Types of networking standards

Home and business owners looking to buy networking gear face an array of choices. Many products
conform to the 802.11a, 802.11b/g/n, and/or 802.11ac wireless standards collectively known as Wi-Fi
technologies. (Bluetooth and various other wireless (but not Wi-Fi) technologies also exist, each
designed for specific networking applications.

This article describes the Wi-Fi standards and related technologies, comparing and contrasting them to
help you better understand the evolution of Wi-Fi technology and make educated network planning and
equipment buying decisions.

802.11
In 1997, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created the first WLAN standard.
They called it 802.11 after the name of the group formed to oversee its development. Unfortunately,
802.11 only supported a maximum network bandwidth of 2 Mbps - too slow for most applications. For
this reason, ordinary 802.11 wireless products are no longer manufactured.

802.11b
IEEE expanded on the original 802.11 standard in July 1999, creating the 802.11b specification.
802.11b supports bandwidth up to 11 Mbps, comparable to traditional Ethernet.
802.11b uses the same unregulated radio signaling frequency (2.4 GHz) as the original 802.11 standard.
Vendors often prefer using these frequencies to lower their production costs. Being unregulated,
802.11b gear can incur interference from microwave ovens, cordless phones, and other appliances
using the same 2.4 GHz range. However, by installing 802.11b gear a reasonable distance from other
appliances, interference can easily be avoided.
 Pros of 802.11b - lowest cost; signal range is good and not easily obstructed
 Cons of 802.11b - slowest maximum speed; home appliances may interfere on the unregulated
frequency band

802.11a
While 802.11b was in development, IEEE created a second extension to the original 802.11 standard
called 802.11a. Because 802.11b gained in popularity much faster than did 802.11a, some folks believe
that 802.11a was created after 802.11b. In fact, 802.11a was created at the same time. Due to its higher
cost, 802.11a is usually found on business networks whereas 802.11b better serves the home market.
802.11a supports bandwidth up to 54 Mbps and signals in a regulated frequency spectrum around 5
GHz. This higher frequency compared to 802.11b shortens the range of 802.11a networks. The higher
frequency also means 802.11a signals have more difficulty penetrating walls and other obstructions.
Because 802.11a and 802.11b utilize different frequencies, the two technologies are incompatible with
each other. Some vendors offer hybrid 802.11a/b network gear, but these products merely implement
the two standards side by side (each connected devices must use one or the other).
 Pros of 802.11a - fast maximum speed; regulated frequencies prevent signal interference from
other devices
 Cons of 802.11a - highest cost; shorter range signal that is more easily obstructed
802.11g
In 2002 and 2003, WLAN products supporting a newer standard called 802.11g emerged on the market.
802.11g attempts to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. 802.11g supports bandwidth up to
54 Mbps, and it uses the 2.4 Ghz frequency for greater range. 802.11g is backwards compatible with
802.11b, meaning that 802.11g access points will work with 802.11b wireless network adapters and
vice versa.
 Pros of 802.11g - fast maximum speed; signal range is good and not easily obstructed
 Cons of 802.11g - costs more than 802.11b; appliances may interfere on the unregulated signal
frequency

802.11n
802.11n (also sometimes known as "Wireless N") was designed to improve on 802.11g in the amount of
bandwidth supported by utilizing multiple wireless signals and antennas (called MIMO technology)
instead of one. Industry standards groups ratified 802.11n in 2009 with specifications providing for up
to 300 Mbps of network bandwidth. 802.11n also offers somewhat better range over earlier Wi-Fi
standards due to its increased signal intensity, and it is backward-compatible with 802.11b/g gear.

In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO (pronounced as "my-moh" or "me-moh"), is

a method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmit and receive antennas to
exploit multipath propagation.[1] MIMO has become an essential element of wireless communication
standards including IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi), HSPA+ (3G), WiMAX (4G), and
Long Term Evolution (4G). More recently, MIMO has been applied to power-line communication for
3-wire installations as part of ITU G.hn standard and HomePlug AV2 specification.[2][3]
At one time, in wireless, the term “MIMO” referred to the, mainly theoretical, use of multiple antennas
at the transmitter and the receiver. In modern usage, “MIMO” specifically refers to a practical
technique for sending and receiving more than one data signal with the same radio channel
simultaneously via multipath propagation. MIMO is fundamentally different from smart antenna
techniques developed to enhance the performance of a single data signal, such as beamforming and
diversity.

 Pros of 802.11n - fastest maximum speed and best signal range; more resistant to signal
interference from outside sources
 Cons of 802.11n - standard is not yet finalized; costs more than 802.11g; the use of multiple
signals may greatly interfere with nearby 802.11b/g based networks.

802.11ac
The newest generation of Wi-Fi signaling in popular use, 802.11ac utilizes dual band wireless
technology, supporting simultaneous connections on both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz Wi-Fi bands.
802.11ac offers backward compatibility to 802.11b/g/n and bandwidth rated up to 1300 Mbps on
the 5 GHz band plus up to 450 Mbps on 2.4 GHz.
What About Bluetooth and the Rest?
Aside from these four general-purpose Wi-Fi standards, several other related wireless network
technologies exist.
 IEEE 802.11 working group standards like 802.11h and 802.11j are extensions or offshoots of
Wi-Fi technology that each serve a very specific purpose.
 Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1 is an alternative wireless network technology that followed a
different development path than the 802.11 family. Bluetooth supports a very short range
(approximately 10 meters) and relatively low bandwidth (1-3 Mbps in practice) designed for
low-power network devices like handhelds. The low manufacturing cost of Bluetooth hardware
also appeals to industry vendors. You can readily find Bluetooth in the networking of PDAs or
cell phones with PCs, but it is rarely used for general-purpose WLAN networking due to the
range and speed considerations.
 WiMax also was developed separately from Wi-Fi. WiMax is designed for long-range
networking (spanning miles or kilometers) as opposed to local area wireless networking

Wired Standards

EEE 802.3

This article is about the standards working group. For Ethernet frame data format, see Ethernet frame.
IEEE 802.3 is a working group and a collection of IEEE standards produced by the working group
defining the physical layer and data link layer's media access control (MAC) of wired Ethernet. This is
generally a local area network technology with some wide area network applications. Physical
connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by various
types of copper or fiber cable.
802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1 network architecture.
802.3 also defines LAN access method using CSMA/CD.
Communication Standards
Ethernet
Date Description
Standard
Experimental
1973[1] 2.94 Mbit/s (367 kB/s) over coaxial cable (coax) bus
Ethernet
10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thick coax. Frames have a Type field. This
Ethernet II
1982 frame format is used on all forms of Ethernet by protocols in the Internet
(DIX v2.0)
protocol suite.
10BASE5 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thick coax. Same as Ethernet II
IEEE 802.3
1983 (above) except Type field is replaced by Length, and an 802.2 LLC header
standard
follows the 802.3 header. Based on the CSMA/CD Process.
10BASE2 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin Coax (a.k.a. thinnet or
802.3a 1985
cheapernet)
802.3b 1985 10BROAD36
802.3c 1985 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) repeater specs
802.3d 1987 Fiber-optic inter-repeater link
802.3e 1987 1BASE5 or StarLAN
802.3i 1990 10BASE-T 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over twisted pair
802.3j 1993 10BASE-F 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over Fiber-Optic
100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4, 100BASE-FX Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbit/s
802.3u 1995
(12.5 MB/s) w/autonegotiation
Full Duplex and flow control; also incorporates DIX framing, so there's no
802.3x 1997
longer a DIX/802.3 split
802.3y 1998 100BASE-T2 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) over low quality twisted pair
802.3z 1998 1000BASE-X Gbit/s Ethernet over Fiber-Optic at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)
802.3-1998 1998 A revision of base standard incorporating the above amendments and errata
802.3ab 1999 1000BASE-T Gbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)
Max frame size extended to 1522 bytes (to allow "Q-tag") The Q-tag
802.3ac 1998
includes 802.1Q VLAN information and 802.1p priority information.
802.3ad 2000 Link aggregation for parallel links, since moved to IEEE 802.1AX
A revision of base standard incorporating the three prior amendments and
802.3-2002 2002
errata
10 Gigabit Ethernet over fiber; 10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-LR, 10GBASE-
802.3ae 2002
ER, 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, 10GBASE-EW
802.3af 2003 Power over Ethernet (15.4 W)
802.3ah 2004 Ethernet in the First Mile
802.3ak 2004 10GBASE-CX4 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over twinaxial cables
A revision of base standard incorporating the four prior amendments and
802.3-2005 2005
errata.
10GBASE-T 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair
802.3an 2006
(UTP)
Backplane Ethernet (1 and 10 Gbit/s (125 and 1,250 MB/s) over printed
802.3ap 2007
circuit boards)
802.3aq 2006 10GBASE-LRM 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over multimode fiber
P802.3ar Cancelled Congestion management (withdrawn)
802.3as 2006 Frame expansion
802.3at 2009 Power over Ethernet enhancements (25.5 W)
802.3au 2006 Isolation requirements for Power over Ethernet (802.3-2005/Cor 1)
802.3av 2009 10 Gbit/s EPON
Fixed an equation in the publication of 10GBASE-T (released as 802.3-
802.3aw 2007
2005/Cor 2)
A revision of base standard incorporating the 802.3an/ap/aq/as
802.3-2008 2008 amendments, two corrigenda and errata. Link aggregation was moved to
802.1AX.
802.3az 2010 Energy Efficient Ethernet
40 Gbit/s and 100 Gbit/s Ethernet. 40 Gbit/s over 1m backplane, 10 m Cu
cable assembly (4x25 Gbit or 10x10 Gbit lanes) and 100 m of MMF and
802.3ba 2010
100 Gbit/s up to 10 m of Cu cable assembly, 100 m of MMF or 40 km of
SMF respectively
802.3- Increase Pause Reaction Delay timings which are insufficient for 10 Gbit/s
2009
2008/Cor 1 (workgroup name was 802.3bb)
Move and update Ethernet related TLVs (type, length, values), previously
802.3bc 2009
specified in Annex F of IEEE 802.1AB (LLDP) to 802.3.
Priority-based Flow Control. An amendment by the IEEE 802.1 Data
Center Bridging Task Group (802.1Qbb) to develop an amendment to IEEE
802.3bd 2010
Std 802.3 to add a MAC Control Frame to support IEEE 802.1Qbb Priority-
based Flow Control.
 MIB definitions for Ethernet. It consolidates the Ethernet related MIBs
present in Annex 30A&B, various IETF RFCs, and 802.1AB annex F into
802.3.1 2011
one master document with a machine readable extract. (workgroup name
was P802.3be)
Provide an accurate indication of the transmission and reception initiation
802.3bf 2011
times of certain packets as required to support IEEE P802.1AS.
Provide a 40 Gbit/s PMD which is optically compatible with existing
802.3bg 2011 carrier SMF 40 Gbit/s client interfaces (OTU3/STM-256/OC-768/40G
POS).
A revision of base standard incorporating the 802.3at/av/az/ba/bc/bd/bf/bg
802.3-2012 2012
amendments, a corrigenda and errata.
Define a 4-lane 100 Gbit/s backplane PHY for operation over links
consistent with copper traces on “improved FR-4” (as defined by IEEE
802.3bj June 2014 P802.3ap or better materials to be defined by the Task Force) with lengths
up to at least 1m and a 4-lane 100 Gbit/s PHY for operation over links
consistent with copper twinaxial cables with lengths up to at least 5m.
This amendment to IEEE Std 802.3 defines the physical layer specifications
and management parameters for EPON operation on point-to-multipoint
802.3bk 2013
passive optical networks supporting extended power budget classes of
PX30, PX40, PRX40, and PR40 PMDs.
802.3bm 2015 100G/40G Ethernet for optical fiber
1000BASE-T1 - Gigabit Ethernet over a single twisted pair, automotive &
802.3bp 2014
industrial environments
~Feb 40GBASE-T for 4-pair balanced twisted-pair cabling with 2 connectors
802.3bq
2016 over 30 m distances
802.3bs ~ 2017 400 Gbit/s Ethernet over optical fiber using multiple 25G/50G lanes
Power over Ethernet enhancements up to 100W using all 4-pairs balanced
802.3bt ~ 2017 twisted-pair cabling, lower standby power and specific enhancements to
support IoT applications (e.g. Lighting, sensors, building automation).
100BASE-T1 - 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over a single twisted pair for
802.3bw
automotive applications
802.3bx - a new consolidated revision of the 802.3 standard including
802.3-2015 2015
amendments 802.2bk/bj/bm
802.3by 25G Ethernet[2]

Optical fibre Standards

Governing standards
In order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that function compatibly in fiber
optic communication systems, a number of standards have been developed. The International
Telecommunications Union publishes several standards related to the characteristics and performance
of fibers themselves, including
 ITU-T G.651, "Characteristics of a 50/125 µm multimode graded index optical fibre cable"
  ITU-T G.652, "Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre cable"
Other standards specify performance criteria for fiber, transmitters, and receivers to be used together in
conforming systems. Some of these standards are:
 100 Gigabit Ethernet
 10 Gigabit Ethernet
 Fibre Channel
 Gigabit Ethernet
 HIPPI
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
 Synchronous Optical Networking
 Optical Transport Network (OTN)
TOSLINK is the most common format for digital audio cable using plastic optical fiber to connect
digital sources to digital receivers.

Optical Fiber Cabling

The '568-B.3 specification on optical fiber cabling consists of one recognized cable type for horizontal
subsystems and two cable types for backbone subsystems:
 Horizontal - 50/125µm or 62.5/125µm multimode (two fibers per outlet).
 Backbone - 50/125µm or 62.5/125µm multimode or singlemode.
All optical fiber components and installation practices shall meet applicable building and safety codes.

Optical fiber patch cords:

 Shall be a two-fiber (duplex) cable of the same type as the cables to which they connect.
 Shall be configured so that "A" connects to "B" and "B" connects to "A".

Installation of optical fiber connecting hardware:

 Connectors shall be protected from physical damage and moisture.
 Optical fiber cable connecting hardware should incorporate high-density termination to
conserve space and provide for ease of optical fiber cable and patch cord management upon
installation.
 Optical fiber cable connecting hardware should be designed to provide flexibility for mounting
on walls, in racks, or on other types of distribution frames and standard mounting hardware.

Optical fiber cabling installation:

 It is recommended that a minimum of 1m (3.28 ft.) of two-fiber cable (or two buffered fibers)
be accessible for termination purposes.
  Testing is recommended to assure correct polarity and acceptable link performance. Clause 11
of '568-B.1 provides recommended optical fiber link performance testing criteria.

Optical fiber connections:

 Connector designs shall meet the requirements of the corresponding TIA FOCIS documents.
 Telecommunications outlet/connector boxes shall be securely mounted at planned locations.
 The telecommunications outlet/connector box shall have:
 Cable management means to assure a minimum bend radius of 25mm (1 in.) and should
have slack storage capability.
 Provisions for terminating and housing a minimum of two optical fibers.
 Identification of fiber types:
 Multimode connector or a visible portion of it and adapters shall be identified with the
color beige.
 Singlemode connector or a visible portion of it and adapters shall be identified with the
color blue.
 The two positions in a duplex connector are referred to as "position A" and "position B".

Small form factor (sff) connectors:

 Qualified SFF duplex and multi-fiber connector designs may be used in the main cross-connect,
intermediate cross-connect, horizontal cross-connect, consolidation points and work area.
 A TIA Fiber Optic Connect Intermateability Standard (FOCIS) shall describe each SFF design.
 The SFF design shall satisfy the requirements specified in Annex A of the '568-B.3 standard.
 Some advantages of SFF connectors include compact size, modular compatibility with the eight
position modular copper interface, and adaptability to high-density network electronics.
Antennas
Wi-Fi wireless networking works by sending radio transmissions on specific frequencies where
listening devices can receive them. The necessary radio transmitters and receivers are built into
Wi-Fi enabled equipment like routers, laptops and phones. Antennas are also key components of
these radio communication systems, picking up incoming signals or radiating outgoing Wi-Fi
signals. Some Wi-Fi antennas, particularly on routers, may be mounted externally while others are
embedded inside the device's hardware enclosure.

Antenna Power Gain

The connection range of a Wi-Fi device depends greatly on its antenna's power gain. A numeric
quantity measured in relative decibels (dB), gain represents the maximum effectiveness of an antenna
compared to a standard reference antenna. Industry manufacturers use one of two different standards
when quoting gain measures for radio antennas:
 dBi - decibels relative to an isotropic reference antenna
 dBd - decibels relative to a dipole reference antenna
Most Wi-Fi antennas have dBi as their standard measure rather than dBd. Dipole reference antennas
work at 2.14 dBi that corresponds to 0 dBd. Higher values of gain indicate an antenna capable of
working at higher levels of power, which usually results in greater range.

Omnidirectional Wi-Fi Antennas

Some radio antennas are designed to work with signals in any direction. These omnidirectional
antennas are commonly used on Wi-Fi routers and mobile adapters as such devices must support
connections from multiple directions. Factory Wi-Fi gear often uses basic dipole antennas of the so-
called "rubber duck" design, similar to those used on walkie-talkie radios, with gain between 2 and 9
dBi.
Directional Wi-Fi Antennas
Because the power of an omnidirectional antenna must be spread across 360 degrees, its gain
(measured in any one direction) is lower than alternative directional
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antennas that focus more energy in one direction. Directional antennas are typically used to extend the
range of a Wi-Fi network into hard-to-reach corners of buildings or other specific situations where 360-
degree coverage is not needed.
Cantenna is a brand name of Wi-Fi directional antennas. The Super Cantenna supports 2.4 GHz
signaling with gain up to 12 dBi and a beam width of about 30 degrees, suitable for indoor or outdoor
use. The term cantenna also refers to generic do-it-yourself antennas using a simple cylindrical design.
A Yagi (more properly called Yagi-Uda) antenna is another type of directional radio antenna that can be
used for long-distance Wi-Fi networking. Being very high gain, usually 12 dBi or higher, these
antennas are typically used to extend the range of outdoor hotspots in a specific directions, or to reach
an outbuilding. Do-it-yourselfers can make Yagi antennas, although this requires somewhat more effort
than making cantennas.

Upgrading Wi-Fi Antennas

Wireless networking problems caused by weak signal strength can sometimes be solved by installing
upgraded Wi-Fi radio antennas on the affected equipment. On business networks, professionals
typically perform a comprehensive site survey to map the Wi-Fi signal strength in and around office
buildings and strategically install additional wireless access points where needed. Antenna upgrades
can be simpler and a more cost effective option to fix Wi-Fi signal problems, particularly on home
networks.
Consider the following when planning the antenna upgrade strategy for a home network:
 Some Wi-Fi gear does not support aftermarket antenna upgrades; consult the manufacturer's
documentation to confirm
 Upgrading a router's omnidirectional antennas can improve connectivity with all devices in the
home and sufficiently resolve basic signal issues. Upgrading client devices only benefits each
one individually.
 Evaluate both gain and directional radius support properties of antennas when choosing one.
Software packages that map Wi-Fi signal strength exist in a home are available to use for
planning.

Wi-Fi Antennas and Signal Boosting

Installing aftermarket antennas on Wi-Fi equipment helps increase the devices' effective range.
However, because radio antennas only help concentrate and direct signals, the range of a Wi-Fi device
is ultimately limited by the power of its radio transmitter rather than its antenna. For these reasons,
signal boosting of a Wi-Fi network is sometimes necessary, normally accomplished by adding repeater
devices that amplify and relay signals at intermediate points between network connections.