Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Investigation of wake characteristic of a 30 kW rated power Horizontal Axis T

Wind Turbine with wake model and field measurement
⁎
Qing'an Lia,b, , Takao Maedaa, Yasunari Kamadaa, Yuto Hiromoria
a
Division of Mechanical Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
b
CAS Laboratory of Wind Energy Utilization, Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China

H I GH L IG H T S

• Turbulence intensity and wind shear are measured in the test site.
• Wake characteristics are investigated by ultrasonic anemometers and Gaussian function.
• When the pitch angles are 0°, 2° and 4°, the minimum non-dimensional wind velocity ratio are about 0.77, 0.78 and 0.84.
• The non-dimensional wind velocity ratio obtains the minimum value around y/R = 0.50.
• The wind direction difference becomes larger toward the hill direction.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A field measurement and wake model based on experimental data were introduced to investigate the wake
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) characteristics of a HAWT (Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine) in a wind farm. In the present study, a HAWT gen-
Field measurement erator of capacity 30 kW with the rotor diameter of 10.0 m was used. Firstly, the reference wind was measured
Gaussian function with inflow measurement mast. And then, the wake flow was examined in the different tip speed ratios and pitch
Wake
angles at the wind turbine wake position of x/D = 2.0 by ultrasonic anemometers, three-cup type anemometers
Wind deficit
and wind vane. Finally, the wake velocity distribution was predicted by the wake model with Gaussian function.
As a result, the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio UNR reached the minimum value around y/R = 0.50 and
increased as it went laterally away from y/R = 0.50. Furthermore, the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio UNR
decreased with the increase of the pitch angle. When the pitch angles were 0°, 2° and 4°, the minimum UNR were
about 0.77, 0.78 and 0.84 at the horizontal position of y/R = 0.5. Meanwhile, the full wake widths at half
maximum of 1.04, 0.98 and 1.09 were obtained at the pitch angle of 0°. This study provided rich information for
the prediction of annual power generation of the downstream wind turbine in wind farm.

1. Introduction
Wind energy has been successfully exploiting by a large number of
active people around the world by building new industries, which
creates hundreds of thousands of jobs and opens a new page for the
future of clean energy [1,2]. From the Global Wind Report: Annual
Market Update [3], it was found that the total cumulative capacity
reached 486.8 GW with an accumulated capacity growth of 12.6% in
2016. Significant development of wind farms has contributed to the
rapid use of wind energy with HAWTs (horizontal axis wind turbines)
[4–6]. In wind farms, the HAWTs are subjected to large wind shear and
turbulence intensity which can affect the distribution of wind turbine
wakes. The upstream wind turbine wake which is characterized by
wind velocity defect can result in the power loss of the downstream
wind turbine [4,7–10]. Furthermore, the wind turbine wake can also
lead to a high turbulence intensity, further increasing of the fatigue
loads [7,9,11–13]. Sanderse [14] pointed out that power losses of
downstream wind turbine could be up to 30–40% and the increase of
the fatigue loads on the downstream wind turbine due to the upstream
wind turbine wake effect could be up to 80%, which would greatly
shorten the life of the rotor blade.
The power losses and the fatigue loads of downstream wind turbines
are two very important considerations when the wind turbines are ar-
ranged in wind farms. The wake distribution of upstream wind turbine
is the main factor in determining these two factors [15]. Therefore, for
a good understanding of aerodynamic forces and a reliable predictions

⁎
Corresponding author at: CAS Laboratory of Wind Energy Utilization, Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China and Division of
Mechanical Engineering, Mie University, 1577 Kurimamachiya-cho, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
E-mail address: li@fel.mach.mie-u.ac.jp (Q. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.05.022
Received 31 December 2017; Received in revised form 23 April 2018; Accepted 5 May 2018
0306-2619/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Li et al.
Nomenclature
A lateral velocity gradient
as wind shear index
A swept area of wind turbine (= R2) [m2]
Cp power coefficient
Ct thrust coefficient
Dr full wake width at half maximum [m]
H hub height [m]
r radial position from the rotor center [m]
R rotor radius [m]
T thrust force [N]
TIref turbulence intensity
U0 mainstream velocity [m/s]
UD maximum velocity value [m/s]
Uhub wind velocity in the mainstream direction at the hub
height [m/s]
UN non-dimensional velocity in the wake model
UN_O ratio of the mainstream velocity Uwake_O and reference
velocity Uref_O when the wind turbine is operating
UN_P ratio of the mainstream velocity Uwake_P and reference
on power performance of wind turbines on wind farms, it is very im-
portant to investigate the impact of inflow conditions (such as wind
velocity, wind shear, turbulence intensity, etc.) in the wake field of the
HAWT during its operation [7,16,17]. This paper is the first of two
articles to investigate the effects of flow conditions and the wind tur-
bine operations on the wake flow characteristics of HAWT in the wind
farms. Meanwhile, an efficient and optimized wake model is developed
based on the experimental data in the field measurements. In the
second future publication, the total power generation of downstream
wind turbine will be predicted in different operations in the wind farms.
Previous studies on wind turbine wake characteristics in the wind
farms employed various numerical simulations, wind tunnel measure-
ments and field experiments. As early as 1974, Wilson and Lissaman
[18] evaluated the wind turbine wake field with wake model based on
the vortex theory. They found that a recirculated flow was obtained in
the wind turbine wake due to the wake momentum. To calculate the
velocity defect profiles in the wind turbine near-wake, in 1980 Ver-
meulen [19] derived an empirical expression on the basis of experi-
mental data. From his study, it was seen that the momentum deficit in
the wake was influenced by the wind turbine thrust. A similar flow
feature was also reported in 1983 by Liu et al. [20] and in 1985 by
Neustadter and Spera et al. [21] with mathematical models. However,
the turbulence intensity effect was not mentioned in the above studies.
For a better understanding of the turbulence intensity effect, the wake
behind a 2 MW wind turbine was measured in a field experiment in
1988 by Högström et al. [22]. Turbulence spectra of the wind turbine
wake demonstrated a significant increase of energy at the frequency
above 0.004 Hz and a decreased fluctuation at a lower frequency.
Furthermore, in 1989 Pedersen and Antoniou [23] recorded the flow
pattern around the wind turbine near-wake by using video. They found
that the expansion of the wake depended on the tip vortex, the vortex
sheet and the rotor tower interference effect. Regrettably, the surface
roughness effects were not mentioned.
In 1990, as mentioned by Elliott and Barnard [24], the mean velo-
city deficit, the wake turbulence intensity and width were measured at
nine meteorological towers. The maximum velocity deficits were shown
in the case of low wind velocity and turbulence intensity. Moreover, it
was surprising that the relationship between the velocity deficit and the
wake position was linear. In 1992 Frandsen [25] also found that velo-
city deficit decreased with the increase of wake position and the wake
center line was above the hub height. However, in 1995 Helmis et al.
[26] observed that the velocity deficit and the wake position had a
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
velocity Uref_P when the wind turbine is parking
UNR non-dimensional mainstream velocity ratio
Uref reference flow velocity [m/s]
Uref_O reference flow velocity in the mainstream velocity when
the wind turbine is operating [m/s]
Uref_P reference flow velocity in the mainstream velocity when
the wind turbine is parking [m/s]
Uwake_O wake velocity in the mainstream velocity when the wind
turbine is operating [m/s]
Uwake_P wake velocity in the mainstream velocity when the wind
turbine is parking [m/s]
WDref wind direction [°]
x longitudinal coordinate [m]
y lateral coordinate [m]
Y horizontal position of maximum wake deficit [m]
z vertical coordinate [m]
α wind direction difference [°]
β blade pitch angle [°]
λ tip speed ratio (=R/U0)
ρ air density [kg/m3]
ω angular velocity of rotor [rad/s]
nonlinear interaction between each other due to the surface roughness
effect in the complex terrain. This result also had a good agreement
with the results in 1992 by Voutsinas et al. [27], in 1999 by Crespo
et al. [8] and in 2007 by Ivanell et al. [28] with numerical simulations
or experimental measurements. In 1997 Ebert and Wood [29] focused
on the turbulence characteristics of the three-dimensional wake during
the rotation of wind turbine by measuring a series of velocities. It was
shown that the maximum turbulence intensity in the wake was at a low
tip speed ratio, which resulted in a high angle of attack and flow se-
paration from the blades. To discuss the angular momentum effect, in
1999 Ebert and Wood [30] further measured the three-dimensional
wake structure of a model HAWT in the case of stalled flow. They found
that the pitching motion of the tip vortex was moderated with the in-
crease of the tip speed ratio and the angular momentum of wind turbine
wake. However, the effect of high turbulence intensity of the natural
wind on the wind turbine wake was still not compared.
Therefore, in 2001 Ebert and Wood [31] studied again the turbu-
lence level of near-wake which was seriously affected by the tip vortex
and rotating rotor shaft. As the tip speed ratio increased, the tip vortex
had a large variation with respect to the high turbulence intensity. In
2000 Grant et al. [32] and Whale et al. [33] also obtained similar re-
sults by using LSV (Laser Sheet Visualisation) and PIV (Particle Image
Velocimetry) techniques in wind tunnel, respectively. To study the at-
mospheric stability effect on the wind turbine wake, in 2003 Lange
et al. [34] investigated the turbulence intensity fluctuation by com-
paring the experimental data from Vindeby offshore wind farm and the
results obtained from the FLaP model. The turbulence intensity showed
some dependence on the ambient atmospheric stability. However, the
wake flow in the case of the non-neutral atmospheric stratification was
still not well understood. Furthermore, in 2005 the wake field char-
acteristics of a yawed turbine were compared by Medici [35] with the
measurements of hot-wire anemometry and PIV. He found that the
wake flow had a low frequency fluctuation at a high tip speed ratio. To
accurately capture the turbulence intensity of upstream wind turbine
wake, in 2007 Barthelmie [36] described two methods to estimate the
wind velocity. The result indicated that the turbulence intensity mea-
sured from the nacelle anemometer was around 9% higher than that
collected from the power measurement. In 2009 Chamorro and Porté-
Agel [37] analyzed the boundary layer turbulence effects on the HAWT
wake over rough and smooth surfaces. The results revealed that the
wake velocity had a large turbulence intensity over the rough surface,
which agrees well with the results reported in 2012 by Zhang et al.
Q. Li et al.
[38].
In 2010 Chamorro and Porté-Agel [39] once studied the turbulence
statistics of the wind turbine wake in both neutral and stably stratified
conditions via wind tunnel experiments. The measured results showed
that the maximum turbulence intensity was found near the blade tip in
the range of the wake position x/D = 4–5.5 in the neutral case. Later
on, in 2012 Zhang et al. [38] performed an experimental investigation
on the near-wake structure in turbulent boundary layer with PIV
system. The results illustrated that the vortex was most pronounced at
the blade tip and continued to the wake position of x/D = 2.0–3.0. In
2013 Zhang et al. [40] found the effects of turbine wake could be ex-
tended to the wake position of x/D = 20 with the measurements of
triple-wire anemometer in the wind tunnel, which was similar to the
findings in the study by Lignarolo et al. [41]. In 2014 Aitken et al. [42]
presented quantitative procedures from scanning a remote sensor and
Fig. 1. Aerial view and profile sketch of the wind turbine in the test site. The wind velocity values of reference and wake are measured through the ultrasonic
anemometers and the three-cup type anemometers.
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found the velocity deficit gradually declined to 15−25% at the wake
position of x/D = 6.5.
In recent years, to examine the turbulence intensity effect on the
airfoil surface flow, in 2016 Li et al. [43] investigated the flow visua-
lization with tuft and oil film method regarding different turbulence
intensities. The separation of bubbles was captured in the case of low
turbulence intensity, rather than high turbulence intensity. Further-
more, Li et al. [44,45] in 2016 measured the wake velocity using hot
wire anemometers and the power performance of HAWT in turbulent
inflow. The results illustrated that the turbulent inflow promoted the
expansion of wake deficit and the maximum power coefficients were
0.308, 0.321 and 0.298, corresponding to the turbulence intensities of
1.4%, 8.0% and 13.5%. However, the topography effects were not
considered in these studies. Therefore, in 2017 Li et al. [46,47] further
measured the wake structure of 30 kW HAWT in the horizontal and
Q. Li et al.
vertical directions with ultrasonic anemometers. They found that the
velocity deficit was increased with the increase of wind shear index.
Regrettably, there is no consideration about all the effects of wind
shear, wind velocity and turbulence intensity on the wake distribution
of HAWT in the wind farms. In addition, the diagonal inflow effect on
wind velocity distribution of wind turbine wake was hitherto not pre-
dicted through field experiments. To study the influence of the nacelle
and tower on the wake development, Benard et al. [48] in 2018 pro-
posed Large-Eddy Simulation strategy of wind turbine wakes and took
into account geometrical effects. The methodology was assessed in two
different test cases and validated with experimental results. O'Brien
et al. [49] in 2018 focused on experimentally and numerically quanti-
fying the near wake structure of a HAWT model. Results showed that all
the models predicted velocity deficit values as 2–4% and 4–7% differ-
ence from of experimental results for TSR values of 2.54 and 3.87 re-
spectively. However, all the models under-estimated the magnitude of
these velocity values with predictions as low as −43% of experimental
results.
Therefore, the velocity deficit in turbine wake should be considered
as a key factor affecting the power out coefficient of downstream wind
turbine in the wind farms. The novelty of this article lies in the con-
sideration of the effects of the high turbulence intensity of natural wind
and wind shear on the wake structure of upstream wind turbine.
Meanwhile, the wake characteristics of upstream wind turbine were
compared with both field experiments and wake model. In this study,
the detailed velocity measurements, including inflow and wake fields,
were conducted by employing ultrasonic speedometers under different
operating conditions. A wake model was developed based on the ex-
perimental data in order to predict power generation of downstream
wind turbine in the second future publication.
2. Experimental apparatus and procedure
The field experiments are conducted in a farm of Mie University
with a rated power 30 kW HAWT. Fig. 1 indicates the aerial view and
profile sketch of the wind turbine in the test site. The instantaneous
direction of reference wind is measured with arrowhead type wind
vane. Moreover, the wake velocity is measured at different tip speed
ratios and pitch angles according to the wind vane, three cup-type
anemometers and ultrasonic anemometers. Previous research works
[46,47] described the individual effects of wind shear or turbulence
intensity on the wake velocity. This study will further consider the
overall effects of wind shear and turbulence intensity on the fluctua-
tions of wind velocity in the turbine wake.
2.1. Experimental apparatus
Test wind turbine. The front view of the test wind turbine is described
in Fig. 2. As shown in this figure, the test wind turbine is an upwind
HAWT of the generator capacity 30 kW. The number of blade is three,
the rotor diameter of wind turbine is 10.0 m and the hub height is
13.4 m. The maximum values of the blade twist angle and the chord
length of rotor blade are 12.15° and 550.4 mm at the radial position of
r/R = −0.272. The rotor rotating speed can be arbitrarily set by
changing the control frequency of the induction generator inside the
nacelle. Moreover, the azimuth angle, pitch angle and nacelle angle are
controlled by photosensor, potentiometer and rotary encoder, respec-
tively. The blade pitch angle is controlled by a power cylinder via the
link mechanism. Meanwhile, the nacelle orientation is adjusted at the
azimuth angle of 303°, which is the prevailing wind direction.
Inflow measurement mast. Fig. 3 (a) and (b) show the schematic
diagram of the inflow measurement mast which is used to measure the
upstream wind (mast A and mast C) and the reference wind (mast B).
The inflow measurement mast is installed at the upstream position of
10.0 m (x/D = −1.0). The reference wind is measured by the reference
wind measurement mast which consists of five ultrasonic anemometers
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
(SAT-550), one three-cup type anemometer and one arrowhead type
wind vane. The sampling frequency of SAT-550 is 50 Hz, the accuracy
is ± 0.05 m/s and the minimum resolution is 0.01 m/s. The wind ve-
locity measured from the central ultrasonic anemometer is taken as the
reference wind velocity Uref. Meanwhile, the wind direction is detected
by the arrowhead type wind vane which is installed at the left position
of 1.25 m (y/R = 0.25). It should be noted that all the measurement
sensors are set at the same with the wind turbine hub height of 13.4 m.
The upstream wind is measured by three-cup type anemometer (A-703)
whose measurement range is from 2 m/s to 60 m/s. Further information
of the SAT-550 parameters can also be found in the previous studies of
Li et al. [50,51].
Wake measurement mast. Fig. 4 represents the schematic diagram of
the wake measurement mast which is made using a crank-up mast FDX-
472J. In this study, the wake measurement is performed at the wind
turbine downstream position of x/D = 2.0. Similar to inflow measure-
ment mast, the wake velocity is measured with six ultrasonic anem-
ometers (SAT-550) which are installed parallelly and horizontally to the
rotor rotating plane. As shown in this figure, the installation interval of
ultrasonic anemometer is 1.25 m in the y-axis direction.
2.2. Experimental method
Field experiments were carried out through one year. The wake test
was conducted as follows: the wind turbine operation conditions were
set to 70 rpm for a rotor rotating speed N, the predominant wind di-
rection (303°) for the nacelle direction and the pitch angles β were set to
0°, 2° and 4° for the rotor blade, respectively. Also, in order to in-
vestigate the wake characteristic changes due to the influence of the
topography, the flow field around wind turbine was measured when the
wind turbine was parking or operating.
In general, the distribution of the wind turbine wake is symmetrical
in the lateral direction. Therefore, only one side (y/R > 0) of the wake
velocity in the lateral direction was measured due to the limitations of
wake measurement mast. The measurement range of wake flow was
shown (seen Fig. 5) as follows: the measuring position was at x/D = 2.0
in the mainstream direction; the measuring distance was evenly dis-
tributed at y/R = 0.25 in the range of 0 ≤ y/R ≤ 1.25 in the lateral
direction; the measuring height was set at the rotating position center of
z/R = 0 in the vertical direction.
Fig. 2. The front view of the test wind turbine.
Q. Li et al. Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204

Fig. 3. The front view and oblique view of the inflow measurement mast. The inflow measurement mast is located at the upstream position of x/D = −1.0.

In this study, the experimental data were recorded by using two from the measurement instruments could be eliminated by a large
PLCs (programmable logic controllers) which were manufactured by number of samples. Therefore, the average values of measurements
Keyence Corporation. The sampling frequency was 50 Hz. As suggested were used in the following discussion.
by Sicot et al. [52] in 2008 and Li et al. [46] in 2016, the analysis errors In the test site, the measurement positions were different between

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Q. Li et al.
Fig. 4. The front view and oblique view of the wake measuring device. The
wake measurement is performed at the position of x/D = 2.0.
the reference wind and the wake flow. Therefore, a time difference was
generated when the inflow passed through the reference wind mea-
surement mast to the wake measurement position. It is important to
correct the time difference between the reference wind and the wake
flow. The details about the time correction method could be found in
our previous research [47]. To accurately assess the wind velocity at the
measuring points, the non-dimensional mainstream velocity ratio UNR
was defined as follows.
UNO
UNR =
UNP (1)
where, UN_O (= Uwake_O/Uref_O) was the ratio of wake velocity Uwake_O
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
Fig. 5. Measuring points in the wake. The wake velocity is measured with six
ultrasonic anemometers (SAT-550) which are installed parallel and horizontal
to the rotor rotating plane.
and reference velocity Uref_O in the mainstream direction when the wind
turbine was operating. UN_P (= Uwake_P/Uref_P) was the ratio of wake
velocity Uwake_P and reference velocity Uref_P in the mainstream direc-
tion when the wind turbine was parking.
2.3. Data processing
In order to quantitatively evaluate the influence of the lateral ve-
locity gradient, the disturbance and the vertical velocity gradient of
inflow on the wind turbine downstream velocity distribution, the lateral
velocity gradient a, the turbulence intensity TIref and the wind shear
index as of the inflow wind were defined by the following expressions.
UN2−UN1 U −U
a= = N2 N1
y2 −y1 3.6 (2)
σref
TIref =
Uref (3)
as
h
Uh (h) = Uhub × ⎛ ⎞
⎝H⎠ (4)
where, UN1 and UN2 were obtained from the upstream anemometers
1 (y1 = y/R = 1.8, z/R = 0) and the upstream anemometers 2 (y2 = y/
R = −1.8, z/R = 0). URef was the reference wind velocity in the
mainstream direction; σref indicated the standard deviation of wind
velocity in the horizontal plane for one minute. The wind velocity was
obtained by combining the main flow direction and the wind velocity in
the lateral direction. Moreover, h was the height from the ground sur-
face, H was the hub height, Uh was the wind velocity in the mainstream
direction at the height position of h and Uhub was the wind velocity in
the mainstream direction at the hub height, respectively.
3. Wake model
As mentioned in the above section, only six measuring points were
examined in the field experiments. To grasp the whole range of the
wake velocity distribution, Gaussian function (seen Fig. 6) was used by
IEC 61400-12-1 [53] to enable the study of wakes and wake interaction
in wind farms, considering the effect of wind conditions such as wind
velocity, and wind shear. The wake velocity distribution predicted from
this model was expressed as follows.
(yR −Y )2 ⎫
UN = 1−UDexp ⎧−
⎨ 2Dr2 ⎬ (5)
⎩ ⎭
As shown in Fig. 6, UD was the maximum wind deficit, Y was the
horizontal position of the maximum wake deficit and Dr was the full
wake width at half maximum. The horizontal axis was the non-di-
mensional horizontal position of yR and the vertical axis was the non-
dimensional wind velocity of UN, respectively. Here, the radius L of the
integral section was set to 2.5R in consideration of the hub height
(13.4 m) of the test wind turbine.
Q. Li et al. Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204

side of wind turbine. This hill may affect the wind flowing into the wind
turbine and the flow field downstream of the wind turbine. In this
section, the wind characteristics of the test site are measured.
Fig. 7 (a) shows the lateral velocity gradient distribution of the non-
dimensional wind velocity in the mainstream direction at the wake
position of x/D = 2.0, z/R = 0 when the wind turbine is parking. The
vertical axis is the non-dimensional wind velocity UN and the horizontal
axis is the non-dimensional horizontal position y/R. Each plot in this
figure is a non-dimensional representation of the average value of wind
velocity data satisfying the extraction condition that the wind velocity
is in the range of 3.75 m/s ≤ Uref ≤ 4.25 m/s, 4.75 m/s ≤ Uref ≤
5.25 m/s and the wind direction is in the range of 289° ≤ WDref ≤
308°. From this figure, it should be mentioned that the non-dimensional
wind velocity is UN < 1.0 at all measurement positions in the wind
turbine wake. Also, as approaching the hill (positive direction of y), it is
Fig. 6. Wake model using Gaussian function. seen that UN becomes small. To accurately evaluate the wake turbu-
lence caused by the operation of wind turbine, the non-dimensional
2 mainstream velocity ratio UNR which is mentioned in the formula (1) is
∫0
2.5R
Uref Uref ⎡ ⎧ r ⎫⎤
⎢1−UDexp ⎨− 2D 2 ⎬ ⎥ r dr used. Meanwhile, it still can be found that the horizontal gradient of
⎣ ⎩ r ⎭⎦
inflow in the wind turbine wake position (x/D = 2.0) is not uniform.
2
2.5R 2
⎧ r ⎫⎤ 1 Fig. 7 (b) illustrates the lateral velocity distribution of inflow ve-
− ∫0 URef ⎡ 2
⎢1−UDexp ⎨− 2D 2 ⎬ ⎥ r dr = 4π AUref Ct
(6) locity in the mainstream direction. The vertical axis shows the non-
⎣ ⎩ r ⎭⎦
dimensional reference wind velocity measured by the reference anem-
where Ct was the thrust coefficient. When yR was defined as the origin ometer (y/R = −1.8, −1.0, −0.5, 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.8, z/R = 0) at each
of the wake center, r was the radial distance measured from the center horizontal position at the hub height, and the horizontal axis shows the
of the wind turbine yR–Y. Accordingly, the thrust coefficient Ct was non-dimensional horizontal position y/R. Each plot is met the extrac-
shown as follows. tion condition with wind velocity range of 3.75 m/s ≤ Uref ≤ 4.25 m/s,
T 4.75 m/s ≤ Uref ≤ 5.25 m/s and the wind direction range of 289° ≤
Ct = 2 WDref ≤ 308°. Similar to Fig. 7 (a), it can be seen that the inflow ve-
0.5ρAUref (7)
locity in the mainstream direction UN_inflow decreases as approaching
where, T was the thrust force in the rotor axial direction, ρ was the air the hill (positive direction of y), indicating that it has a lateral velocity
density of inflow and A was the swept area of wind turbine. gradient. It is thought that this is due to the influence of vegetation such
as trees which are closer to the hill.
4. Results and discussions The appearance frequency of horizontal gradient of inflow, turbu-
lence intensity and wind shear indicator which represent the char-
The effect of turbulent wind on the power performance and wind acteristics of inflow are compared in Fig. 8 (a)–(c). As shown in these
turbine wake were discussed at three different pitch angles [47]. In this figures, the maximum frequencies are 0.21, 0.17 and 0.18, corre-
section, the effects of pitch angle and tip speed ratio on the wake sponding to the horizontal gradient of inflow −0.04 ≤ a ≤ −0.02, the
characteristics of HAWT were investigated for different turbulence in- turbulence intensity TIref of 0.21 ≤ TIref ≤ 0.24 and the wind shear
tensities and wind shear index. Finally, the wake characteristics mea- indicator 0.10 ≤ as ≤ 0.15, respectively. In this study, based on the
sured from field experiments were also compared by the Gaussian occurrence frequency of the inflow conditions, the inflow wind condi-
model. tion used for considering the wake flow in the mainstream velocity is
−0.060 ≤ a ≤ 0.060, 0.15 ≤ TIref ≤ 0.35, 0.10 ≤ as ≤ 0.40. The data
4.1. Wind characteristics in the test site set satisfying these three inflow conditions is taken as case I.

In this test site, there is a small hill where trees grew on the north

Fig. 7. The lateral velocity gradient distribution of the non-dimensional wind velocity in the mainstream direction at the wake position of x/D = 2.0 and inflow when
the wind turbine is parking.

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Q. Li et al. Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204

Table 1
Number of extracted data of average value at per minute for different tip speed
ratios.
Inflow Tip Pitch State Range of Uref [m/s] Number of
condition speed Angle data
ratio [°]

(i) 5.1 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 170

6.4 2 Operating 3.75 ≤ Uref < 4.25 178
7.4 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 89
Parking 3.75 ≤ Uref < 4.25 68
Parking 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 691

Fig. 9. Lateral distribution of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio in the

mainstream direction at the wind turbine wake for the tip speed ratios of γ =
5.1, 6.4 and 7.4, respectively. (Case I).

Table 2
Number of extracted data of average value at per minute obtained from the
different pitch angles.
Inflow Tip Pitch State Range of Uref [m/s] Number of
condition speed angle data
ratio [°]

(i) 7.4 0 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 119

7.4 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 89
7.4 4 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 102
Parking 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 691

Fig. 8. Appearance frequency of horizontal gradient of inflow, turbulence in-

tensity and wind shear indicator.

4.2. Effect of tip speed ratio

Fig. 10. Lateral distribution of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio in the
According to IEC 61400-12-1 Wind turbines - Part 12-1 [53], the
mainstream direction at the wind turbine wake for the pitch angles of β = 0°, 2°
wind velocity is the averaged value of one minute for the small wind
and 4°, respectively. (Case I).
turbine. Table 1 shows the number of extracted data of averaged value
during per minute under the tip speed ratio experimental condition,
which satisfies the extraction condition of case I. Fig. 9 demonstrates
the lateral distribution of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio in the

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Q. Li et al. Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204

the tip vortex of the turbine. This is similar to the observation of Chu
and Chiang [54].
Moreover, it can be seen that as the tip speed ratio increases, the
maximum deficit amount of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio in
the mainstream direction increases. This is believed to be due to the
rotor thrust which is related to the relationship between the tip speed
ratio and the mainstream velocity in the wake. From the momentum
theorem, the wake momentum decreases by the rotor thrust from the
inflow momentum. Therefore, as the rotor thrust increases, the wake
momentum is smaller, that is, the maximum velocity deficit of the wake
flow in the mainstream direction becomes larger. As mentioned in the
literature of Li et al. [44], the thrust coefficient increased with the in-
crease of the tip speed ratio. As a result of this, the maximum velocity
deficit of the wake flow in the mainstream direction becomes larger as
the tip speed ratio becomes larger. Generally speaking, the maximum
deficient position of the wake flow in the mainstream direction is y/
Fig. 11. Wind direction difference α between the inflow in the mainstream R = 0 [55]. However, from the experimental results of this test site, the
direction and the wake flow at the non-dimensional horizontal position when maximum defect position is around y/R = 0.50. It is considered that the
the wind turbine is parking. wake flow is deflected by the influence of the lateral velocity gradient
of the inflow which will be discussed in detail in the Section 4.4.
Table 3
Numbers of extracted data of average value at per minute obtained from dif- 4.3. Effect of pitch angle
ferent turbulence intensities in the measurements of different tip speed ratios.
Inflow Tip Pitch State Range of Uref [m/s] Number of The number of extracted data of average value during per minute
condition speed angle data obtained from the different pitch angles is summarized in Table 2. The
ratio [°] lateral distributions of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio in the
wind turbine wake are described in Fig. 10 at the pitch angles of β = 0°,
(ii) 5.1 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 62
6.4 2 Operating 3.75 ≤ Uref < 4.25 75
2° and 4°, respectively. For these data sets, data satisfying all of the
7.4 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 59 extraction conditions in case I are used. Similar to Fig. 9, UNR is
Parking 3.75 ≤ Uref < 4.25 52 minimum around y/R = 0.50 and increases as it goes laterally away
Parking 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 238 from y/R = 0.50 at each pitch angle. The minimum UNR are 0.83, 0.78
(iii) 5.1 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 111 and 0.75, corresponding to the pitch angles of β = 0°, 2° and 4°, re-
6.4 2 Operating 3.75 ≤ Uref < 4.25 109 spectively. As shown in Fig. 10, as the pitch angle decreases, the
7.4 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 76
maximum velocity deficit of the wake flow in the mainstream direction
Parking 3.75 ≤ Uref < 4.25 48
Parking 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 456 increases. As mentioned in Section 4.2, the reason is that the wake
momentum decreases by the rotor thrust from the inflow momentum.
Therefore, as the rotor thrust increases, the momentum of the wake is
Table 4 smaller, that is, the maximum velocity deficit in the wake flow becomes
Numbers of extracted data of average value at per minute obtained from dif- larger. From the study of Li et al. [44], it is found that the thrust
ferent turbulence intensities in the measurements of different pitch angles. coefficient is reduced with increasing the blade pitch angle. Because of
Inflow Tip Pitch State Range of Uref [m/s] Number
this, it is considered that as the pitch angle becomes smaller, the
condition speed angle of data maximum velocity deficit in the wake flow becomes larger.
ratio [°] Meanwhile, it is also worth noting that the non-dimensional wind
velocity ratio in the wind turbine wake was asymmetric at different
(ii) 7.4 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 29
7.4 0 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 56
pitch angles. There are three main reasons for this phenomenon. The
7.4 4 Operating 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 48 first reason is that the effect of rotor rotating direction on the wind
Parking 4.75 ≤ Uref < 5.25 238 turbine wake. The second reason is that during the rotation process, the
Inflow Tip Pitch State Range of Uref [m/s] Number inflow direction is instantaneously changing, rather than a stable value
condi- speed angle of data
in the wind tunnel environment, which resulting in the velocity re-
tion ratio [°]
covery process in the wind turbine wake is asymmetric. Finally, it may
(iii) 7.4 2 Operating 4.75 ≤ 5 < 5.25 76 be also due to the influence of the test site, where the mainstream ve-
7.4 0 Operating 4.75 ≤ 5 < 5.25 63
7.4 4 Operating 4.75 ≤ 5 < 5.25 54
locity in the wake is biased toward the hill side.
Parking 4.75 ≤ 5 < 5.25 456
4.4. Deflection of the mainstream velocity distribution

mainstream direction of the wind turbine wake for the tip speed ratios
of λ = 5.1, 6.4 and 7.4. As shown in this figure, the horizontal axis
represents the non-dimensional horizontal position y/R and the vertical
axis is the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio UNR. At all the tip speed
ratios, UNR obtains the minimum value around y/R = 0.50. The reason
for this is that as the distance increases from y/R = 0.50 in the lateral
direction, the mixing of wind was decelerated due to wind turbine
energy extraction and the external flow promotes the turbulent mixing
and enhances a faster velocity recovery. Meanwhile, the non-dimen-
sional wind velocity ratio increases as it goes laterally away from y/
R = 0.50. This indicates that the wake flow is strongly influenced by
In this section, the deflection of the mainstream velocity distribu-
tion in the wake towards the hill direction (positive direction of y) is
inspected. From Figs. 9 and 10, the maximum velocity deficit posi-
tioned in the mainstream direction are around y/R = 0.50. It is con-
ceivable that the cause of deflection of the wake center in the positive
direction of y is influenced by the peculiar topography of this test site.
This test site has a characteristic that the wind direction is deflected in
the positive direction of y when the wind passing through the inflow
measurement mast reaches the wake measurement mast. Fig. 11 shows
the wind direction difference α between the inflow in the mainstream
direction and the wake flow at the non-dimensional horizontal position

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Q. Li et al.
Fig. 12. Lateral distributions of the non-dimensional wind velocity in the mainstream direction for each turbulence intensity at different tip speed ratios.
Fig. 13. Lateral distributions of the non-dimensional wind velocity in the mainstream direction for each turbulence intensity at different pitch angles.
when the wind turbine is parking.
From this figure, it is seen that the wind direction difference α be-
comes larger toward the hill direction (positive direction of y). In this
test site, the wind blowing from the upstream side of the wind turbine
flows around the hill direction existing on the north side of the wind
turbine. Even if the horizontal gradient of inflow is within the range of
−0.060 ≤ a ≤ 0.060 and a is limited to around zero, the wake flow at
each measurement position (x/D = 2.0) is deflected when the wind
turbine is parking. Because of this, it is considered that the mainstream
velocity distribution in the wake obtained from this study is all biased
toward the hill side (positive direction of y).
4.5. Effect of turbulence intensity
It is important to investigate the mainstream velocity of the wind
turbine wake under various wind conditions in field experiments.
Therefore, in this research, the data classifying case I are divided ac-
cording to turbulence intensity which is as one of the factors influen-
cing the inflow wind. The boundary of the classification based on the
turbulent intensity level of the inflow is set to TIref = 0.22 which is
obtained from the occurrence frequency of the turbulent intensity as
shown in Fig. 8 (b). The data set simulating the low turbulence intensity
can be classified into the extraction range of −0.060 ≤ a ≤ 0.060,
0 ≤ TIref ≤ 0.22, 0.10 ≤ as ≤ 0.40. Meanwhile, the high turbulence
intensity is set at the range of −0.060 ≤ a ≤ 0.060, 0.22 ≤ TIref ≤
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
0.35, 0.10 ≤ as ≤ 0.40. Here, the inflow wind condition simulating the
site with the low turbulence intensity is Case II and the high turbulence
intensity is Case III, respectively.
Tables 3 and 4 show the numbers of extracted data of average value
during per minute obtained from different turbulence intensities in the
measurements of different tip speed ratios and pitch angles. The num-
bers of extracted data are in the cases of II and III. Figs. 12 and 13
represent the lateral distributions of the non-dimensional wind velocity
in the mainstream direction for each turbulence intensity at different
tip speed ratios and pitch angles. According to the findings shown in
Figs. 12 and 13, at each tip speed ratio, the velocity recovery in the case
of III where the turbulence intensity of the inflow is larger and faster
than that in the case of II at all the non-dimensional horizontal positions
y/R. This is caused by the high turbulence intensity promoting the
entrainment of the inflow and wake. Therefore, the velocity deficit
recovers quickly. Furthermore, the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio
UNR decreases with the increase of the pitch angle. When the pitch
angles are 0°, 2° and 4°, the minimum UNR are about 0.77, 0.78 and 0.84
at the horizontal position of y/R = 0.5.
4.6. Wake model
In this section, to evaluate more quantitatively the experimental
values of the lateral distribution of the non-dimensional wind velocity
ratio in the mainstream direction from Figs. 9, 10, 12 and 13, the wake
Q. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Lateral distributions of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio and the wake model fitted to the experimental value. In these figures, measurements are
carried out at the different tip speed ratios and pitch angles.
model using the Gaussian function given by Eq. (5) is adopted.
Fig. 14 (a)–(e) compare the experimental results of the lateral dis-
tributions of the non-dimensional wind velocity ratio and the results
from the wake model which is fitted to the experimental value. In these
figures, measurements are carried out at the different tip speed ratios
(λ = 5.1, 6.4 and 7.4) and pitch angles (β = 0°, 2° and 4°) at the wind
turbine wake position of x/D = 2.0. Meanwhile, the thrust coefficient
Ct in Eq. (7) uses the value calculated from the thrust value acquired
from this experiment. Table 5 shows the thrust coefficients under ex-
perimental conditions for different tip speed ratios and pitch angles.
The parameters of the wake model which are required for fitting the
experimental value are determined by multiplication. As mentioned in
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
equation (7), the main parameters involve the maximum wind deficit
UD, the horizontal position of the maximum wake deficit Y and the full
wake width at half maximum Dr. Table 6 shows the parameters of the
wake model under the experimental conditions for different tip speed
ratios and pitch angles. From Table 6, it is possible to quantitatively
evaluate the deceleration amount of the mainstream flow velocity in
the wake, the lateral deflection and the wake width. From Fig. 14
(a)–(e), the results from wake model agree well with those of the ex-
periments, and it is able to well simulate the lateral distributions of the
non-dimensional wind velocity ratio in the wake flow with Gaussian
function.
Next, the relationship between the wind turbine operation state and
Q. Li et al.
Fig. 14. (continued)
the parameters of wake model UD, Y and Dr is investigated in
Figs. 15–17. From Fig. 15 (a), it can be found that the UD increases as
the tip speed ratio increases. Similarly, from Fig. 15 (b), the UD in-
creases as the pitch angle decreases. In addition, although the absolute
value of UD depends on the inflow wind condition, it is still worth
noting that the increasing and decreasing trend of the maximum wind
deficit seldom depends on inflow wind conditions. The maximum va-
lues of UD are about 0.27, 0.22 and 0.22 in the cases of I, II and III,
when the tip speed ratio is 7.4. From Fig. 16 (a), it can be seen that the
Y increases with the increase of the tip speed ratio in the inflow wind
conditions of case I and case III. However, there is no clear relationship
between the tip speed ratio and Y in the case II. Moreover, from Fig. 16
(b), the horizontal position of the maximum wake deficit Y increases as
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
the pitch angle decreases in the case I and case II. However, in the case
III, the increasing and decreasing trend of Y is different from the case I
and case II. As can be seen from Fig. 17 (a), there is also no clear re-
lationship between the tip speed ratio and Dr in all cases of I, II and III.
On the other hand, from Fig. 17 (b), it can be seen that the Dr increases
with the decrease of the pitch angle in case I and case III, except case II.
The full wake widths at half maximum Dr of 1.04, 0.98 and 1.09 are
obtained at the pitch angle of 0° in the cases of I, II and III.
5. Conclusions and future research
The measurement of the complex flow in a wind turbine wake is a
challenging problem. In this study, the natural wind effect on the wake
Q. Li et al. Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204

Table 6
Parameters of the wake model under the experimental conditions of different
tip speed ratios and pitch angles.
Inflow condition Operating condition Wake model parameter

Tip speed ratio Pitch angle [°] UD Y Dr

(i) 5.1 2 0.13 0.31 0.90

6.4 2 0.18 0.37 0.87
7.4 2 0.22 0.44 1.02
7.4 0 0.25 0.53 1.04
7.4 4 0.17 0.39 0.98

(ii) 5.1 2 0.15 0.48 0.84

6.4 2 0.23 0.52 0.79
7.4 2 0.26 0.50 0.93
7.4 0 0.29 0.57 0.99
7.4 4 0.19 0.46 0.94

(iii) 5.1 2 0.12 0.35 0.93

6.4 2 0.15 0.36 0.94
7.4 2 0.22 0.50 1.01
7.4 0 0.23 0.51 1.10
7.4 4 0.16 0.39 1.01

Fig. 14. (continued)

Table 5
Thrust coefficients under experimental conditions of different tip speed ratios
and pitch angles.
Operating condition Ct

Tip speed ratio Pitch angle [°]

5.1 2 0.51
6.4 2 0.65
7.4 2 0.82
7.4 0 0.94
7.4 4 0.61
Fig. 15. Relationship between the wind turbine operation state and the para-
meters of wake model UD.

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Q. Li et al.
Fig. 16. Relationship between the wind turbine operation state and the para-
meters of wake model Y.
characteristics of a HAWT was investigated of the generator capacity
30 kW in field. The wake velocity is measured at different tip speed
ratios and pitch angles according to the wind vane, three cup-type
anemometers and ultrasonic anemometers. The key issue of wake
measurement is improving the wind energy requirement in wind farms.
The measurement of inflow can examine natural wind characteristics
and provide reliable scientific information for the micro-site selection of
wind turbines. Wake measurement data can be used to develop accurate
wind turbine wake prediction models. And then, the developed wake
models can realize the optimal layout of wind turbines and enhance
overall wind energy utilization in wind farms.
The present work not only shows experimental results of wind
turbine wake characteristics, but also supplies a better understanding of
natural wind characteristics. This work also used a variety of wind
speed measuring devices to obtain the reference wind and wake velo-
city. The reference wind was measured by the reference wind mea-
surement mast which consists of five ultrasonic anemometers, one
three-cup type anemometer and one arrowhead type wind vane. The
wake velocity was measured with six ultrasonic anemometers which
were installed parallelly and horizontally to the rotor rotating plane.
These measurements were performed at pitch angles of β = 0°, 2° and
4° and achieved a series of quantitative results. For example, the
minimum non-dimensional wind velocity ratio UNR are 0.83, 0.78 and
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Applied Energy 225 (2018) 1190–1204
Fig. 17. Relationship between the wind turbine operation state and the para-
meters of wake model Dr.
0.75, corresponding to the pitch angles of β = 0°, 2° and 4°, respec-
tively. The full wake widths at half maximum Dr of 1.04, 0.98 and 1.09
are obtained at the pitch angle of 0° in cases of I, II and III. At the same
time, the natural wind characteristics at the measurement points were
also well captured. In this test site, the wind direction difference α
between the inflow in the mainstream direction and the wake flow
becomes larger towards the hill direction (positive direction of y).
This study provided a better understanding of the wake character-
istics in field. However, the limitation is that the prediction is only
performed at the wind turbine wake position of x/D = 2.0. Moreover,
the wake of wind turbine will be investigated with both field experi-
ments and wake model at other wake positions and the power perfor-
mance of the downstream wind turbine will be studied.
Acknowledgement
The work was sponsored by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP17K06154 in Japan. We would like to thank all those who have re-
viewed and contributed to this paper for their valuable assistance.
Q. Li et al.
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