MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION

Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education

By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

Competencies:

1. Explain the philosophy and the nature of the human person

2. Apply the Divine Law as the ultimate basis of all moral and socio-cultural values
3. Analyze the hierarchy of values along with various cultural values
4. Locate the basis of VE in the Philippine Constitution
5. Analyze the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in value development in relation to the Filipino learner and
his/her valuing process
6. Demonstrate strategies to attain the goals of the national VE program

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

A. Definition of Terms:
1. Philosophy – is a science whose essence is founded on reason, experience, reflection, intuition, meditation,
imagination, and speculation that leads to CRITICAL THINKING which embraces questioning, analyzing,
criticizing, synthesizing, evaluating, and judging a given phenomenon of reality.
- "the love of exercising one's curiosity and intelligence. This makes philosophy not a thing or a finished text,
but the process of asking questions and finding answers no matter how tentative these answers may turn out
to be. (FPA Demeterio, III)

2. Philosophy of the human person – is an endeavor which is not an end in itself but means to an end.
- Is one’s desire to know who and what man is
- Deals with the origin of human life, the nature of the human life, and the reality of the human existence.
- Does not study only the human person, but also includes the investigations into such person's internal worlds
of ideas, thoughts and emotions, as well as such person's social world of inter-subjectivity. (FPA Demeterio,
III)

B. Philosophies of Man:
1. Western Philosophies:
- Is broad and covers more about religion, science and other rationalistic thinking.
- The Western approach to a deeper understanding involves the application of symbolic thought (i.e. words and
mathematics). Science relies upon a specific thinking process (logic) while faith relies upon specific thoughts
(dogma).

- Linear view of the universe and life, based on the Christian philosophy where everything has its beginning
and the end.

Greek Philosophers, also known as the pre-Socratic period, believe that the stuff that constitutes the world is also the
same stuff that constitutes human.

a. Thales. Water is the world stuff. In the somatic level of human nature, it is a scientific
knowledge that the human brain contains 80% water and 70% in the human body.

b. Anaximenes. The air is the world-stuff. He thought that the earth was shaped like
a round table, and that air encompasses everything: ' Just as our soul, being air, holds
us together, so do breath and air encompass the whole world.

c. Pythagoras depicted that the soul is immortal, divine & is subjected to

metempsychosis. As immortal and divine, the soul has fallen and is incarnated in the
body until it gets purified & finally assures reunification with the divine. This reunification
is possible only through constant reincarnation'

d. Protagoras (representative of the Sophists). Human is the Ultimate criterion of truth.

According to him, “man is the measure of all things, of all things that are that they are,
and of things that are not that they are not”. Therefore, human is the absolute
possessor of truth.

The Socratic period. This is a revolutionized philosophy through the use of the Socratic Method which developed the
very general philosophical methods of definition, analysis, and synthesis.

a. Socrates. Human is a being who thinks and wills. Human soul is more important than the body.
Human’s responsibility is to discover the truth; truth about good life, for it is in knowing the good life that

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

human can act correctly. He views that virtue is knowledge and vice is ignorance. He also believes that the supreme
importance of thinking as well as possible and making our actions conform to our thoughts.

b. Plato. The nature of the human person is seen in the metaphysical dichotomy between body and soul.
These dualistic entities have distinctive qualities, which are contradictory to each other. For him, the body is
material, it cannot live and move apart from the soul; it is mutable and destructible. On the contrary, the soul
is immaterial; it can exist apart from the body; it is immutable & indestructible.

c. Aristotle. There is no dichotomy between human’s body and soul. Body and soul are in a state of unity. In
this unity, the soul acts as the full realization of the body while the body is a material entity, which has a
potentiality for life. The body is matter to the soul and the soul form to the body. Therefore, body and soul are
inseparable. For him, reason is not only what is most odd about humanity, but it is also what we were meant
to achieve at our best.
For Aristotle, humans are political animals (i.e. social animals), and governments are set up in order to pursue good for
the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (polis) was the highest form of community, it has the purpose of
pursuing the highest good.

Medieval Philosophers (Medieval Philosophy is Theodicy. Theodicy is the philosophical science of God. All philosophies
under this period are views on the existence of God) The philosophy of this period is characterized by analysis of the
nature and properties of God; the metaphysics involving substance, essences and accidents (that is, qualities that are
respectively essential to substances possessing them or merely happening to be possessed by them), form, and
divisibility; and logic and the philosophy of language.

a. St. Augustine. God created human with a mortal body with an immortal soul and gave him/her free will.
For him, the source of evil is free will. God created human good, but the good in him/her ceases to be good
when he/she turns himself away from God. Human is responsible for the existence of evil, not God because
God cannot will it; He is absolute Goodness. St. Augustine believes that human’s nature, his/her free will, is
what makes human imperfect but human is also capable of reaching perfection only if he/she keeps
himself/herself good.

b. St. Thomas Aquinas understands man as a whole. He claims that man is substantially united body and
soul. The soul is united with the human body and it is the principle of life. However, the soul requires the
body as the material medium for its operation, particularly perception. But the soul has operative functions,
which do not need a material medium; they are man’s intellect and will. Thus, at death, the intellect and will
remain in the soul as it is immortal, simple, and incorruptible.

Modern Philosophy - is philosophy done in Europe and North America between the 17th and early 20th
centuries.

Modern Philosophers

a. Rene Descartes’ view of human is founded on his idea of substance. As a substance, human is both a
thinking substance and an extended substance. As thinking substance, human can know and think apart from
the body. As an extended substance, human assumes life and move through the animal spirits, not through
the soul. For him, man is a machine and a thinking being, a thing that thinks.

b. Karl Marx’s view on human nature is derived from labor since nature is the totality of human activity, and
considering that labor is in itself a human activity, in fact, the highest form of activity, then, human nature
derives its existence from labor. For him, human nature rests on labor, therefore, man should be productive, if
not, he/she loses his nature.

c. Thomas Hobbes. Human beings are physical objects, sophisticated machines all of whose
functions and activities can be described and explained in purely mechanistic terms. Sensation,
for example, involves a series of mechanical processes operating within the human nervous
system, by means of which the sensible features of material things produce ideas in the brains of
the human beings who perceive them.

Moreover, Hobbes believes that human nature is essentially anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this
egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. As Hobbes acknowledged, this account of human nature
emphasizes our animal nature, leaving each of us to live independently of everyone else, acting only in his or her own
self-interest, without regard for others.

d. For Martin Buber, man is not only an individual being but also a social being. He applied the principle of
personalism in his theory of human’s interrelatedness to others. He believes that man establishes a
relationship with his fellowman in three levels: I-it, I-He/She, and I-Thou. The highest level of the human
person’s relatedness is the I-thou relationship. This relationship happens when the “I” and “Thou” are bound
together in the context of love.

e. For Jean Jacques Rousseau. Human is essentially good, and that good people are made unhappy and

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

corrupted by their experiences in society. He viewed society as “artificial” and “corrupt” and that the furthering of
society results in the continuing unhappiness of man. He proposed that humans had once been solitary animals,
and had learnt to be political..

Existentialist Philosophers

a. For Jean-Paul Sartre, the meaning of human existence is found in man’s exercise of freedom and
responsibility in the scope of man’s individual and social undertakings.

b. For Martin Heidegger, human existence can only be attained when man lives his life
authentically. Authentic existence requires man to do the following:

 Man has to free himself from his inauthentic existence with the “they” so that man can own his existence.
 As man owns his existence, he has to project his possibilities; man has to make himself;
 As man makes himself, he has to experience dread, care, concern, guilt. Besides, man has to listen to the voice of
conscience, so that he can resolve to live authentically; and
 With man’s resolute decision to live authentically, man has to accept death as his own most inevitable possibility.

c. For Soren Kierkegaard, human can achieve a meaningful existence when human liberates himself
from his/her “: crowd-existence”. This liberation is possible if human lives not only in his aesthetic mode
of existence but also in the ethical and religious modes.

d. For Karl Jaspers, the attainment of human existence is possible when he/she is seen as a whole or as
the “Encompassing”. Seen this way, human can be Encompassing when he/she sees himself/herself as an
existent being, as a conscious being, as a spirit, and as existenz.

e. For Viktor Frankl, human can find meaning in his/her existence in a three-fold manner, namely:
 By doing a life-project
 By experiencing value, particularly in the context of love; and
 By finding meaning in suffering

f. John Stuart Mill (utilitarianism). Mill fully accepted Bentham’s devotion to greatest happiness
principles as the basic statement of utilitarian value: “…actions are right in proportion as they tend to
promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce pain. By happiness means intended pleasure, and
the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure.” But Mill did not agree that all
differences among pleasures could be quantified. To him, some kinds of pleasure experienced by human
beings also differ from each other in qualitative ways, and only those who have experienced pleasure of
both sorts are competent judges of their relative quality. This establishes the moral worth of promoting higher
(largely intellectual) pleasures among sentient beings even their momentary intensity may be less than that of
alternative lower (largely bodily) pleasures.

g. Jeremy Bentham. His moral theory was founded on the assumption that it is the consequences of
human actions that count in evaluating their merit and that the kind of consequence that matters for human
happiness is just the achievement of pleasure and avoidance of pain. He argued that the hedonistic value
of any human action is easily calculated by considering how intensely its pleasure is felt, how long that
pleasure lasts, how certainly and how quickly it follows upon the performance of the action and how likely it
is to produce collateral benefits and avoid collateral harms. All that remains, Bentham supposed, is to consider
the extent of this pleasure, since the happiness of the community as a whole is nothing other than the sum of
individual human interests. The principle of utility, then, defines the meaning of moral obligation by reference to
the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people who are affected by performance of an action.

h. David Hume (naturalism) believed that our beliefs and actions are the products of custom or habit.
Since all our scientific beliefs have exactly the same foundation, this account preserves the natural
dignity of moral judgments. According to him, it is our feelings or sentiments that exert practical influence
over human volition and action. He also claimed that a constant conjunction between having a motive
(not reason) for acting and performing the action in question. Hence, with the same reliability that
characterizes our belief in any casual relation, therefore, feelings have the power to result in actions.

i. Freidrich Nietzche insists that there are no rules for human life, no absolute values, no certainties on
which to rely. If truth can be achieved at all, it can come only from an individual who purposefully
disregards everything that is traditionally taken to be “important rejects traditional values including
religion.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

2. Eastern Philosophy
- Is mainly derived from the religious teachings of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. There is more of a one-
way transmission of knowledge and this is more authoritative. It thought about the expectations which adult
learners have of their teachers as being the store house of knowledge and their reluctance to challenge the
authority of the teacher.
- The most important characteristic of the Eastern world view - one could almost say the essence of it - is
the awareness of the unity and mutual interrelation of all things and events, the experience of all phenomena in
the world as manifestations of a basic oneness. All things are seen as interdependent and inseparable parts of
this cosmic whole; as different manifestations of the same ultimate reality. (Fritjof Capra,The Tao of Physics)

The difference between the Western and Eastern approach involves the different roles of symbolic
communication. In the Western approach, both religious and scientific, and the verbal or mathematical models of reality
are evaluated along the criterion of Truth. A model is expected to accurately express the true nature of reality. In the
Eastern approach, however, verbal models concern more about how to experience reality, and are much less concerned
about how to think about reality. They are evaluated on their effectiveness rather than on their truth.

a. Buddhism. Buddhists believes that a person is a chain of life, continuity from baby to child, to young
adult, to old adult. Every part of the individual changes physically and mentally in one lifetime. This is the
belief that there is no ultimate, unchanging essence in anyone or anything. Buddhism values love, wisdom,
goodness, calm, and self-control.
The Buddha offered metaphysical knowledge into the nature of reality as well as a moral way of life.
The Middle Way is an important idea in Buddhist thought and practice. To seek moderation and avoid the
extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
The basis of all Buddhist practice is morality. The Buddha recommended certain ways of living as helpful on the
path toward nirvana. Buddhist undertakes these as rules of training, and follows ten precepts as part of their daily lives.
Ten Precepts:
1. Harming any living thing;
2. Taking what is not given;
3. Misuse of the senses, such as unchastity;
4. Wrong speech;
5. Taking drugs or drink which cloud the mind;
6. Taking food at unseasonable times, such as after midday;
7. Dancing, music, singing, and unseemly shows;
8. The use of garlands, perfumes, unguents, and things that tend to beautify and adorn the person;
9. Using high and luxurious seats and beds;
10. Accepting gold or silver

Four Noble Truths:

i. The Truth of Suffering, or Misery (Duhkhasatya), that life is suffering, including birth, disease,
old age, and death;
ii. The Truth of the Cause (Samudayasatya), that suffering is caused by desire (tr.s.n.â) and by
ignorance (avidyâ), which ultimately depend on each other.
iii. The Truth of Cessation (Nirodhasatya), that suffering can be ended if its causes, desire and
ignorance, are removed; and
iv. The Truth of the Way (Mârgasatya), which is the Middle Way, between the extremes of
asceticism and indulgence, or the Eightfold Way, which is
a. Right Knowledge and understanding (or Views), samyagdr.s.t.i, seeing the world and life as it really is
b. Right Resolve (right intention and thoughts), samyaksan.kalpa, resisting evil, thinking with kindness and
compassion;
c. Right Speech, samyagvâk, saying nothing to hurt others;
d. Right Conduct (or Action), samyakkarma, not harming living things, not taking what is not given, not having
harmful sexual relationships, not taking drugs or drink which cloud the mind;
e. Right Livelihood, samyagjîva, earning a living in a fair and honest way that does not injure others;
f. Right Effort, samyagvyâyâma, using what energy you have in the right way
g. Right Mindfulness, samyaksmr.ti, being attentive to what is going inside you and around you; and
h. Right Meditation (or Concentration), samyaksamâd, applying the mind to meditation and concentrating on what
you are doing. The word right means what is appropriate to help a person progress toward enlightenment.

b. Taoism is a philosophy, a way of looking at life and a way of thinking about things. Taoists believe if
you look at life and think about things in the right way, you'll be much happier. Tao encourages us to
recognize and trust our own Inner Nature, and discover who we are.
Tao (pronounced 'Dao') can be defined as 'path', or 'road'. The way of the Tao is the way of Nature and
of ultimate reality. Tao is often described as a force that flows through all life. A happy and virtuous life is
one that is in harmony with the Tao, with Nature. The philosophy of Taoism understands Tao as the One
Thing which exists and connects the many things. Tao, Nature, Reality are One.

c. Confucianism, is a social code of behavior, a very set and rigid code of behavior, that honored
ancestors and ancient rituals.
The basic teachings of Confucianism stress the importance of education for moral development of the
individual so that the state can be governed by moral virtue rather than by the use of coercive laws.
Confucius also believe that by nature, men are nearly alike; by practice, they get to be wide apart.
Moreover, Confucian discussion of human nature and heart/mind are directly related to their concern about
human destiny. His concern is not about life in the other world, but about the life fulfilled in this world, not

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

about the possibility of salvation from without but about the process of transformation or self-transcendence through moral
cultivation and social engagement.
Confucius held the traditional view that all men are born good. What spoiled men was bad environment.

C. Nature of the Human

Human nature refers to anything exclusively human which man intrinsically possesses right at his birth. It is
universal and static. It is one and immutable. It is one because it is absolutely present to all human; it is static because
it remains as it is in every man from birth to death.

Three-fold Level of Human Nature

1. Somatic Level – refers to the body, substance, constitution, or stuff and secondarily to the bodily structure and
color of the human person, which are conditioned by human’s culture and environment.
2. Behavioral Level – refers to the mode of acting of every human.
3. Attitudinal Level – refers to the mental action of every human to a given stimulus or the position of every individual
concerning his/her opinion, feeling, or mood. It manifests the purposive drive of every human to live in a kind of
life according to his/her own discretion.
a. Human being is the substantial union of body and soul. The soul, even as it is a source of vital functions,
needs the support of the body. Thus, while the soul has its own peculiar functions, certain acts are shown
by the soul (psyche) and the body (soma). Thus, these actions are called psychosomatic. Human is both
material and spiritual
b. Man is a social being. Human is a person who always exists with others in the world. Human’s social
nature is ontological because human is always a being-with-others even if there is no actual presence of
“others”. Human does not need to experience being social in order for him/her to be social since human’s
social nature is inherent in every individual. The quality of human’s relatedness to his/her fellowman
requires a learning process, in view of the fact that human relation is not given but made.
c. Man is a historical being. Human is a being-in-the-world that makes human a being-in-history. As human
transcends from his/her present to the past, he/she is enmeshed into an awareness of his simple origin;
and as man transcends from his present to the future, human is put into a reflection on how he can
develop and give progress to the world and his/her existence, which is rooted in it.
d. Man is an acting being. Animals do not act; they only move. Human is an acting being since he/she is the
only creature that possesses spiritual powers (intellect and will) rooted in his/her spirituality. As rational
and free, he/she is capable to know that there are actions that are right and wrong, and good or bad;
knows that he is responsible for his/her action. It enables human to think and know of actions, which are
pertinent to truth; and enables him/her to know truth-pertaining actions in a way that he/she can achieve
wisdom, which is the ultimate goal of his knowledge. The will of human enables him/her to choose options
relative to the performance or non-performance of an act. It enables him/her to perform good acts that
can practice virtue, which is the ultimate goal of the will.

THE INTEGRAL NATURE OF THE HUMAN PERSON

NATURE OF KNOWING FACULTIES APPETITIVE

MAN FACULTIES Training of
Material External Senses Basic Function Emotions the Intellect
(Body) Love-Hatred  to
Animal Smell Nutrition Desire-Aversion seek
Taste Nutrition Joy-Sorrow the
Touch Nutrition Hope-Despair purp
Hearing Cognition Courage-Fear, Anger ose
Sight Cognition and
time
Internal Senses end
of
Consciousness – awareness of sensation, life
synthesis of external sense: Perception  to
Imagination – construction and reproduction of gras
images p
Memory – recognition of objects in the past univ
Instinct – tending to do good and well-being ersa
aversion to evil and danger l
truth
Intellect Will s
(conscience)  to
Spiritual Function – to think Function – to do/act und
(Soul) Purpose – to know Purpose – to choose/love erst
Rational Goal – truth Goal – goodness and
and
Highest Human fulfillment – Wisdom Highest Human fulfillment – reas
Virtue on
out
truth
s and moral precepts and relate them to life
 to make judgments based on an objective standard of morality
 to analyze the cause and effect of decisions and behavior
 to solve problems rationally

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

Motivation/Formation of the Will

 to love God and neighbor
 to choose the higher good/universal truths and moral values
 to act upon a decision
 to take the rational and logical consequences of a decision and act
 to make responsible use of freedom
 to exercise self-discipline and control the emotions
 to persevere, sustain and commit
 to change and improve
 to practice virtues and good moral habits

D. Meaning of Values
Values Education emphasizes the interrelatedness of personal and interpersonal nature of the person. It’s goal
is the development of a fully functioning individual.
Values come from the Latin word “valere” which means to have a vigor, a power to do a specific thing in order
to realize a certain urgent demand for something important
- refers to interests, pleasure, likes, preferences, duties, moral obligations, desires, wants, goals, needs, aversions
and attractions and many other kinds of selective orientations which serve as criteria for the action.
- are the bases of judging what attitudes, behaviors are correct, desirable and what are not (DECS VE Program
Framework)
- refers to those which make something desirable, attractive, worthy of approval, admiration; which inspire feelings,
judgments or attitudes of esteem, commendation; which are useful in view of certain ends (Hall 19973
- refers to the totality of objective, universal truths and standards that ought to govern man’s decisions, motivations,
conduct and aspirations.

TWO KINDS OF VALUES (Esteban, 1990)

1. Absolute Moral Values those which are ethically and socially binding to all men, at all times and in all places.
Characteristics:
a. Objective because they are truths which are derived ultimately from the truth itself, GOD
b. Universal for they encompass all persons, actions and conditions
c. External because they have always existed and will always exist

Moral Values – refer to the qualities of an act, which are performed by an individual freely and knowingly. It is
founded on human person, love and freedom. It serves as the ultimate guide of an individual towards goodness.

Characteristics of Moral Values

 Moral values are basic values
 Moral values are more important than all other values
 Moral values are universal
 Moral values are absolute
 Moral values are objective; and
 Moral values are freely chosen by human beings

2. Behavioral & Cultural Values are inner responses or incentive, which prompt a person to behave in a certain way.
Characteristics:
a. Subjective for they are personal to the individual
b. Societal
c. Situational because they are the concepts and standards which are applied during a given occasion or set of
circumstances.

E. Meaning, Nature, Purpose and Norms of Morality

Morality
- Is the rightness and wrongness of an act (R. Agapay, 1991)
- Consists in the conformity and non-conformity of an act with the norm. (Agapay, 1991)
- Is the equality of human acts by which they are constituted as good, bad or indifferent
- Plays an essential role in human existence and life would be basically inhuman without it.
- Guides an individual to achieve fullness of humanity

Human Acts are actions performed by human beings with conscious knowledge and are subject to the control of the
will

Acts of Man are actions, which are instinctive and involuntary and are not within the control of the will.

Characteristics of Human Acts

1. It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he/she is doing and of its consequence.
2. It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is, by his/her own volition and powers.
3. It must be performed by an agent who decides willfully to perform the act.

Classification of human Acts

1. Moral Action – are those actions, which are in conformity with the norms of morality. They are good actions and
are permissible.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

2. Immoral Actions – are those actions, which are not in conformity with the norms of morality. They are bad or evil
and are not permissible.
3. Amoral Actions - are actions, which stand neutral in relation with the norms of morality. They are either good or
bad in themselves. But certain amoral actions may become good or bad because of the circumstances attendant
to them.

Alfredo Panizo cites these important principles:

 A person is held morally responsible for any evil effect, which flows from action itself directly, and necessary as
natural consequences, though the evil effects is not directly willed or intended.
 A human act from which two effects may result, one good and one evil is morally permissible under the following
conditions:
a. The action, which produces double effects, must be good in itself, or at least morally indifferent.
b. The good effect must not come from the evil effect. To do evil in order to achieve something good is not
justified.
c. The motive of the doer must be towards the attainment of the good. The evil effects are permitted only as an
incidental act.
d. The good effect must outweigh the evil result in its importance.

If any of these conditions is violated, then the action is not justifiable and should not be done.

Definition of Law
 Law is an ordinance of something put into order by reason, for the sake of the common good.
 Made by someone who has the authority to govern that community and promulgated.
 Is a rule of conduct or action established by custom or laid down and forced by the governing authority.

Definition of Norms of Morality

 Are the standards that indicate the rightfulness or wrongfulness, the goodness or evilness, the value or disvalue of a
thing (R. Agapay)
 The criteria of judgment about the kind of person we ought to be and the kind of actions we ought to perform (R.M.
Gula, 1981)

Norms of Morality
1. Natural Law
Is recognized by all men regardless of creed, race, culture, or historical circumstance (Agapay, 1991). It is a
moral obligation that arises from human nature, compelling an individual to be true to his/her nature as tao.
Is necessary because it indicates the difference between human beings and other creatures. Natural laws are
rules derived from the nature that guides the human life.

Properties of the Natural Law

a. It is universal. Natural law is constitutive element of human nature. Therefore, it is true wherever human nature
manifests itself. All humans are equal because of shared human nature.
b. It is obligatory. Natural law is human nature, calling for itself to be actualized, to “live” according to its basic and
essential demands.
c. It is recognizable. It is imprinted in the human nature and human has the light of reason to know it.
d. It is immutable or unchangeable. Natural law is human nature. It is immutable because human’s essential nature
can never be lost as long as human is human.

2. Divine Law
Is derived from the eternal law. Divine law is divided into the Old Law and New Law, i.e., the Old and New
Testaments of the bible.

3. Eternal Law
Is a plan of God in creating the universe and assigning to each creature therein- specific nature (Agapay,
1991)
Reveals the will of God. It contains the divine blueprints, which bring order into the universe because they
direct all of creation and creatures to their respective end goals.

4. Moral Law
- the law which directs human behavior in human acts
- contains universal truths and ethical principles that ought to guide the individual conduct in matters of right and
wrong.
- tells human being how to act in his/her relationship with God and others.

5. Human Law
The Human Law are laws made by human beings, and are valid only because human made them. Human
law must be in accordance with natural and eternal law.

Determinants of Morality
1. The Object of Human Act is the natural purpose accomplished by the act. Human reason can see that some acts are
good because their natural purpose is good, what they accomplish is good and that other acts are evil because their
natural purpose is evil, what they accomplish is evil. For example, giving alms to the poor is always a good object of
human act, to steal is always a bad object for a human act.
2. The Motive of Human Act. The motive of an act is the purpose which the doer wishes to achieve by such action. It is
what gives direction and motivation to an act. It comes first in the mind as intention, occurs last in the action as its
culmination or fulfillment. Without a motive, an act is meaningless and considered an accident.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

3. Circumstances of Human Act can help determine its moral character. An act is an event. It happens in a definite time
and place. It is accompanied by certain elements that contribute to the nature and accountability of such act. Morality
takes into account the circumstances surrounding an act. These circumstances are:
a. Who refers primarily to the doer of an act. At times, it also refers to the receiver of the act. This circumstance
includes the age, status, relations, family background, educational attainment, health and socio-economic
situation of the person involved in the act.
b. What refers to the act itself, to the quality and quantity of the results of such act.
c. Where refers to the circumstances of place where the act is committed.
d. With whom refers to the companion or accomplices in an act performed. These include the status and number
of the persons involved.
e. Why refers to the motive of the doer.
f. How refers to the manner in which the act is made possible.
g. When refers to the time when the act was performed.

F. Dignity of Human Life

1. The Human Person: Created in the Image of God
Each person is created in the image of God. Unique in creation, humans are charged with the task of representing
God in the world

2. Humans as Whole Beings

The understanding of humanity found in the Hebrew Scriptures and affirmed in the New Testament is centered on
the idea that each person is a total being. Jewish thought was incapable of rigid compartmentalization of the
individual into strict categories such as body, soul, and spirit, which has other characteristic of other systems of
thought. Since the individual cannot be reduced to components which could be of unequal value, we affirm that
the whole person has dignity and value. Accordingly, care and concern must be expressed for all aspects of each
individual’s life. Further, given the complexity of human life, response to individuals in need should be multi-
dimensional including family, government services, special interest groups, churches, and care from individual to
individual.

3. The Dignity of Conscience

Since all persons are in the image of God, each individual has been given the gift of conscience. This law enables
each individual to hear the voice of God urging him or her to do good and to reject evil.

4. The Gift of Freedom

We affirm that the ability to choose and the desire to express that ability are God-given attributes of human
nature. Through the freedom of the will, each person is able to make choices in many realms of human life, not
the least of which is the realm of morality. The dignity of human life is emphasized when individuals, in spite of
powerful influences on the contrary, freely choose courses of action which demonstrate love and compassion for
others. Since freedom is essential to human nature, the expression of human freedom should be protected and
encouraged.

5. The Source of Hope

As we observe the suffering around us and the fear of death present in each life, our ultimate contribution to
discussions concerning the nature and value of human life must be to offer hope. We affirm that our hope is
grounded on God who came to the world taking on the nature of humanity.

6. The Social Nature of Man

God has willed that all human beings should constitute one family and treat one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
It is in accordance with the natural law that each one of us naturally relates with one another.

7. Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights offers the fundamental human standards that we all want and need in
order to live. It is the most inspiring document that constitutes the basic truth about life, reminding us about our
rights and also our responsibilities towards our fellow human beings. Recognition of these rights and
responsibilities is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace not only in the Philippines but also in the whole
world. Effective human rights education must help the individual identify personal and social values that they can
call on to guide their decisions, relationships, work and life as a whole. It must help them develop a depth of
character and a clear sense of their own identity, integrity, and what they believe to be important in life.

All individuals have the right to life, to bodily integrity, and to the means suitable for the proper development of life;
these are primarily food, clothing, shelter, rest, medical care, and finally, the necessary social services. Therefore,
a human being also has the right to security in cases of sickness, inability to work, old age, unemployment, or any
other case in which he/she is deprived of the means of subsistence through no fault of his/her own. Any human
society, if it is to be well ordered and productive, must lie down as the foundation of this principle, namely, that
every human being is a person, that is, his/her nature is endowed with intelligence and free will. Indeed, precisely
because he/she is a person, he/she has rights and obligations flowing directly and simultaneously from his/her
nature. And as these rights and obligations are universal and inviolable, so they cannot in any way be
surrendered. Respect for the human person entails respect for the right that flows from his/her dignity as a
creature. These rights are prior to society and must be recognized by it.

8. Religious Freedom
Vatican declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all humans are
to be immune from coercion on the part of individuals or social groups and of any human power. Like in religion,
no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his/her beliefs. Nor is anyone to be restrained from acting in
accordance with his/her beliefs, whether privately or publicly, whether alone or in association with others.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

Religious freedom is also an essential requirement of the dignity of every person, is also a comerstone of the
structure of human rights, and for this reason, an irreplaceable factor in the good of individuals and of the whole
society, as well as the personal fulfillment of each individual. It follows that the freedom of individuals and
communities to profess and practice their religion is an essential element for peaceful human coexistence.

9. Socio-cultural basis
The social order officially in our country is built on a democratic framework. We learn that the Constitution is the
basic law of the land. Our Legislative Body is tasked to VALUES BASED ON INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES
BUHAY LOOB (LIFE) (INTERIORITY) PANANALIG SA DIYOS (TRUST IN GOD) GINHAWA KAPWA (WELL-
BEING) (NEIGHBOR) VALUES BASED ON WESTERN LANGUAGES Christianity Democracy Education Free
Enterprise INTEGRATION OF TWO CULTURAL SYSTEMS (MAKA-TAO, MAKA-BAYAN. MAKA-DIYOS, MAKA-
KALIKASAN 16 legislate and there are excellent laws to protect the human rights of citizens (Mina M. Ramirez,
PhD).
PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
Directions: Analyze each item carefully and choose the letter that represents the best answer in each item.
1. Values formation begins with reality entering through the external senses. These images of reality are processed
through
A. Education of the child through his/her environment
B. The knowing faculties of internal senses and intellect of the child
C. Careful planning for the training of the child
D. Recognition of the weaknesses and strengths of the child

Knowing faculties refers to the external senses, internal senses and the intellect of the human person. After the
individual experienced the reality, that reality will be processed by the internal senses; i.e., consciousness,
imagination, memory, and instinct. Then, the intellect will analyze the information given by the external senses and
internal senses. After analyzing, the individual is now ready to choose or to decide what is right and what is wrong or
what is good and what is evil. The correct answer is B

2. One of the fundamental characteristics of cultural values is that it is subjective. This means that:
A. Cultural values are ideals which transcend time and space
B. Cultural values set the idea patterns of behavior
C. Cultural values are true and valid to all human kind
D. Cultural values are always changing and the changes depend on the perception of many persons interacting.

One of the characteristics of cultural values is that they are subjective because human
person is unique, different. She/he has different orientation, experiences, beliefs, and
interests, wants. The correct is D

3. For an integrated individual to have a meaningful existence, it is necessary that

A. The body and soul work together to do good.
B. The spiritual faculties of the human person be further developed.
C. The material faculties of the human person be given attention.
D. The soul or the spirit gives in to the desires of the body.

The correct answer is A. There is a saying that “the human person is the master of himself/herself, but
sometimes becomes slave because of his/her emotions. The body is material and the soul is spiritual. The body feels
and has direct contact with the reality. It is in the body where the individual feels pain and pleasure and our body
doesn’t want pain. The rationality of the individual is in his/her spirituality. The intellect can discover the truth and can
do what s good. The body must obey what the spiritual faculties says even if it is painful or even the body doesn’t
want to.

4. Moral values are understood and practiced through the formation of the intellect and will. The following statements
refer to the formation of the intellect except:
A. Guiding the learner to make judgments based on an objective standard norms of morality
B. Allowing the learner to solve problems rationally
C. Educating the learner to seek the purpose and ultimate end of life
D. Motivating the learner to practice virtues or good moral habits

D is the right answer because motivating the learner to practice virtues or good moral habits refers to the
motivation and formation of the will.

5. The human person is endowed with faculties for optimum development. Which of the following is the proper
consequence of this statement?
A. A person’s responsibility is paramount to freely seek ways to develop his/her potentials.
B. The school and the home “make or break” the development of the person.
C. There is not much one can do if he/she is not gifted with intelligence.
D. Different people have different faculties hence; optimum development cannot be achieved by everyone.

A is the right answer. Since the human person is gifted with both material and spiritual faculties, it is the
responsibility of the individual to use it properly. Spiritual faculties make the human person different from animals.
Spiritual faculties help the individual know the truth and choose what is good that makes the individual reach his/her
optimum development.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

6. “People are born good” was a philosophy advanced by Jean Jacques Rousseau. Which of the following statements is
most closely related to this philosophy?
A. The individual as she/he grows older would never depart from what is humanly good.
B. Babies are born good but once people can think on their own, they think of evil ways.
C. Evils arise from the society or environment that makes the individual become good.
D. The human potential for goodness is not strong enough to defy the bad influences from outside.

7. Which of the following concepts refers to the somatic level of human nature?
A. The mental reaction of the human person to a given situation
B. The realities in the flesh of the human body
C. The bodily structure and color of the skin
D. The stand of the person towards his/her opinion and feelings

8. What could the moral basis for resolving the argument between one who believes that cheating is moral and another
who believes otherwise?
A. The end does not justify the means
B. Majority of the students are doing it anyway
C. It is better to cheat than to repeat
D. It is unfair to study very hard while others are cheating

9. Which is NOT a characteristic of human acts?

A. It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is by his/her own volition and powers
B. It must be performed by an agent who decides willfully to perform the act.
C. It must be performed by an agent who follows the rule of law
D. It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he/she is doing

10. Which of the following statements does not show the subjectivity of values?
A. Different girls wear different shirt lengths.
B. The Muslims and the Christians believe in God or Allah.
C. The father of Boni wants to play basketball but his son wants to play bowling.
D. Teaching is the noblest profession for Cristy while mothering is for Vicky.

11. The material and spiritual nature of the human person makes him/her capable of doing the following except one.
Which is the exception?
A. Relate with other people effectively. C. Act freely on everything absolutely.
B. Think rationally and intellectually. D. Continue to grow maturely through life.

12. Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the relationship of freedom and responsibility?
A. One’s freedom stops where other people’s freedom begins.
B. Exercise of true freedom is never without respect for others.
C. The person’s free will is actually deciding to choose the will of God.
D. Freedom is a gift from God therefore, it has limitless basis.

13. Which of the following BEST characterizes the nature of the human person according to Confucius?
A. All men are born good.
B. Heart and mind are directly related to their concern about human fate.
C. Human nature is not about life in the world but about the life fulfilled in this world.
D. The emotions and passions of the person are of greater influence than that of his/her reasons.

14. The theory which states that human behavior can be explained with reference to the two primary motives of pleasure
and pain.
A. Empiricism C. Hedonism
B. Utilitarianism D. Existentialism

15. The historicity of the human person proved that his/her existence in the world is an existence of time. Which of the
following concepts best describes this philosophy?
A. Human historicity is an existence in time.
B. Human historicity manifests development and continuity.
C. Human historicity is prior to history and time.
D. Human historicity is an expression of human nature.

16. Which of the following statements explicates the theory of Bentham’s understanding of the human nature?
A. Nature of the human person can be adequately described without mention of social relationships.
B. Human nature has placed mankind under the governance of the sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.
C. Human nature reveals a psychological, ontological, and also moral individualism where, “the individual human
being is conceived as the source of values and as himself/herself the supreme value.
D. Human nature refers to the composition of material and spiritual faculties given by the Creator.

17. Which of the following should be the ultimate basis for the guiding principles of Values development?
A. DepEd Values Education Program C. Moral Law or Natural Law
B. Kohlberg’s Moral Development D. Scheler’s Values Hierarchy

18. What is the BEST interpretation of the statement “One of the fundamental characteristics of cultural and behavioral
values is that it is subjective”,
A. Cultural values are ideals which transcend time and space

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

B. Cultural values are normative patterns of behavior

C. Cultural values are always changing depending on one’s perception
D. Cultural values are guiding principles of the members of the society

19. Which of the following statements concurs with the objectivity of values?
A. Religions promote values based on their own doctrine.
B. Cultural values are based on the people’s concept of good and right.
C. Respect as a value has not changed through the years even with the young generation.
D. People may have different perceptions of what is good depending on their own experiences.

20. Which of these statements describes the theory of Hobbes about human nature?
A. Human beings are physical objects. C. Human beings are moral agents
B. Human beings are composed of body and soul. D. Human beings are vegetative

21. The theory in moral philosophy which states that actions are judged to be right or wrong according to their
consequences.
A. Naturalistic C. Utilitarianism
B. Existentialism D. Humanism

22. The human person is an embodied spirit. This statement means that:
A. The human person is body and soul.
B. The body of the person is also his/her spirit.
C. The spirit of the person is also his/her body.
D. The person’s body and soul can never be separated.

23. The statement which does not describe the non-material faculties of the human person is
A. It is eternal and has endless potential
B. It is the breath of life
C. It is the biological mechanism of the human person
D. It is a gift from God for the perfection of the human person

24. The axiom “The end does not justify the means” simply explains that
A. The worthiness of purpose does not make an evil act good.
B. An evil act when done in good faith is acceptable.
C. An evil act when done with good intention is debatable.
D. The utility of means is best evaluated by its motive.

25. The following concepts describe the personhood of human beings. Which of the following is the best description?
A. Personhood should not be contacted to man’s humanity and individuality.
B. Personhood of man is the seat of man’s uniqueness.
C. Personhood of man makes an individual a person.
D. Personhood of man is based on his/her nature.
PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

Directions: Choose the letter that represents the best answer.

1. The development of the human person should be guided by the framework that:
A. There is a Supreme Being more powerful than oneself.
B. The human person’s potentials are meant to unfold by themselves.
C. The development of the human is limitless.
D. The human person is endowed with faculties for optimum development

2. The immutability of values compels the person to:

A. Follow the laws of the society as his/her primordial goal.
B. Decide whether to become just and become human or become unjust and destroy oneself.
C. Act on his own free will according to his/her own concept of good.
D. Stand by his/her own cultural beliefs and undermines traditions of other cultures.

3. Which is a correct concept of the human person’s freedom?

A. The person’s free will as a gift from God is a license to act freely and infinitely.
B. Freedom is exercised depending on one’s ability to respond justly.
C. The human person’s potential to free himself/herself from ignorance depends on the opportunities that come
his/her way.
D. Free will as a spiritual gift actually means that a child of God has the option to disobey his/her Creator.

4. The rationality of the human person does not help in actualizing his/her being human if he/she
A. Constantly seeks opportunities for learning
B. Builds his/her power of reason to justify his/her mistakes
C. Seeks the truth to rectify his/her past errors and ignorance
D. Contributes his/her piece of mind for other’s good

5. Educating the intellect is one major goal of values education whether done formally or informally. Which of the
following is NOT an acceptable way of educating the intellect?
A. A parent explains to the child the reason why she must not take others’ property.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

B. Teachers are able to let their students recognize the adverse effects of pornographic materials on their social
behavior.
C. TV advertisers have exerted efforts on integrating moral values in their materials.
D. Induced abortion was justified in a debate by a group of bright students; hence others now have a basis for
favoring induced abortion.

6. Values Education helps in the person’s strengthening the will through:

A. Allowing the individual to learn from his/her whims
B. Giving the student full responsibility for his/her immature decisions.
C. Strengthening the person’s appetitive will to follow what is good and resist evil
D. Giving the person absolute freedom to follow his/her will.

7. The formation of intellect and will is dependent on many factors. Which of the following should be of the least
consideration?
A. Role models C. Inner strength of the person
B. Knowledge of moral principles D. Failures made in the past

8. The ultimate essence of being and becoming a human is:

A. To search for the ultimate reason of things.
B. To do good things while still living.
C. To achieve the highest level of self-actualization.
D. To strive for human perfection leading his/her to the highest good and absolute good.

9. Which of the following conditions BEST exemplifies the position of a good action done on account of an evil motive?
A. When a teacher gives a high grade to a student in order to seduce her later.
B. When a teacher gives an exemption in examination in favor of high performing students.
C. When a colleague offers professional assistance for peer approval.
D. When a student gives an excellent response or answer to prove his capacity to the teacher.

10. Which of the following statements regarding the effect of the motive of an action is NOT acceptable?
A. A good act with a bad motive makes the moral action evil.
B. A good act done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit
C. The goodness or badness of an indifferent act is highly dependent on the motive of the doer.
D. A bad action done on account of a good intention or purpose is permissible.

11. The universality of human nature allows the person to:

A. Act in accordance to his nature.
B. Become a truly human person.
C. Attain his/her perfection.
D. Realize that all human beings are the same.

12. “Knowing-what-is-right-means-doing-what-is-right” is the recurring dictum of Socrates. Which of the following

statements is most closely related to this philosophy?
A. Knowledge of what is right makes the person good.
B. Knowledge of what the good life is means living a good life.
C. Knowledge of what is right allows the person to love the good.
D. Knowledge of what is right means knowing what is good.

13. Which of the following is the tool for knowing and understanding the nature of the human person?
A. Truth as the ultimate criterion. C. Intellect and will.
B. Reason and freedom. D. Substantial union of body and soul.

14. The Constitution is the basic law of the land. What is the fundamental purpose of the Constitution?
A. It limits the power of the President C. It provides the framework for the government
B. It protects the rights of the people D. It encourages the people to participate

15. The Legislative Body is tasked to integrate two cultural systems in order to protect the human rights of the people.
Which of the following describes the two cultural systems?
A. Values based on the Indigenous languages
B. Values based on the Western languages
C. Values based on the Indigenous and Western languages
D. Makatao, Makabayan, Maka-kalikasan and Maka-Diyos

16. Which of these statements does not concur with the characteristics of values?
A. The differences in cultural values lie in the differences in the people’s concept of what is good and bad.
B. Two persons may differ in their behavioral values and may still be both judged as moral persons.
C. The young should not be blamed for being disrespectful because respect as a value has changed through the
years.
D. It is all right for people to differ in perceptions of things for as long as they are all directed to the truth.

17. The human person as an embodied spirit fulfills his/her being human by:
A. becoming a religious person.
B. elevating his/her material self to a spiritual self.
C. becoming spiritual, as she/he grows older.
D. satisfying his/her material needs ahead of spiritual needs.

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MAJORSHIP: VALUES EDUCATION
Focus: Philosophical and Ethical Foundations of Values Education
By: Prof. Ma. Elvira A. Asuan

18. Which statement is true about conscience?

A. It is the moral judge of the mind that makes the person see what is good and what is bad.
B. It is the attitude of the person whether favorable or not favorable towards something.
C. It is the choice of the person to follow what he thinks is right and good.
D. It is the person’s remorseful feelings about something he/she has done wrong.

19. To be a moral person is to:

A. be integrated in speech, feelings, thinking and action.
B. live with others peacefully.
C. be acceptable to the society beyond reproach.
D. know and act upon the “ought to be” and the “ought to do”.

20. Which of the following statements is not true as regards the philosophy of St. Augustine?
A. God created human in a mortal body with an immortal soul.
B. God created human good but the good in human ceases when he turns himself/herself away from God.
C. Human can attain perfection if he/she stays with God.
D. Human is substantially a united body and soul.

21. Which of the following statements is not justifiable based on the effects of an action?
A. The bad effects comes first before the good effects.
B. The good effect must outweigh the bad effect.
C. The action which produces double effects is good in itself.
D. The good effect must not come from the evil effect.

22. Which of the following refers to the behavioral level of human nature?
A. The realities in the flesh of the human body.
B. The mode of reaction to a situation.
C. The bodily structure and color of the skin.
D. The mental reaction to a given stimulus.

23. Which of the following statements justifies the concept that human is the only being in action?
A. Human being possesses intellect that enables him/her to know the nature of his/her action.
B. Human beings know that he/she is free to perform or not to perform an action.
C. Human being possesses spiritual faculties that enables him/her to know and decide to act or not to act.
D. Human being possesses a will that enables him/her to choose.

24. Which of the following does not characterize the nature of a human person?
A. The person is endowed with a thinking mind to enable him to accumulate knowledge for himself/herself more
than anything else.
B. The person relates with his/her social environment to deepen his/her sense of common good.
C. It is natural for the human person to fall short of maturity because of a weakness of his/her will to do good.
D. The human person’s historicity is a significant part of what he/she is at present and what he/she can be in the
future.

25. Which of the following should be done in order to effectively maximize the formation of intellect among children?
A. Parents should teach their children at a very early age in order for them to learn more.
B. Leave the children alone in their rooms with their computers so they will have more freedom to browse the
internet.
C. Expose the children to adult materials to encourage them to grow maturely ahead of time.
D. Allow the children more time for studying than playing so they will get used to more serious work than pleasure.

PART IV – REFERENCES
Agapay, Ramon B. 1991. Ethics and the Filipino, A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators. Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore, Inc
De Torre, Joseph M. 1980. Social Morals. The Church Speaks on Society. Manila: Southeast Asian Science Foundation, Inc.
Esteban, Esther J. 1990. Education in Values: What, Why, and For Whom. Manila: Sinag-tala Publishers, Inc.
Farrel, Walter, O.P. and Haly, Martin J. 1952. My Way of Life. USA. Confraternity of the Precious Blood
Lipio, Felicidad C.O.P. 1998. Conscience: A Catholic Filipino View: Manila: St. Paul’s Philippines
Morga, Michael D. S.J. 1993. Toward Authentic Morality: An Ethics Textbook for Philippines, Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.
Montemayor, Felix M. 1994. Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.
Peschke, Karl H. S.V.D. 1996. Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II. Manila: Divine World Publications
Reyes, Ramon C. 1989. Ground and Norm of Morality: Ethics for College Students. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press
Rice, Charles E. 1996. 50 Questions on the National Law: What It Is and Why We Need It? San Francisco, Ignatius Press

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