addictives.
- Health effect & environmental effect: Lead accumulates in body and causes a variety of
health effects, including mental retardation and kidney damage.
3.5 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

VOCs are organic compounds that readily evaporate and become pollutants in the air. The use
of internal combustion engines (i.e. car, motorcycles) accounts for about 37% of VOCs released
into the air. In addition, the use of solvents and fires contribute VOCs release.
3.6 Particulate matter (PM)

Particulate matter (e.g. dust) consists of minute (< 10 μm) solid particles and liquid droplets
dispersed into the atmosphere.
- Health effect & environmental effect: reduction of visibility, accumulate in the lungs and
interfere with their ability to exchange gases.
4. Ground-level ozone and photochemical smog.

4.1 Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog is a yellowish-brown haze (fog) that is the result of the interaction of
VOCs, NOx and sunlight. (In addition, photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants including
ozone, aldehydes, and peroxyacetyl nitrates that result from the interaction of nitrogen dioxide and
volatile organic compounds with sunlight in a warm environment.) The most constructive
compounds of photochemical smog is ozone. Ozone is particularly harmful because it destroys
chlorophyll in plants and injures lung tissue in human and animals.
In most urban areas, nitrogen monoxides, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) are present as by-products of cars and industrial processes. In the presence of sunlight,
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) breaks down to nitrogen monoxide and atomic oxygen:
NO2  NO + O* (under sunlight)
Atomic oxygen is extremely reactive and will react with molecular oxygen in the air to form
ozone:
O* + O2  O3
O* or O3 + VOCs  organic free radical
NO + free radical  NO2 + other organic molecules.
This step is important because the presence of additional NO2 results in the further
production of ozone.
- While smog can develop in any area, some cities have greater problems because of their
climate, traffic, and geographic features. Cities with warm climates and those that have lots

of sunlight are more prone to develop photochemical smog because the chemical reactions
responsible for smog are supported by warm temperature and sunlight.
4.2 Thermal inversion

- Normally, air is warmer at the surface of the earth and gets cooler at higher altitude.
- Under normal conditions, the air at the earth’s surface is heated by the sun and rises to mix
with the cooler air above it. When a thermal inversion occurs, a layer of heavier cool air
flows into a valley and pushes the warmer air up. The heavy cooler air is then unable to
mix with the less-dense warm air above and cannot escape because of surrounding
mountains. The cool air is trapped, sometimes for several days, and accumulates pollutants.
If the thermal inversion continues, the levels of pollution can become dangerously high.
Fig. 12 Thermal Inversion
5. Acid deposition (Acid rain)

A. Acid deposition is the accumulation of potential acid-forming particles on a surface. The
acid-forming particles can be dissolved in rain, snow, or fog or can be deposited as dry
particles.
B. pH of acid rain is lower than pH. 5.6. (natural rain: > pH 5.6-5.7)
C. Causes of acid deposition: molecules from natural sources (i.e. vegetation, volcanoes,
lightning), power plants and internal combustion engines (burning fossil fuel) react to
produce the chemicals that are the source of acid deposition.
D. Effects of acid rain
A. Damage of buildings and monuments which are made from limestone (CaCO3).
B. Decline and dead of tree  forest decline.
C. Effect on aquatic ecosystem: lakes become more acidic and loss of many kinds of
aquatic organisms. Healthy lake has a pH above 6.
6. Ozone depletion
A. Ozone in the outer layer of the atmosphere (the stratosphere) shields the earth from the
harmful effect of ultraviolet light radiation. Ozone layer prevents 99% of the ultraviolet

light energy reaching the earth’s surface. Ultraviolet light is strongly linked to skin cancers
and cataracts (eye disease) in humans and increased mutations in all living things.
B. Ozone destruction: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and similar compounds are the main
causes of ozone destruction.
- CFCs: gas material of refrigerator, air conditioner, and aerosol can (Spray).
- Cl (in CFCs) + O3  ClO + O2
- ClO + O  Cl + O2
Fig. 12 Ozone Destruction
C. Action to protect the ozone layer: Montreal protocol (1987) several industrial countries,
including Canada, USA, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, The soviet
Union (Russia, in present), and West Germany agreed to freeze CFC and halon production
at current (1987) levels and reduce production by 50% by the year 2000.
In 1996, The USA stopped producing CFCs. As a result of the development of new
refrigerant that would not harm the ozone layer and rapid changes in technologies, the use
of CFCs has dropped rapidly, and concentrations of CFC in the atmosphere will slowly fall
over the next few decades.
7. Global warming and climate change

- In recent years, scientists noticed that the average temperature of the Earth was increasing
and looked for causes for the change. It is clear that the Earth has had changes in its average
temperature many times in the geologic past before humans were present. So, scientists initially
tried to determine if the warning was a natural phenomenon or the result of human activity.
7.1 Causes of global warming and climate change
Several gases in the atmosphere are transparent to ultraviolet and visible light but absorb
infrared radiation. These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and be absorbed by the
Earth’s surface. This sunlight energy is reradiated as infrared radiation (Heat), which is absorbed by
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
* greenhouse gases:
- The gases that let sunlight enter the atmosphere but slow the loss of heat from the Earth’s
surface.
- Carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide
(N2O).
① Carbon dioxide (CO2): the most abundant of the greenhouse gases. It occurs as a
natural consequence of respiration. However, much larger quantities are put into the
atmosphere as a waste product of energy production. Coal, oil, natural gas, and
biomass are all burned to provide heat and electricity for industrial processes, home
heating, and cooking. Another factor contributing to the increase in the concentration
of CO2 in the atmosphere is deforestation. Trees and other vegetation remove CO2
from the air and use it for photosynthesis. Therefore, the combination of these factors
(fossil fuel burning and deforestation) has resulted in an increase in the concentration
of CO2 in the atmosphere.
② Methane (CH4): Comes primarily from biological sources, although some enters the
atmosphere from fossil-fuel sources. Several kinds of bacteria that are particularly
abundant in wetland and rice paddies release CH4 into the atmosphere. Methane-
releasing bacteria are also found in large numbers in the guts of termites and various
kinds of ruminant animals such as cattle.
③ Nitrous oxide (N2O): come from burning fossil fuels and fertilizer, but a minor
component of the greenhouse gases.
④ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): is widely used as refrigerant gases in refrigerators and
air conditioners, as cleaning solvents, as propellants in aerosol containers and as
expanders in foam products. CFCs are also a minor component of the greenhouse
gas.
7.2 Potential consequences of global warming and climate change

- It is important to recognize that although a small increase in the average temperature of the
Earth may seem trivial; such an increase could set in motion changes that could
significantly alter the climate of major regions of the world.
- Especially, poorer nations are generally more vulnerable to the consequences of global
warming. These nations tend to be more dependent on climate-sensitive sectors, such as
subsistence agriculture, and lack the economic resources to buffer themselves against the
changes that global warming may bring.
⑤ Disruption of the hydrologic cycle: Rising temperatures are expected to result in
increased evaporation, which will cause some areas to become drier, while the
increased moisture in the air will result in greater rainfall in other areas. This is
expected to cause droughts in some areas and flooding in others.
⑥ Rising sea level: When water increases in temperature, it expands and takes up more
space. In addition, a warming of the earth would result in the melting of glaciers,
which would add more water to the oceans. Rising sea level erodes beaches and
coastal wetland, low-lying areas, and increases the vulnerability of coastal areas to
flooding from storm surges and intense rainfall.
⑦ Health effects: The most direct effect of climate change would be the impacts of
hotter temperatures. Extremely hot temperatures increase the number of people who
die on a given day. Heat exhaustion and some respiratory problems increase.
⑧ In addition, tropical diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever may be able
to spread to parts of the world where they do not currently occur.
⑨ Changes to ecosystems (changes in weather patterns)
7.3 Addressing climate change

- A major step toward slowing global warming would be to increase the efficiency of
energy utilization. Increasing energy efficiency can reduce carbon dioxide production,
even if global warming is not a concern.
- Preservation of plants such as rainforests, wetland etc. the excess carbon dioxide can
be used by vegetation during photosynthesis, thereby reducing the impact of carbon
dioxide released by fossil-fuel burning.
- Resources and polices to increase investment and use in renewable energy sources such
as wind power, solar energy etc.
- International agreements
7
Chapter 5 Water Quality
1. Water (H2O)
A. Water in its liquid form is the material that makes life possible on Earth.
B. All living organism are composed of cells that contain at least 60 percent water (For
human > 70%).
C. Water molecules are polar, thus, water is a good solvent. Because of this, the water
molecules tend to dissolve other substances such as salts, sugars, acid, alkalis, and some
gases, especially oxygen, carbon dioxide. Because of this, it is rarely found in nature in
a pure condition. Even water in a mountain stream, far from civilization, contains some
natural impurities in solution and suspension.
2. Water quality issues

The topic of water quality focuses on the presence of foreign substances in water and their
effects on people or the aquatic environment. Water of good quality for one purpose may be
considered to be of poor quality for some other use. What exactly is pure water? Just how pure does
it have to be for drinking or for other uses? Obviously, it is not enough to simply describe water
quality as being “good” or “poor”. Some quantitative measures to determine and describe the
condition of the water are needed.
Protecting water quality and modifying it for a particular purpose are major objectives in the
field of environmental technology. It is therefore necessary to make use of technical terms in
discussing the various aspects of water quality and pollution. In particular, reference to the different
parameters of physical, chemical, and biological quality needs to be made.
3. Physical parameters of water quality

3.1 Turbidity
When small particles are suspended in water, they tend to scatter and absorb light rays. This
gives the water a murky or turbid appearance, and this effect is called turbidity.
Clay, silt, tiny fragments of organic matter, and microscopic organisms are some of the
substances that cause turbidity. Turbidity is a particularly important parameter of drinking water
quality. Suspended particles can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and there by
shield those from the disinfection process in a water treatment plant. Because of this shielding
effect, the microbes can be consumed by people who drink the water, and the spread of disease may
result. Commonly, for drinking water, instrument called turbidity meter (Nephelometers) are used to
measure the turbidity after purification.
Unit of turbidity: NTU.
3.2 Temperature
Most species can adapt to a moderate change from their optimum temperature, but if the
change is excessive the organisms will perish or migrate to a new location. Sudden drops in
temperature can be harmful, but usually an increase in temperature will cause more damage than a
decrease. Temperature plays a more important role in wastewater and water pollution control.
Biological wastewater treatment systems are more efficient at higher temperatures.
3.3 Color, Taste, and odor

Color, taste, and odor are physical characteristics of drinking water that are important for
esthetic reasons. Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or
colored glass disks. One color unit (1 TCU) is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L solution
of platinum.
Chapter 5 Water Quality 19

4. Chemical parameters of water quality
Many organic and inorganic chemicals affect water quality. In drinking water, these effects
may be related to public health or to esthetics and economics. In surrounding waters, chemical
quality can affect the aquatic environment. Several chemical parameters are also of concern in
wastewater.
4.1 Dissolved oxygen (DO)

The amount of oxygen that is dissolved in water. DO is generally considered to be one of the
most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. Fish and other aquatic
organisms need DO in the water to survive. Bacteria use up the DO very rapidly if there is much
organic material in the water. Therefore, the higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen is, the
better the water quality is. The saturation concentration of DO at 20℃ is about 9 mg/L (9 ppm).
Oxygen solubility is very sensitive to temperature, thus changes in water temperature have a
significant effect on DO concentration.
4.2 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize
organic material, they consume oxygen. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds,
such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction. When
this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO. If oxygen is not continually replaced
in the water by artificial or natural means, then, the DO level will decrease as the organics are
decomposed by the microbes. This need for oxygen is called in biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD). BOD is one of the most commonly used terms in water quality and pollution control
technology.
Measurement of BOD5: The test for the 5-day BOD (BOD5) of a water sample involves
taking two DO measurements: an initial measurement at t = 0 and a second measurement at t
= 5 days at 20℃. The BOD5 is simply the difference between the two DO measurements.
4.3 Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension. These two types of solids are
distinguished by passing the water sample through a glass-fiber filter. By definition, the suspended
solids (SS) are retained on top of the filter, and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the
water. If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the
solids in the water remain as a residue in the evaporating dish. This material is usually called total
dissolved solids (TDS). In drinking water, dissolved solids may cause taste problems. Hardness,
corrosion, or esthetic problems may also accompany excess TDS concentration.
4.4 Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of certain highly mineralized waters (High
TDS concentration). The dissolved minerals cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water
pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap. Calcium, Ca2+ and magnesium, Mg2+ ions cause
the greatest portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters. These minerals enter the water
primarily from contact with soil and rock, especially limestone deposits. In general, groundwater is
harder than surface water because it is in contact with mineral deposits for long periods. Hardness is
usually expressed in terms of milligrams per liter (mg/L) of calcium carbonate CaCO 3. Water with
more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and water with less than 75
mg/L is considered to be soft.
4.5 Metals
(Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), and Zinc (Zn))
Iron and manganese do not cause health problems; they do impart a noticeable bitter taste to
drinking water, even at very low concentrations. These metals usually occur in groundwater in
solution. Copper and zinc are nontoxic in small concentrations, but they cause undesirable taste in
drinking water.
4.6 Anions
(Fluorides (F-), Chlorides (Cl-), Sulfates (SO42-), Nitrogen (NH3, NO2-, NO3-), Phosphorus)
Fluoride occurs naturally in water in some areas. A moderate amount of fluoride (about 1
mg/L) in drinking water contributes to good dental health, but, excessive amount of fluoride cause
mottled or discolored teeth. Chlorides (Cl-) in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on
public health, but high concentration can cause a salty taste. The four forms of nitrogen that are of
particular significance in environmental technology are organic nitrogen, ammonia (NH3), nitrite
(NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-). Nitrogen is a basic nutrient that is essential to the growth of plants,
particularly in nitrate (NO3-) form. Excessive nitrate concentration in surface waters encourages that
rapid growth of microscopic plants called algae; excessive growth of algae degrades water quality.
In addition, excessive NO3- concentrations in drinking water pose an immediate and serious health
threat to infants under 3 month of age. The NO3- reacts with blood hemoglobin, reducing the
blood’s ability to carry oxygen; this produces a disease called blue baby of methemoglobinemia.
4.7 Acidity, alkalinity, and pH

Acidity, alkalinity and pH of water is commonly measured to be control the water treatment
process in a water purification facility. The required doses of various chemicals depend on the
concentration of acidity or alkalinity, or on the pH of the water.
5. Biological parameters of water quality

5.1 Indicator organisms
One of the most important attributes of good quality water is that it be free of disease-
causing organisms’ pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa, or parasitic worms. Water contaminated
with sewage may contain such organisms because they excreted in the feces of infected individuals.
If contaminated water is consumed by others before it is properly treated, the cycle of disease can
continue in epidemic proportions. Testing water for the presence of individual pathogens is a very
difficult, time-consuming, and impractical task. Therefore, more practical and reliable approach
than testing for individual pathogen is to test for a single species that would signal the possible
presence of sewage contamination. If sewage is present in the water, it can be assumed that the
water may also contain pathogenic organisms and is a threat to public health. A species of
organisms that serves this purpose is called an indicator organism.
5.2 Coliforms
A very important biological indicator of water quality and pollution used in environmental
technology is the group of bacteria called coliforms. Not pathogenic, coliforms are always present
in the intestinal tract of human and millions are excreted with body wastes. Consequently, water
that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms. A particular species
of coliforms found in domestic sewage is called Escherichia coli, or E. coli. Coliform bacteria are
hardy organisms that survive in water longer than most pathogens and are also relatively easy to
detect. If coliforms are detected, there is a possibility of recent sewage pollution.
No coliforms  No sewage pollution  no pathogens.
- Total foliforms: all the members of coliform regardless of the origin.
- fecal coliform: coliforms from intestines of warm-blooded animals
- E.coli: fecal coliforms from human.

Chapter 6 Water Pollution
1. Water issue
- The hydrologic cycle: All water is locked into a constant cycling process called the
hydrologic cycle. Water is recycled through the processes of evaporation and precipitation. Even
though water is constantly being recycled, only a small amount is available for use by humans.
- Water distribution: The oceans contain over 97% of earth, that is, over 97% is salt water
which cannot be consumed by humans or used for many industrial processes. The remaining 3% is
freshwater that human can use. Of the fresh water found on Earth, only a tiny fraction is available
for use. This 3% fresh water is further divided, with 70% stored as ice (i.e. glaciers and the polar ice
caps), 29% stored as groundwater, and the remaining 1% stored as surface water.
2. Kinds and sources of water pollutants

Sources of water pollutants are classified as either point source or nonpoint source.
2.1 A Point source pollutant
A point source pollutant is one that reaches the water from a pipe, channel, or any other
confined and localized source. Municipal and industrial discharge pipes are good examples of point
source.
2.2 Nonpoint source pollutant

Nonpoint source pollutant is a broad, unconfined area from which pollutants enter a body of
water. For example, surface runoff from agricultural areas, carries silt, fertilizers, pesticides, and
animal wastes into streams, but not at one particular point. Diffuse pollutants, such as from
agricultural land and urban paved surfaces, acid rain, and runoff come from nonpoint source.
- Point source pollutants are easier to deal with than are nonpoint source pollutants. Those
from a point source have been collected and conveyed to a single point where they can be
removed from the water in a treatment plant, and the point discharges from treatment
plants can easily be monitored by regulatory agencies. However, pollutants from
nonpoint sources are much more difficult to control and identify.
Water pollutants can be classified into groups of substances based primarily on their
environmental or health effects. The following list identifies specific types of pollutants.
2.3 Pathogenic organisms (Pathogens)

Water quality degradation from human activities continues to harm human and ecosystem
health. Three million people die from waterborne diseases each year in developing countries-the
majority are children under the age of 5. Water contaminated by microbes remains the greatest
single cause of human illness and death on a global scale. Untreated or inadequately treated human
or domesticated animal waste (e.g. feces, urines) is most often the source of pathogens. In the
developing countries, sewage treatment and drinking water treatment plants greatly reduce this
public health problem.
2.4 Organic materials

Dissolved organic matter is a significant water pollution problem because it decays in the
water. As the microorganisms naturally present in water break down the organic matter, they use up
available dissolved oxygen from the water. If too much dissolved oxygen (DO) is removed, aquatic
organisms die. Measuring the BOD of a water body is one way to determine how polluted it is. If
too much organic matter is added to the water, all of the available oxygen will be used up. Then,
anaerobic (no requiring oxygen) bacteria begin to break down wastes. Anaerobic respiration
produces chemicals that have a foul odor and an unpleasant taste and generally interfere with the
well-being of humans.
Chapter 6 Water Pollution 22

e.g. Effect of organic wastes on dissolved oxygen. Sewage contains a high concentration of
organic materials. When these are degraded by microorganisms, oxygen is removed from the
water (that is, BOD). The greater the BOD, the more difficult it is for aquatic animals to
survive and the less desirable the water is for human use. The more the organic pollution, the
greater the BOD.
2.5 Toxic organic and inorganic chemicals

It may kill organisms and make the water unfit for human use. If these chemicals are
persistent, they may bio-accumulate in individual organisms and bio-magnify in food chain. Toxic
organic chemicals can also get into water directly from industrial activity, either from improper
handling of the chemicals in the industrial plant of as has been more common, from improper and
illegal disposal of chemical wastes. Proper management of toxic and other hazardous wastes is a
key environmental issue, particularly with respect to the production of groundwater quality.
Poisonous inorganic chemicals, specifically the heavy metal group such as lead, mercury, and
chromium, also usually originate from industrial activity and are considered hazardous wastes.
2.6 Plant nutrients ( Lake pollution)

Additional nutrients in the form of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) compounds from
fertilizer, sewage, detergents, and animal waste increase the rate of growth of aquatic plants and
algae. Phosphate and nitrates are generally present in very limited amounts in unpolluted freshwater
and therefore, are a limiting factor on the growth of aquatic plants and algae. (limiting factor: a
necessary material that is in short supply, and because of the lack of it, on organism cannot reach its
full potential growth.). Thus, when phosphates or nitrates are added to the surface water, they act as
a fertilizer and promote the growth of undesirable algae populations. The excessive growth of algae
and aquatic plants due to added nutrient is called eutrophication. Algae and larger aquatic plants
may interfere with the use of the water by clogging water-intake pipes, changing the taste and odor
of water, and causing buildup of organic matter on the bottom. As this organic matter decays,
oxygen levels rapidly decrease, and fish and other aquatic species die.
Fig. 13 Eutrophication
3. Groundwater pollution- Arsenic problem (ref: www. rdic. org).

- The naturally occurring presence of arsenic in groundwater is an issue that affects millions
of rural residents in countries throughout the world, most notably Bangladesh, Cambodia,
India, China, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Chile, and Argentina. What many of these
countries have in common are rivers that flow from major mountain ranges (i.e. Himalayas),
and that carry with them large volumes of sediment. Arsenic is carried in these sediments
which are eventually deposited in riverbanks and floodplains. These processes have taken
place for tens of thousands of years, depositing huge amounts of arsenic contaminated
sediments. In regions where the groundwater conditions are just right, the arsenic is released
from the sediments and dissolved into groundwater aquifers. In populated areas, these
contaminated waters are pumped to the surface by wells and ingested by individuals,
families, and communities.
- Arsenicosis is a chronic health condition arising from long-term (3 to 10 year) ingestion of
arsenic. One of the most common signs of arsenicosis is the hardening and discoloration of
skin on the hands and feet, known as keratosis or melanosis. These skin lesions are prone to
infection and gangrene and in extreme cases amputation is necessary to relieve suffering.
Beyond these external manifestations, arsenic consumption also increases the risk of
developing various internal cancers, most commonly lung and skin cancer. In most
situations, arsenic cannot be removed by water treatment techniques typical of developing
countries, such as boiling or filtering. Most developed countries and the World Health
Organization (WHO) have set drinking water quality standards for arsenic at 10 parts per
billion (ppb). Many developing countries, including Cambodia, have set their standard at 50
ppb.
- Arsenic is colorless, tasteless and odorless and it can be detected by only chemical testing.
- Arsenic problems of drinking water in Cambodia

The presence of arsenic in Cambodian groundwater was first documented during a small
groundwater quality survey conducted by the WHO and the Cambodian government in 2001. Since
the initial discovery, several thorough surveys have been undertaken by organizations such as
UNICEF, RDI (Resource development international), and Cambodian Ministry of Rural
Development (MRD). Six provinces were found to have elevated arsenic risk: Kampong Cham,
Kampong Chnang, Kampong Thom, Kandal, Kratie, and Prey Veng. Groundwater arsenic
contamination is most prevalent in parts of Kandal, Kampong Cham, and Prey Veng provinces.
Recently released 2008 National Census data has revealed village level statistics for drinking water
sources. Combining this data with village-level arsenic data, it is estimated that between 75,000 and
150,000 people are consuming arsenic contaminated drinking water for at least part of the year in
Cambodia, as of 2008.
Fig. 14 Cambodia Arsenic Risk Map 2009
7
Chapter 7 Water Treatment (Purification)

1. Introduction
- Water withdrawn directly from rivers, lakes, or reservoirs is rarely clean enough for
human consumption if it is not treated to purify it. Even water pumped from underground
aquifers often requires some degree of treatment to render it potable, that is, suitable for
drinking. The primary objective of water purification is to remove harmful microorganisms
or chemicals, thereby preventing the spread of disease and protecting public health.
- The issues of water in developing countries: About 1.1 million people worldwide lack
access to improved drinking water supply and use unsafe surface and groundwater sources.
1.8 million people die every year due to diarrheal diseases, of which 90% of deaths is
children under age 5. 88% of diarrheal diseases are attributed to unsafe water supply,
inadequate sanitation and hygiene.
2. How can we purify raw water for a safe drinking water?

2.1 Conventional drinking water treatment steps
The most common type of treatment processes for drinking water includes following
processes; Water intake  Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation  filtration  disinfection.
Fig. 15 Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Steps
① Water intake: Generally, surface water (i.e. river, lake, streams etc) or ground water is
used as raw water for drinking water.
② Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation: The impurities in water may be either
dissolved or suspended. When flow velocities and turbulence are minimal, particles that
are denser and heavier than water will be able to settle to the bottom of a tank. This
process is called sedimentation. However, suspended particles cannot be completely
removed from water by plain settling, even when they are given very long detention times
and low overflow rates. Some of the very small turbidity-causing particles, called
colloids, will not settle out of suspension by gravity without some help. If certain
chemicals, called coagulants, are rapidly mixed in the water and then the mixture is
slowly stirred before allowing sedimentation to occur, the particles will settle.
③ Filtration: Even with the help of chemical coagulation, sedimentation by gravity is not
sufficient to remove all the suspended impurities from water. About 5% of the suspended
solids may still remain as non-settleable floc particles. These remaining flocs can cause
noticeable turbidity and may shield microorganisms (including pathogens) from the
subsequent disinfection process. Therefore, an additional treatment step following
coagulation and sedimentation is typically needed. This next step is a physical process
called filtration. Filtration involves the removal of suspended particles from the water by
passing it through a layer or bed of a porous granular material, such as sand or granular
activated carbon (GAC). As the water flows through the filter bed, the suspended
particles become trapped within the pore spaces of the filter material, or filter media.
Chapter 7 Water Treatment (Purification) 25

④ Disinfection: Potable water (Suitable water for drinking) must be completely free of
pathogens. To accomplish this, the final treatment process in water treatment plants is
disinfection, which destroys or inactivates the pathogens. The most commonly used
substance for disinfection is chlorine (Cl2). Chlorination is considered to be the single
most important process for preventing the spread of waterborne disease.
2.2 Point-Of Use (POU) household water treatment systems

POU Household Water Treatment System (HWTS)?
Recent studies and review estimate 30-40% reductions in diarrheal disease by improving
household drinking water quality at the point-of-use (POU), making such treatment more effective
than improvement at the source. The goal of POU household water treatment system (HWTS) and
safe storage technologies is to empower people without access to safe water to improve water
quality by treating it and storing it safely in home. There are a number of different POU
technologies which policy makers, implementers, and users can select as appropriate for particular
circumstances and populations (ref: Sobsey et al., 2008).
2.2.1 Chlorination with safe storage

POU free chlorine (hypochlorite) treatment has been widely promoted in recent years.
Chlorine is supplied as concentrated liquid or tablets, designed for treatment of large quantities of
water with a small volume of chlorine. Use of chlorine for disinfection is easy. The user need only
measure out the liquid or dispense the tablet, add it to the water, mix briefly and allow for some
contact time. Many liters of water can be batch treated with 30 min. Except for keeping the water
vessel clean and protected from contamination, no maintenance is required. However, waters with
high organic matter and particles can interfere with chlorine disinfection efficiency; can cause
production of compounds with objectionable taste and odor. Furthermore, residual chlorine (about
0.2 mg/L) in water storage should be detected for safe drinking water.
2.2.2 Commercial water treatment kits (e.g. PÜR water purifier)

Commercial technologies such as PÜR water purifier (Procter and Gamble, Cincinnati,
USA) combine dry coagulant-flocculant and chlorine as tablet or sachets of granular particles that
are added to water. These can remove turbidity, organic matter, and microbes through flocculation
and settling, aesthetically improving waters and facilitating chlorine effectiveness. However, these
water treatment kits are manufactured in few locations, imported to most countries, and require unit
purchase for every 10-20 L of water.
- Directions for use of PÜR water purifier
1. Mix: open a packet using pair of scissors. Add the contents of the packet to a clean
mixing container. Holding 10 L of water.
2. Stir: Stir the powder vigorously in the water for 5 minutes. Be sure a vortex is created
when stirring. Then, let the water stand for 5 minutes until it become clear. After adding
the powder to the water, the water will become colored. The color indicates that the
product is working. When the process is finished, the water will be crystal clear.
3. Filter: If you see the water is still colored, you can stir again and let it rest for another
few minutes. Once the water looks clear, and the floc is at the bottom of the container,
filter the water through a clean cloth filter into a clean storage container and cover it
with a lid. The filter must be a clean, thick 100% cotton cloth, without holes, that
prevents the floc from passing through. Carefully pour the water through the cloth into a
container. The floc will be left behind in the bottom of the container and in the cloth
filter. Discard the floc from the water treatment process in the latrine, or the ground
away from children and animals. Rinse and wash the cloth thoroughly before reusing.
4. Disinfection (Before drinking): Wait 20 minutes before drinking the water. Do not drink
water if it is colored or cloudy after treatment. If the flocs accidentally get into the
treated water, use another cloth to filter the floc out of the treated water. Drink treated
water within 24 hrs after its preparation.
2.2.3 Coagulation (Naturally occurring coagulants, Moringa Oleifera)
Naturally occurring coagulants are usually presumed safe for human health. Some studies on
natural coagulants have been carried out and various natural coagulants were produced or extracted
from microorganisms, animals or plants. One of the alternatives is Moringa Oleifera (Khmer name:
Mrum) seeds. Moringa Oleifera is now cultivated across Africa, South-east Asia areas. The seed
kernel promotes coagulation of particles in raw water (i.e. turbid water). However, as for all
coagulants, the amount of seed required will vary depending on raw water quality and water source.
The dose ranges shown in table 1.
Table 1. Dose requirements as a function of raw water turbidity (ref: Waterlines, 17(4), 1999)
Raw water Dose range required
turbidity (NTU) (mg/L)
< 50 10-50
50-150 30-100
> 150 50-200
However, these dose are given as a guide only, and experiments to determine more
specific dose requirements for raw water should be carried out.
2.2.4 Filtration (e.g. sand filter, ceramic filter)

Filtration is very important process to treat the drinking water. More than 90% of
microorganisms and other hazardous contaminants such as organic and inorganic compounds can be
removed by this process.
- Ceramic filter: Porous ceramic (fired clay) media are used to filter microbes from
drinking water by size exclusion. Ceramic filters can remove turbidity, organic matter,
and microbes. This filter is simple to clean manually to restore efficacy and flow rate if
too much particulate matter accumulates. The flow rates of ceramic filter are about 1-3
L/hr, but decline with use and accumulation of impurities on filter element surfaces.
Fig. 16 Ceramic Filter
2.2.5 Disinfection: Solar disinfection (SODIS)

Disinfection must be considered as a final step for drinking water. In order to prevent the
waterborne disease by pathogens in drinking water, > 99.999% of microorganisms in water must be
inactivated. There are several disinfection methods for drinking water such as boiling, use
chemicals called disinfectants (i.e. chlorine, ozone, and chlorine dioxide), UV-C irradiation and
solar water disinfection (SODIS).

- SODIS (Solar water disinfection)
The SODIS method is a simple procedure to disinfect drinking water. With SODIS methods,
waterborne disease such as diarrhea, cholera or typhoid can be avoided. Microorganisms in water
can be inactivated (killed) by combination UV light of sun and heat (55~60℃). World Health
Organization (WHO) and NGOs (Non-governmental organizations) recommend the SODIS method
as a way to treat drinking water in developing countries. SODIS projects are currently implemented
in many countries (33 countries worldwide, 2008).
- Direction for use of SODIS
1. Take a PET bottle. Remove the label. The bottles must be clean, unbroken, transparent,
colorless or with a bluish tinge and with a volume of less than three liters.
2. Fill the bottle with water and tighten the lid. If the water is very turbid, it must be
filtered.
3. Expose the bottle to the sun for at least 6 hrs. During this time, the UV-radiation of the
sun kills diarrhea generating pathogens. If more than half of the sky is covered with
clouds, the bottle must be placed in the sun for two consecutive days.
4. Drink it after exposing the bottle for more than 6 hrs under the sun light. The treated
water should be kept in the bottle to prevent recontamination.
Fig. 17 SODIS

References
1. Jerry A. Nathanson (2000), Basic environmental technology (Water supply, Waste
Management, and Pollution control), 3rd ed., York Production services.
th
2. Eldon D. Enger, Bradley F. Smith, Environmental Science, 12 ed., McGraw-Hill
international edition.

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National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 1

1.4 Photosynthesis vs. Respiration

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 2

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

1.5 Major roles of organisms in ecosystems

- Primary consumers (Herbivors): animals that eat producers (Plants or

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 3

Fig. 3 Categories of organisms within an ecosystem

1.6 Food chain and food webs

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 4

2. Population issues and environment

2.2 A population growth curve

Fig. 5 Typical population growth curve

2.2.2 A bacterial growth curve

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 5

Fig. 6 A bacterial growth curve

2.2.3 Limiting factors for population growth

2.2.4 Limiting factors for human population growth

2.2.5 Human population growth

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 6

Fig. 7 Historic human population growth

- Influence of rapid growing population of human

Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Environment 7

Chapter 2 Environment, Energy and Materials

B. Second law of thermodynamics

3. Energy relationships in ecosystem

Fig. 8 Carbon Cycle

5. Nitrogen (N) Cycle

Fig. 9 Nitrogen Cycle

6. Phosphorus (P) Cycle

Fig. 10 Phosphorus Cycle

Chapter 2 Environment, Energy and Materials 10

Chapter 3 Energy Issues

Other renewable energy: Wind, Solar, Geothermal etc.

Fig. 11 Energy Sources

3.2 Oil and natural gas

3.3 Environmental issues related to the use of fossil fuels

4. Renewable sources of energy

4.2 Hydroelectric power

4.3 Solar energy

4.4 Wind energy

4.5 Geothermal energy

Chapter 3 Energy Issues 12

4.6 Tidal power

Chapter 3 Energy Issues 13

Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues

3. Categories of air pollutants

3.2 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues 14

3.4 Lead (Pb)

3.5 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

3.6 Particulate matter (PM)

4. Ground-level ozone and photochemical smog.

Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues 15

4.2 Thermal inversion

Fig. 12 Thermal Inversion

5. Acid deposition (Acid rain)

Chapter 4 Air Pollution & Air Quality Issues 16

Fig. 12 Ozone Destruction