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Materials
Testing and Sustanability
N. Subramanian
Consulting Engineer
Maryland, USA
to fulfill these needs. This text is based on several latest Indian Standard codes on building materials.
SI units have been used throughout the book.
Key Features
The following features in the book make it stand out among the other books in this area:
• It covers traditional materials to the most modern materials such as plastics, gypsum, and ceramics.
• Each chapter covers a brief history, composition, classification, manufacture, properties, advantages
and disadvantages, use in buildings, environmental effects, sustainability, etc., of the material dis-
cussed in that chapter.
• Several Indian codes are available which stipulate norms for these materials. Most of these codes
are cited in the book and important extracts are provided. The list of several codes, which are not
cited, are also included in the references of each chapter and included in the online resource centre
(ORC). In addition, a bibliography is provided in the book which lists the important references, for
further study and research.
• Several topics, which are normally not found in other books, such as different types of brick kilns,
substitutes for bricks, green cement, industrial by-products that can be used to replace cement,
green substitutes for coarse aggregates and sand, green mortars, green and special concrete, mix
design of concrete, controlled permeability formwork (CPF), industrial timber products, various
reinforcing bars, structural insulated panel (SIP), sustainability of various materials, green building
rating systems, bamboo, nano-materials, composite materials and concrete canvas, health effects
and precautions to be taken while handling certain materials, etc., are discussed.
• 30 interesting practical case studies are provided.
• Students and engineers will find the separate chapter on testing and evaluation of these materials to
be useful.
• A rich pedagogy provides the required rigour for students to excel in this subject in the
examinations: Over 750 review questions and 440 multiple-choice questions (with answers) to
test the u nderstanding of the students; over 300 illustrative figures and photographs and 200 tables
to supplement the text; more than 1440 references, which include relevant Indian and American
codes.
• Provides most updated information in this subject covering the state-of-the-art trends and develop-
ments.
Online Resources
The following resources are available to support the faculty and students using this text:
the methods to reduce these emissions by the use of industrial by-products such as fly ash, GGBS, etc.,
(which also improve the properties of concrete) are also described in Chapter 9.
Chapter 10 describes gypsum, a fire retardant and sustainable material, requiring low energy in its
production, and mostly used in wall panels. The technology developed at IITM, using glass fibre rein-
forced gypsum panels, could reduce the cost and time required to build houses.
Wood is the most sustainable and renewable building material having a low level of embodied energy,
and wood products can be carbon negative. In order to use it we should maintain sustainable forestry.
Chapter 11 explains the classifications, defects, conservation, seasoning and preservation, properties,
selection and testing of timber. Several wood products such as layered timber composites, parallel
laminates, particle composites, fibre composites, and timber-concrete composites are now available;
their use and properties are briefly explained along with cork and linoleum.
Chapter 12 deals with the various forms of iron (pig, wrought, cast) and Chapter 13 describes steel,
which is the second most used structural material. Steel could be alloyed with other elements (mainly
with carbon) to improve the properties. It has equal strength in tension and compression, but its main
drawback is its corrosion. Steel is used in various forms from structural sections to bolts, nuts, and
nails. Hot rolled and cold-formed steel sections are available. Rebars used in concrete and prestressed
concrete are usually made of high strength steel. Several techniques have been developed to mitigate
the corrosion problem including the development of stainless steel and weathering steel. The produc-
tion of steel is also energy intensive and requires high temperatures (up to 1650°C), but is considered
sustainable due to its 100% recyclability. Chapter 14 is concerned with non-ferrous materials such as
aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, etc., and its alloys like brass and bronze. Steel is galvanized using zinc.
Glass, which is obtained from silica sand, lime, soda, and alumina, and mainly used in windows and
curtain walls of multi-storey buildings, is discussed in Chapter 15. Common types (sheet, plate, float,
and extra clear) and special types of glass (safety, translucent, etched, tinted, reflective/coated, insulated,
double-glazed, glass blocks) are described. Clay roofing tiles of various types and ceramic products are
discussed in Chapter 16. Chapter 17 discusses plastics, which were invented in the 1800s and have rev-
olutionized the construction industry and being used in a variety of applications. This chapter describes
its classification, methods of production, properties, and uses. Most of the plastics are not recyclable and
are not bio-degradable and hence have to be used with caution.
Details about paints and varnishes are provided in Chapter 18 and asphalt, bitumen, and tar in
Chapter 19. Chapters 20–22 deal with thermal and sound insulating materials and waterproof-
ing materials, respectively. Miscellaneous and recent materials are discussed in Chapter 23. A brief
description of deformation and fracture of materials is provided in Chapter 24. Chapter 25 describes the
various tests that are performed on some of the important materials, in order to evaluate them.
Though care has been taken to present error-free material, some errors might have crept in inadvert-
ently. I would highly appreciate if these errors are brought to the attention of publishers. Any sugges-
tions for improvement are also welcome.
Acknowledgements
I was greatly influenced during the preparation of this book by several books, papers, and websites on
building materials, sustainability and testing. Although sufficient effort was taken to acknowledge the
source of images, tables, etc., I wish to apologize for the use of any phrase, image, or illustrations used
in this book inadvertently without acknowledgement.
I thank the following organizations/publishers for permitting to reproduce material from their
publications: Ms Angela R. Matthews of American Concrete Institute (ACI), Ms Rachel Jordan of
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Mr Toru Kawai, Executive Director of Japan C oncrete
Institute (JCI), The US Green Building Council, Dr Steven H. Kosmatka, former Vice President, and
Guiyun Wang of Portland Cement Association (PCA), USA, Mr Chris Shaw of UK, The Indian Concrete
Journal, Mr Craig Donnelly of the Scottish Government, Er Robert Jackson of Fast+Epp, of Vancouver,
BC, Canada, Dr Warren South, Director – Research and Technical Services of Cement Concrete &
Aggregates, Australia, Ms Rousalina Barkhamatova, Secretary, Industrial Minerals Association Europe
(IMA-Europe), Brussels, Belgium, Mr Opinder Saggiof Allied Concrete Ltd and AML Ltd, Auckland,
New Zealand, Dr Mohammed Nadeem of Ambuja Cements, Mr Drew Burns, Executive Director of Slag
Cement Association, Dr M.C. Nataraja, Professor of JSS Science and Technology University, Mysore,
Prof. Devdas Menon of IITM, Er Alok Bhowmick of B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd, Mr Samuel
Sundar Singh of The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC), and M/s Tata Steel.
I thank the following organizations/persons for gi ving permission to use photographs of testing
equipment/buildings/materials: Er Dar Adil of IITD, Mr Mohammed Razal of Bangalore Tile Company,
Bangalore, Prof. Manu Santhanam of IITM, Mr Robin Bailey of Humboldt Mfg Co., Elgin, IL, Prof. Jake
Hiller of Michigan Technological University, USA, Dr Ajoy Kumar Mullick, former Director G eneral of
the National Council for Cement & Building Materials and Consultant, New D elhi, Mr Garry Watkins of
Concrete Canvas Ltd, UK, Mr Giorgio Maestroni and Ms Elena Agazzi of Matest S.P.A. Unipersonale,
Italy, Ms Sadia Parveen of ELE International, UK, Ms Aarti Bhargava of Aimil Ltd, New Delhi, Mr Jean
Pol Grandmont (Flickr), Er Sebastian Kaminski of Arup, UK, Prof. M. Sekar of Anna University, Mr Lori
Maloney of JC Steele & Sons, Inc., Mr John Lamond (Controls USA, Inc.) and Ms Paola Bettinelli
(Controls S.p.A.) of Controls Group, Milan, Italy, M/s Elsevier (Fig. 5.4), Mr Nemish Sheth, Director
of Asona India Pvt. Ltd Mumbai, Ms Sara DeWaay of the University of Oregon Libraries, Ms Alison of
Findlay–Evans Waterproofing & Liquid Rubber Melbourne, Australia, Dr Narayan V. Nayak, Advisor,
Gammon India Ltd, Dr V.S. Parameswaran, Former D irector of SERC, Dr G. M ohan Ganesh of Vellore
Institute of Technology, Vellore, Er S.H. Gajendra n, Er E.S. Jayakumar, Superintending Engineer
(Civil), BSNL Civil Wing, Kerala, Er Rahul Leslie , D eputy Director of Kerala PWD, Cochin, and
Er M. Karthik.
I thank all those who assisted me in the preparation of this book. First and foremost I thank Dr Col.
Nallathambi, Managing Director, Sakthi Civil & Structural Consultancy Pvt. Ltd, Chennai for his help
in writing Chapters 20–22. My sincere thanks are due to Prof. B. Vijaya Rangan, E meritus Professor of
Civil Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia, Prof. Dr P. Suryanarayana, Professor
& Former Dean (Retd), Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, Dr Ch. T. Madhavi,
Professor & Head, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Ramapuram Campus, Dr Abdul Rashid Dar,
Professor and former Director, National Institute of Technology Srinagar, J&K, India, and Dr G. Mohan
Ganesh, of VIT, for going through the chapters patiently and offering useful comments, and Er Hemal
Mistry and Er Dar Adil of IITM for their help in locating the literature. Finally I express my gratitude
to Er Kumar Abhishek Singh of New Delhi, Er Vivek Abhyankar of L&T Mumbai, Er Siddique, and
Er Ganesh of Nagpur for their encouragement.
I will be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge the help and wonderful assistance I received from
Ms S. Chithra at all the stages of this book-writing project. Lastly, I acknowledge the excellent support
and coordination provided by the editorial team of Oxford University Press India.
N. Subramanian
8.9 Mix Design of Ordinary Grade 10.5 Gypsum Wall Plasters 304
Concrete238 10.5.1 Characteristics of
8.10 Reinforced Cement Concrete Wet-plastered Walls 307
(RCC)247 10.6 Gypsum Plaster Boards 307
8.10.1 Corrosion Problem of Reinforced 10.6.1 Types of Gypsum
Concrete 248 Boards 308
8.10.2 Cover for Steel 10.6.2 Characteristics of Drywall
Reinforcement 249
Construction 311
8.10.3 Controlled Permeability
Formwork (CPF) Systems 253
10.7 Non-load Bearing Gypsum Partition
8.10.4 Vacuum Dewatering of Blocks313
Concrete 255 10.8 Sustainability of Gypsum 314
8.11 Durability of Concrete 255
8.12 Defects in Concrete 256 11. Wood and Wood Products 317
8.13 Formwork 258 11.1 Introduction 317
11.2 Classification of Trees 318
9. Special Structural Concrete 263 11.3 Parts of the Stem of a Tree 318
9.1 Introduction 263 11.4 Classification of Wood/Timber 320
9.2 Ready Mixed Concrete 264 11.4.1 Commercial/Hardness
9.3 Green Concrete (with Supplementary Classification 320
Cementitious Materials) 266 11.4.2 On the Basis of Grading 320
9.3.1 Fly Ash Concrete 267 11.4.3 According to Availability 321
9.3.2 Silica Fume and RHA 11.4.4 According to Durability 321
Concrete 271 11.4.5 Based on Modulus of
9.3.3 Slag Cement Concrete 273 Elasticity 322
9.3.4 Concrete with Recycled 11.4.6 Based on Treatability 322
Aggregates 274
11.4.7 Based on Refractoriness to
9.4 High Strength/High Performance Air-Seasoning 322
Concrete276 11.5 Defects in Wood/Timber 322
9.5 Self-compacting Concrete 279 11.5.1 Defects due to Natural
9.6 Structural Lightweight Concrete 281 Forces 323
9.6.1 Autoclaved Aerated
Concrete 284
11.5.2 Defects that Develop after
9.6.2 Lightweight Foamed Felling Trees 324
Concrete 288 11.6 Rot and Decay of Timber 325
9.7 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 289 11.6.1 Dry Rot 326
9.7.1 Ultra-high Performance 11.6.2 Wet Rot 326
Concrete 290 11.6.3 Damage due to Insects 327
9.8 Polymer Concrete 293 11.7 Moisture Content of Timber 329
9.9 Precast Concrete 295 11.7.1 Shrinkage of Timber 331
9.10 Decorative Concrete 295 11.8 Conversion and Seasoning
9.11 Ferrocement 295 of Timber 331
9.12 Geopolymer Concrete 296 11.8.1 Conversion and Market
9.13 Prestressed Concrete 296 Forms of Timber 332
9.14 Shotcrete 296 11.8.2 Seasoning of Timber 333
9.15 Other Types of Concrete 297 11.8.3 Seasoning Degrade 336
11.9 Preservation of Timber 336
10. Gypsum 301
11.9.1 Prophylactic Treatment 338
10.1 Introduction 301
11.9.2 Precautions to be taken while
10.2 Effect of Heat and Moisture 302
Handling Chemically Treated
10.3 Classification 303
Wood 338
10.4 Plaster of Paris 304
11.9.3 Thermal or Heat 12. Ferrous Metals other than Steel 368
Treatment 339 12.1 Introduction 368
11.9.4 Wood-Polymer 12.2 Pig Iron 369
Composites 339 12.2.1 Production of Pig Iron 369
11.9.5 Protective Coating 339 12.2.2 Properties and Uses of Pig
11.10 Storage of Timber 340 Iron 371
11.11 Qualities of Good Timber 340 12.3 Wrought Iron 372
11.12 Selection of Timber 341 12.3.1 Manufacture 373
11.13 Fire Proofing of Timber 342 12.3.2 Properties 374
11.14 Structural Properties of Timber 342 12.3.3 Uses of Wrought Iron 374
11.15 Advantages and Problems 12.4 Cast Iron 374
of Timber 344 12.4.1 Manufacture 375
11.16 Industrial Timber Products 345 12.4.2 Classification 377
11.17 Layered Timber Composites 346 12.4.3 Grey Cast Iron 378
11.17.1 Veneers and Veneer Plywood 12.4.4 White Cast iron 379
(Cross-laminate) 346 12.4.5 Malleable Cast Iron 379
11.17.2 Cross-laminated Timber 12.4.6 Spheroidal Graphite Iron
(CLT) 348 (Ductile Iron) 380
11.17.3 Nail-laminated Timber 12.4.7 Alloyed Iron 380
(NLT) 349 12.4.8 Corrosion Resistance of Cast
11.18 Parallel Laminates 349 Iron 381
11.18.1 Glued Laminated Timber 12.5 Steel 381
(GLT or Glulam) 349 12.6 Environmental Effects of Iron/
11.18.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber Steel Production 382
(LVL) 350
11.18.3 Block Board, Lamin Board, 13. Steel 386
and Sandwich Panels 351 13.1 Introduction 386
11.18.4 Flush Doors 352 13.2 Steel Making 387
11.19 Particle Composites 352 13.2.1 Integrated Steel Plants 387
11.19.1 Particle Boards 352 13.2.2 Mini Steel Plants 389
11.19.2 Parallel Strand Lumber 13.2.3 Hot Rolling Process 390
(PSL) 355 13.3 Production of Steel in India 390
11.19.3 Oriented Strand Board 13.4 Metallurgy of Steel 391
(OSB) 355 13.4.1 Crystalline Structure of
11.19.4 Laminated Strand Lumber Metals 391
(LSL) 355 13.4.2 Structure of Steel 392
11.20 Fibre Composites 356 13.5 Heat Treatment of Steel 394
11.20.1 Fibreboards 356 13.5.1 Annealing 394
11.20.2 Hardboard 357 13.5.2 Normalizing 394
11.21 Timber-concrete Composites 13.5.3 Quenching and
(TCC)358 Tampering 395
11.22 Advantages and Drawbacks of Wooden 13.5.4 Stress Relieving 395
Composites358 13.5.5 Case Hardening 395
11.23 Applications of Wood and Wood 13.6 Alloying Elements in Steel 396
Products359 13.6.1 Weldability of Steel 397
11.23.1 Tall Buildings in Wood 361 13.7 Chemical Composition of Steel 398
11.24 Cork and Linoleum 361 13.8 Types of Structural Steel 398
11.25 Timber: The Ultimate Green Building 13.9 Mechanical Properties of Steel 399
Material362
15.4 Treatments given to Glass 471 16.3.7 Solar Roof Tiles 497
15.5 Properties of Glass 472 16.4 Clay Flooring Tiles 497
15.5.1 Physical Properties 472 16.4.1 Clay vs Concrete Roof
15.5.2 Engineering and Mechanical Tiles 498
Properties 472 16.5 Ceramics 498
15.6 Uses of Glass in Buildings 473 16.5.1 Manufacturing of Ceramic
15.7 Common Types 474 Products 499
15.7.1 Sheet Glass 474 16.5.2 Properties of Ceramics 501
15.7.2 Plate Glass 474 16.5.3 Ceramic Tiles 501
15.7.3 Float Glass 475 16.5.4 Vitrified Tiles 502
15.7.4 Extra Clear Glass 475 16.5.5 Fixing of Floor Tiles 503
15.8 Special Types 475 16.6 Porcelain 504
15.8.1 Safety Glass 475 16.6.1 Porcelain Tiles 504
15.8.2 Translucent Glass 477 16.7 Choosing Tiles 505
15.8.3 Etched Glass 477 16.8 Terracotta 506
15.8.4 Tinted Glass 478 16.9 Earthenware 507
15.8.5 Coated/Reflective Glass 478 16.10 Stoneware Pipes and Fittings 507
15.8.6 Insulated Glass/Double- 16.11 Ceramic Sanitary Appliances 507
glazed Window Units 479 16.12 Burnt Clay Jallies 508
15.8.7 Glass Blocks 481 16.13 Environmental Effects of Ceramics 508
15.8.8 Heat-absorbing and
Glare-reducing Glass 482 17. Plastics and Rubbers 511
15.8.9 Self-cleaning Glass 482 17.1 Introduction 511
15.8.10 Associated Glazing 17.2 Brief History of Plastics
Materials 482 and Polymers 512
15.8.11 Types of Window 17.3 Composition of Plastics 512
Frames 483 17.4 Classification of Plastics 513
15.9 Fibreglass 483 17.4.1 Thermoplastics 513
15.10 Plastic Sheets for Glazing 483 17.4.2 Thermosetting Plastics 513
15.11 Characteristics and Performance 17.5 Polymerization 513
of Glass 484 17.6 Fabrication of Plastic Products 514
15.11.1 Solar Control 484 17.6.1 Additives/Moulding
15.11.2 Wind Loading 484 Compounds 515
15.11.3 Sound Insulation 485 17.6.2 Solvents 515
15.12 Advantages and Disadvantages 485 17.6.3 Fabrication Methods 515
17.7 Properties of Some Plastics in
16. Clay and Ceramic Products 489 Common Use 518
16.1 Introduction 489 17.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of
16.2 Clay Tiles 489 Plastics518
16.3 Clay Roofing Tiles 490 17.9 Common Plastics and their Use 519
16.3.1 Flat Plain Tiles 490 17.10 Use of Plastics In Buildings 522
16.3.2 Pan Tiles 491 17.10.1 PVC Pipes in Buildings 522
16.3.3 Mangalore Pattern Roofing 17.10.2 Polyethylene Water
Tiles 492 Tanks 524
16.3.4 Clay Half-Round Country Tiles 17.10.3 Doors and Windows 524
(Spanish Tiles) 494 17.10.4 Polycarbonate or PVC
16.3.5 Allahabad Tiles (Italian Roofing Sheets 524
Tiles) 495 17.10.5 Vinyl Flooring Sheets/Tiles/
16.3.6 Ridge and Ceiling Tiles 495 Planks 525