NAVSARI AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

N. M. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY
NAVSARI - 396 450.

COURSE NO. : ENT 501

COURSE TITLE: INSECT MORPHOLOGY

-: TITLE OF ASSIGNMENT:-

INSECT WING VENATION,WING COUPLING APPARATUS,ITS

STRUCTURE,FUNCTION,MODIFICATION IN DIFFERENT ORDERS OF INSECT AND
MECHANISM OF FLIGHT IN INSECTS

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY

Dr. C.U.SHINDE SHREE NAVEENA.P

Assistant Professor (Entomology) 1st semester

Dept. of Entomology Dept. of Entomolgy

N.M. College of Agriculture N.M. College of Agriculture

 INSECT WING VENATION,WING COUPLING APPARATUS,ITS
STRUCTURE,FUNCTION,MODIFICATION IN DIFFERENT ORDERS
OF INSECT AND MECHANISM OF FLIGHT IN INSECT

INTRODUCTION

Capacity of flight is why the insects have been most successful among all living
organisms. and this has been possible only due to presence of two pairs of
wings.

Wing is a flattened double layered expansion of body wall with

dorsal and ventral lamina having the same structure as the integument. At a
vein, the two cuticular membranes are thickened and separated, forming a
tubular lumen surrounded by cuticle. The veins thus formed are an effective
supporting skeletal rod for the wing. Wing veins opens into the body and
contain circulating blood. The lumina of the main veins contain in addition to
blood, tracheoles and sensory nerve branches

REVIEW:

Ai et. al. (2010) obsereved bristles along the wing margin of silk worm,
Bombyx mori were studied morphologically and electrophysiologically.

Aleman et. al. (2009) determined wing length and width of Anastrepha
obliqua from 3 Cuban localities were having wings smaller and their
comparison with Anastrepha fraterculus from elsewhere from Latin America.

Baskaran (2015) found higher factor loading with body length and hind
wing length and wing angle 42O and 69.18 % in discriminating various
populations of Indian honey bee in Tamilnadu.

Brisson et. al. (2010) identified the wing development genes of pea aphid,
Acyrthosiphon pisum, which produces winged and unwinged adults in response
to environment clues.

Chougale and Sathe (2009) studied mating behavior in Apanteles baoris

Wilkinson (Hymenoptera : Braconidae), an internal parasitoid of Chapra
mathias Fabriceous (Lepidoptera : Hesperiidae) under laboratory conditions;
like wing fanning or vibration.
 Kati and Hardie (2010) concluded that aphids show inhibition of wing
development when parasitized by hymenopteran parasitoids.

Khiaban et. al. (2010) studied shapes and size of wings and compared
them in population on four host plants ( cotton, tomato, corn and chickpea )
using a land mark-based geometric method.

McKechnie et. al. (2010) identified a polymorphism in the Dca (

Drosophila cold acclimation ) gene in Drosophila melanogaster that influences
wing size.

Ramesha (2015) reported details of elytral vestiture of genus Acythopeus

from India and adjoining countries.

Talloen et. al. (2009) explored genetic variation of wing characteristics of

speckled wood Parage aegeria along a host plant drought stress gradient.
Forewing area, basal and distal degree of melanization and the area of 5 yellow
wing spots were measured.

Vinay Kalia and Babita Yadav (2012) did morphometric analysis of

worker bees, Apis mellifera from Northern India on forewing length-width,
hindwing length-width.

WINGS:

The wings of the insects are borne on the meso and metathorax. They are
characteristic features of insects, but a wingless condition accurs in a number of
different groups of insects. In some ,the absence on wings is obviously
secondary.

• Number of insects wings vary from 0 to 2 pairs.

• Primitive insects like silverfish and springtail-no

wings(apterous) – primarily wingless

• Ectoparasites like headlouse ,poultry louse and flea-secondarily

wingless.

• Wings are deciduous in ants and termite.

• Only one pair of wings in true flies.

• Normally two pair of wings in insects.

 • Wing-nourished by blood circulating through veins.

• Wing bearing thoracic segments - mesothorax and metathorax----

pterothorax

• Wings are moved by thoracic flight muscles attached to their bases.

WING DEVELOPMENT:

The insect wing is a flattened, double-layered expansion of the body wall

and its alls are composed of th same elements as the body wall viz., cuticule,
epidermis and basal membrane and its lumen contains nerves, tracheae and
blood.

WING VENATION:

A unique system has been established to name the wing veins to identify and
classify different insects. It has been shown that the position and number of
veins have changed from primitive orders to the more advanced orders, as well
as within each order. This along with the fossils remains of the wings of ancient
insects has made it possible to develop a classification of insects which
probably closely parallels the actual evolution of class – Insecta.

Wing veins appear as thickened lines and some of these lines run from the base
of the wings towards the apex. The complete system of veins of a wing is
termed as its venation or neuration.

Most of the insects wings are more or less triangular in outline and therefore
have three margins

 The anterior margin or costa (a-b)

 The outer apical margin(b-c)
 The inner or anal margin(c-d)

Further three well defined angles are distinguished. They are

Humeral angle(a) at the base of the costa

Apex angle(b)between the costal and outer margin
Anal angle(c)between the outer and inner margin
There are 6 principal longitudinal veins in a hypothetical wing type and of these
four veins viz., the second to the fifth are branched or forked. The principal
veins are as follow:

A vein on a crest is called convex (indicated by +), while a vein in a trough is

called concave (-).

1. Costa (C+) - just behind the leading edge of wing (costal margin)
2. Sub costa (Sc-)
3. Radius (R+)
4. Median (M)
i. Anterior Median (MA+)
ii. Posterior Median (MA-)

5. Cubitus (Cu)
i. Anterior Cubitus (CuA+)
ii. Posterior Cubitus (CuP-)
6. Anal vein (A+)
i. 1A
ii. 2A
iii. 3A etc..

Small veins found inter connecting longitudinal veins-cross veins

 The prominent cross veins are

 Radial cross veins – r
 Radio medial cross vein - rm
 Medial cross vein – m
 Medio-cubital cross vein – mcu
 Anal cross vein - a

Presence of longitudinal veins and cross veins, wing surface gets divided into a
number of enclosed spaces termed cells.

In insects (dragonfly and damselfly an opaque spot near costal margin of wing -
pterostigma

WING REGIONS
The anterior area of the wing supported by veins is usually called remigium.
The flexible posterior area is termed vannus. The two regions are separated by
vannal fold. The proximal part of vannus is called jugum, when well developed
is separated by a jugal fold. The area containing wing articulation sclerities,
pteralia is called axilla.
Insects have evolved many variations of the wings, and an individual insect may
posess more than one type of wing. Wing venation is a commonly used
taxonomic character, especially at the family and species level.

In most living insects (the Neoptera), there are three axillary sclerites that
articulate with various parts of the wing. In the Neoptera, a muscle on the third
axillary causes it to pivot about the posterior notal wing process and thereby to
fold the wing over the back of the insect. (In some groups of Neoptera, such as
butterflies, the ability to fold the wings over the back has been lost.) Two orders
of winged insects, the Ephemeroptera and Odonata, have not evolved this wing-
flexing mechanism, and their axillary
sclerites are arranged in a pattern
different from that of the Neoptera; these
two orders (together with a number of
extinct orders) form the Paleoptera.

 Ax, axillary region;

 bf, basal fold

 jf,jugal fold;

 Ju, jugum;

 Rm, remigium;

 Vn, vannus;

 vf, vannal fold.

WING COUPLING MECHANISM:

There are great variations in the wings of the insects. Many of these variations
represent modification, which accommodate the demands of flight
characteristicss of the particular group of insects.

Wing coupling indicates the coupling of the coupling of the fore and hind wings
together by means of different interlocking devices or by simply overlapping,so
that the wings operate together.

Among the insects with two pairs of wings, the wings may work separately as in
the dragonflies and damselflies. But in higher pterygote insects, fore and hind
wings are coupled together as a unit, so that both pairs move synchronously. By
coupling the wings the insects become functionally two winged.

AMPLEXIFORM COUPLING:

It is the simplest form of wing coupling. A linking structure is absent.

The posterior margin of the forewing and the anterior margin of the hindwing
overlap and couple with each other by incurling of the margins. E.g. butterflies

HAMULATE COUPLING:
 The anterior margin of the hindwing is provided with a row of small, curved
hook-like structures called ‘hamuli’. The inner margin of the forewing is folded.
While flying ,the hooks fasten into the fold of the forewing and thus coupling is
effected. E.g. bees

FRENATE: e.g. Fruit sucking moth and hawk moth

There are two types sub types

Male frenate: hindwing bears near the base of the costal margin a stout bristle
called frenulum which is normally held by a curved process, retinaculum arising
from the subcostal vein fond on the surface of the forewing.

Female frenate: hindwing bears near the base of the costal margin a group of
stout bristle(frenulum) which lies beneath extended forewing and engages there
in a retinaculum formed by a patch of hairs near cubitus.

JUGATE:

Jugam of the fore wing are lobe like and its locked to the costal margin of the
hindwings e.g. Hepialid moths
JUGO-FRENATE: e.g. micropterigidae (lepidoptera), mecoptera
(scorpionfly)

PRIMITIVE MECOPTERAN: there is jugal lobe on anal margin of forewing

and humeral lobe at the base of costal margin of the hindwing. hard bristles are
present on both these lobes. humeral bristles remain on lower surface of
forewing and jugal bristles on upper surface of hindwing. e.g.mecoptera,
trichoptera, antlion

FOLD/ HOOK LIKE: two wings are folded together forming a hook or fold.
e.g. thripidae (thrips)
MODIFICATION IN DIFFERENT ORDERS OF INSECT:

 Apterygota:

Protura, Diplura, Collembola and Thysanura posses no wings, hence are

primarily wingless.

 Pterygota:

 Exopterygots: here, wings develop externally and incomplete

metamorphosis ( except Thysanoptera - intermediate)

1. Ephemeroptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous.

Function: flying; Mayfly, Dayfly

2. Odonata: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous. Function:

flying; Dragonfly, Damselfly
3. Plecoptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous.
Function: flying; Stonefly

4. Grylloblatodea: Apterous insects; Rock crawlers

5. Orthoptera: forewing - tagmina, hindwing - membranous. Function:
forewing - protection, hindwing -flying ; Grasshoppers, crickets

6. Phasmida: forewing - tagmina, hindwing - membranozus. Function:

forewing - protection, hindwing -flying ; Leaf insect

7. Dermaptera: forewing - tagmina, hindwing - membranous. Function:

forewing - protection, hindwing -flying (human ear shaped); Earwig
8. Embioptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous.
Function: forewing - flying, hindwing – flying; Web spinners

9. Dictyoptera: forewing - tagmina, hindwing - membranous. Function:

forewing - protection, hindwing - flying ; Mantis, Cockroach

10.Isoptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous. Function:

forewing - flying, hindwing – flying; Termites, White ants
11.Zoraptera: contains only one single genus. they could be either winged
or wingless. if winged, both wings are membranous but at particular time
they shed their wings. Function: forewing - flying, hindwing – flying;
Angel insects

12.Psocoptera: they could be either winged or wingless. they are having

large sized membranous forewings. forewings hold in roof like manner.
Function: forewing - flying, hindwing - flying ; Book louse

13.Mallophaga: no wings. secondarily wingless.; Bird louse

14.Siphunculata: no wings. secondarily wingless; Head louse, Human
louse

15.Hemiptera: forewing - hemilytra, hindwing - membranous. Function:

forewing - protection, hindwing – flying; Bugs, Red Cotton bug, Dusky
cotton bug
16.Thysanoptera: forewing - fringed/feather like, hindwing -
fringed/feather like. Function: forewing - flying, hindwing – flying;
Thrip

 Endopterygota: here, wings develop internally and complete

metamorphosis is observed.

1. Neuroptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous.

Function: forewing - flying, hindwing – flying; Green lacewing, Brown
lacewing, Antlion, Owlfly

2. Mecoptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous.

Function: forewing - flying, hindwing – flying; Scorpion fly
3. Lepidoptera: forewing - scally, hindwing - scally. Function: forewing -
flying, hindwing - flying.; Butterfly, Moth

But in case of Pterophoridae family (plum moth - Exelastis atomosa)

the adults have fissured/ clofted wings, both forewings and hindwings.
here, forewings are divided once and hindwings twice. Function:
forewing - flying, hindwing - flying
4. Trichoptera: forewing - membranous but having more or less hair,
hindwing - membranous. forewings hold in roof like manner. Function:
forewing -protection + flying, hindwing – flying; Caddish fly
5. Diptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - modified/ reduced to
halters. Function: forewing - flying, hindwing - balancing during the
fly; Housefly

Basal part of halter called scabellum and apex part called capitellum.

6. Strepsiptera: forewing - modified/ reduced to halters, hindwing -

membranous. Function: forewing - balancing during flying, hindwing -
flying.; Stylopids

7. Hymenoptera: forewing - membranous, hindwing - membranous.

Function: forewing - flying, hindwing – flying; Honeybees
8. Siphonaptera: they are apterous.; Flaes

9. Coleoptera: forewing - elytra, hindwing - membranous. Function:

forewing - protection, hindwing - flying.; Beeles, Dung roller, Ladybird
beetle
FLIGHT MECHANISM:

• The wings are attached to the thoracic segments at 3 points:

• anterior notal process (notum)

• posterior notal process (not shown)

• 3 pleural wing processes (pleuron)

Flight muscles: There are 2 types

• Direct : attached to the wing itself

• Indirect: not attached to the wing but to the notum (dorsal) and sternum
(ventral)

• Insects have one of two different arrangements of muscles used to flap

their wings:-

Direct flight muscles

• Direct flight muscles are found in insects such as dragonflies and

cockroaches. The wings pivot up and down around a single pivot point.

• The wings are raised by a contraction of muscles attached to the base of

the wing inside (toward the middle of the insect) the pivot point.

• The wings are then brought down by a contraction of muscles that attach
to the wing outside of the pivot point.
 • In butterflies and moths, beetles, grasshoppers, roaches, dragon flies and
others, the downstroke is powered by the direct flight muscles in
conjunction With the relaxation of the indirect muscles

Indirect flight muscles

• Indirect flight muscles are found in more advanced insects such as true
flies.

• Indirect flight muscles are connected to the upper (tergum) and lower
(sternum) surfaces of the insect thorax. A second set of muscles attach to
the front and back of the thorax.

• The wings are raised by the muscles attached to the upper and lower
surface of the thorax contracting. This brings the top surface of the thorax
down and, along with it, the base of the wings.

• As a result the wing tips pivot upwards. The wings are then lowered by a
contraction of the muscles attached to the front and rear of the thorax.

• This forces the upper surface of the thorax to raise and the wings pivot
downwards.

• In all insects, the upstroke is affected by contraction of indirect flight

muscles; this results in the notum being pulled down toward the sternum.

• A fulcrum point at the pleural process forces the wing up

In insects such as bees, wasps, and flies the downstroke is also achieved by
indirect muscles called the dorsal longitudinal muscles
REFERENCE:

Brisson, J. A.; Ishikawa, A.; Miura, T. (2010) Wing development genes of the
pea aphid and differential gene expression between winged and
unwinged morphs. Insect Molecular Biology , 19(s2), 63-73
Chougale, T. M. and Sathe, T. V. (2009) Mating behavior in Apanteles baoris
Wilkinson (Hymenoptera : Braconidae), an internal parasitoid of
Chapra mathias Fabriceous (Lepidoptera : Hesperiidae. Journal of
Experimental Zoology, India, 12(1), 65-67
Kati, A. and Hardie, J. (2010) Inhibiting aphid wing development : Is immune
challenge important? Physiological Entomology, 35(1), 82-86
Khiaban, N. G. M. Z.; Nejad, K. H. I.; Hejazi, M. S.; Mohammadi, S. A.;
Sokhandan, N. (2010) A geometric morphometric study on the host
populations of the pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera :
Noctuidae) in some parts of Iran. Munis Entomology & Zoology, 5(1),
140-147
Mckechnie, S. W.; Blacket, M.J.; Song, S. V.; Rako, L.; Caroll, X.; Johnson, T.
K.; Jensen, L. T.; Lee, S. F.; Wee, C. W.; Hoffmann, A. A. (2010) A
clinally varying promoter polymorphism associated with adaptive
variation in wing size in Drosophila. Molecular Ecology, 19(4), 775-
784
Ramesha, B. (2015) Notes on the Baridine weevil genus Acythopeus
(Coleoptera : Curcurlionidae) from India. Indian Journal of
Entomology, 77(4), 363-382.
Talloen, W.; Dongen, S. Van.; Dyck, H. Van.; Lens, L. (2009) Environmental
stress and quantitative genetic variation in butterfly wing
characteristics. Evolutionary Ecology, 23(3), 473-485
Ai, H.; Yoshida, A.; Yokohari, F. (2010) Vibration receptive sensilla on the
wing margin of silkworm, Bombyx mori. Journal of Insect Physiology,
56(3), 236-246
Aleman, J.; Ravelo, J.; Duarte, L.; Miranda, I. (2009) Wing morphometry of
Cuban Anastrepha obliqua, fruit flies : differentiation from other
Latin American Anastrepha fraterculus populations. Boletin de la
S.E.A. (Sociedad Entomologica Argonesa), 45, 556-569

BOOKS:

Insecta – K.N.Ragumoorthy, V.Balasubramani,

M.R.Srinivasan,N.natarajan

Imms General textbook of Entomology-R.G.Davies, O.W.Richards