Pneumatische Förderung - Prof. Dr.-Ing.

Wolfgang Siegel, Vogel Buchverlag Würzburg, 1991, ISBN 3-

8023-0432-2

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolf gang seal

Pneumatic promotion Basics, Design, Plant Engineering, Operation

Vogel Buchverlag

Professor Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Siegel Born 1919 1957 High School at the Gymnasium in Nürtingen 1957-
1963 Mechanical Engineering at the Universirär in Smtrgart 1963-1965 Active in the development of
injection pumps; Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart 1965-1969 Scientific work on the fundamentals of
pneumatic conveying with Professor G. Segler; Institute of Agricultural Engineering, University of
Stuttgart-Hohenheim 1970 Doctorate in Dr.-Ing., University of Stuttgart 1969- 1978 Management of
development and plant engineering in the field of pneumatic conveying; Seeger, Fellbach 1978-1982
Head of Chemical Plant Construction, then Head of Beteicbs Development; Fitma Waeschle,

CIP title recording of the Deutsche Bibliothek Siegel, Wolfgang; Pneumatic conveying: basics, design,
plant engineering operation / Wolfgang Siegel. - 1st edition - Würzburg: Vogel, 1991 (Vogel-Fachbuch:
Verfahrenstechnik) ISBN 3-8023-0432-2

ISBN 3-8023-0432-2 I.Auflage. 1991 All rights, including the translation, reserved. No part of the work
may be reproduced in any form whatsoever, print, photocopy, microfilm or any other process without the
written permission of the publisher or processed, duplicated or reproduced using electronic systems. This
does not affect the exceptions explicitly mentioned in SS 53, 54 UrhG. Copyright 1991 by Vogel Verlag
and Druck KG, Würzburg Sarz: Satz-Offizin Hummer, Waldbüttelbrunn Printing and binding: Friedrich
Pustet, Regensburg

foreword

For over 100 years, pneumatic conveying systems have been built and successfully operated in conveyor
technology and process engineering. For 70 years, publications and lectures have provided details of the
operation and construction of these facilities. Nevertheless, there is still a need to interpret the basics and
documents for the design of pneumatic conveying systems. This prompted me to reiterate the description
of the pneumatic delivery and associated components. I benefited from many years of experience in
research and development, in plant engineering and in my teaching. The basic principles of pneumatic
conveying are fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, mechanical process engineering and materials
handling. Interface problems between these disciplines and some influences that have not been
researched to date make their transfer to pneumatic conveying more difficult. In risky cases, I did not shy
away from a statement. If errors have crept in, I am grateful to the expert for appropriate advice. From the
development of the theory to the calculation of equipment and the selection of components for me
understanding and precision had priority. Numerous tips and explanations on the functional behavior of
conveyor systems in practice are particularly interesting for the student or the young engineer. The
participants of the industry seminars held by me also find something worth knowing in this book. I would
like to thank all those who supported me by word and deed in the creation of the manuscript. The
inspiration for this textbook was given by Mr. Hartwig Sträub from Berolzheim. I would like to thank the
pneumatic production companies for the extensive information material and at the same time I ask for
your understanding, if only a part of it was taken into account. Professor Willi Bohl from Heilbronn, Dr.
Ing. Hans Hoppe from Vogt and Mr. Hartwig Sträub from Berolzheim is my thanks for the
correction. Ravensburg

Wolfgang Siegel

Table of Contents

Foreword

1 Introduction 1.1 Fundamentals of Conveyor Technology 1.1.1 Tasks of Conveying Technology 1.1.2
Pneumatic and Mechanical Continuous Development l .2 Historical Development 1.2. l Overview of
pneumatic conveying literature 1.2.2 Development in practice

13 13 13 14 15 15 15

2 Fundamentals of pneumatic conveying 2.1 Fundamentals of fluid mechanics 2.. l Dynamic pressure 2.
.2 Pressure loss with pure air flow 2. .3 Single cleavage in the pipe flow 2. .4 Sloshing speed of the single
grain 2. .5 Pressure loss in the bulk goods 2. .6 Fhcssbett 2.2 State diagram of the pneumatic conveying
2.2. l On the question of generality 2.2.2 Boundary curves 2.2.3 Air transport 2.2.4 Supporting strands
2.2.5 Grafting plug 2.2.6 Unstable area 2.2.7 Flow conveying 2.3 Material to be conveyed in the conveyor
system 2.3.1 Good acceleration 2.3.1.1 Good acceleration for airborne transport 2.3.1.2 Good
acceleration for grafting 2.3.2 Steady state 2.3.2. l steady state with horizontal conveying 2.3.2.2 steady
state with vertical conveying 2.3.3 good deflection in the pipe bend 1.3.3.l bend flow 2.3.3. 2 Manifold and
Good Wear 2.3.3.3 Manifold Geometry 2.3.3.4 Pressure Loss in the Pipe Elbow 2.3.4 Pressure Lapse
Along the Delivery Line 2.4 Suction and Pressure System 2.5 Operating Point of a Pneumatic Conveyor
2.5. l Operating point for flight conveying 2.5.2 Operating point for plug conveying

17 17 17 18 21 23 24 26 27 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 35 37 38 38 40 40 40 41 42 43 43 44 48 48 50

3 Material to be conveyed and conveyed 3. l Material to be transported as bulk material 3.1.1 Bulk
processing industry 3.1.2 Bulk solids in pneumatic conveying technology 3.2 Bulk material properties
3.2.1 General bulk material properties 3.2.2 Essential bulk material properties for pneumatic
conveying. , , , 3.3 Measurement, registration and examples of bulk material properties 3.3.1 Weight of
the bulk material 3.3.2 Dimensions of the bulk material 3.3.3 Flow behavior of the bulk material
3.3.3. 3.3.3.2 Wall friction and wear 3.3.3 Grain hardness and wear 3.3.5 Fluid properties of the material
to be transported 3.3.5.1 Floating creep and drag coefficient of grain flow 3.3.5.2 Pressure loss coefficient
and air velocity hot Air transport 3.3.5.3 Fluidizability and air retention capacity 3.3. 6 Properties with
effect on good quality and the environment 3.3.6. l Influence on the quality of the material 3.3.6.2
Environmental impact 3.4 Subsidies 3.4.1 Consequences of the gas process 3.4.2 Subsidies used and
their properties 3.4.3 Density of the conveying medium air 3.4.3.1 Influence of temperature and humidity
3.4.3.2 Influence of the barometric pressure 3.4.3.3 Influence of geodetic height 3.4.4 Condensate failure
in humid air

53 53 53 54 55 55 56 58 58 59 6l 61 63 64 64 6T
4 Calculation of pneumatic conveying systems 4. l General 4.1.1 Objectives of the calculation process
4.1.2 Other calculation methods 4.1.3 Principles of calculation of pneumatic conveying systems 4.1.3.1
Pressure reduction coefficient for material conveyance 4.1.3.2 Pressure drop coefficient related to the
pipe diameter 4.1.3.3 Basic equations for the state in of the delivery line 4.2 Calculation of pneumatic
conveying systems without consideration of the compressibility of the air 4.2. l General 4.2.2 Air velocity
4.2.3 Pressure loss 4.2.3. l Loss of air friction 4.2.3.2 Air resistances 4.2.3.3 Loss of friction 4.2.3.4 Loss
of lift 4.2.3.5 Loss of acceleration 4.2.3.6 Loss of manifold 4.2.3.7 Total pressure loss 4.2.4 Design of a
pneumatic conveyor system neglecting the compressibility of the air

^ 9 79 79 81 83 83 87 89

67 69 69 70 70 70 7] 7l 7l 73 73 73 75 76

91 91 9] 93 94 94 95 95 96 97 97 98

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.2.4. l Pipe diameter 4.2.4.2 Air volume flow 4.2.4.3 Power requirements Pneumatic pressure boosting
taking into account the compressibility of the air 4.3.1 General 4.3.2 Air velocity 4.3.3 Pressure loss
4.3.3.1 Pressure loss with compressible air flow 4.3.3.2 Pressure loss with compressible good air flow
4.3. 4 Design of a pneumatic pressure conveyor taking into account the compressibility of the air 4.3.4.1
Pressure conveyor without grading the pipe diameter 4.3.4.2 Pressure conveyor with multiple grading of
the pipe diameter Pneumatic suction with consideration of the compressibility of the air 4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Air velocity 4.4.3 Pressure loss 4.4. 3.1 Integration of the pressure loss in the suction system 4.4.3.2
Limits of the pressure loss in the suction system 4.4.

98 99 99 100 100 100 102 102 103 103 103 108 110 110 110 111 111 112 113 115 115 115 118 119

Pneumatic conveying process 5. l Development objectives 5.1.1 Operational safety 5.1.2 Weaknesses or
design zones 5.2 Extreme transport assets 5.3 Special solutions for plug and dense phase conveying
5.3. Pumping Conveying 5.3.2 Combined pneumatic-mechanical conveying 5.4 Gentle conveying of
granules 5.4.1 Prerequisites and data for plug conveying 5.4.2 Comparison of plug conveying with and
without timing 5.4.3 Method of plug conveying 5.5 Method of pneumatic flow conveying 5.5. l Fluidized
bed conveying 5.5.2 Executed flow conveying processes 5.5.3 Special processes for flow conveying 5.6
Processes for conveying cohesive and adhesive bulk materials 5.6.1 Influence of cohesion and adhesion
on the conveying process 5.6.2 Delivery process for cohesive bulk solids 5.6.

121 121 121 122 123 125 125 126 126 126 127 132 133 133 133 134 135 135 137 142

Air supply 6. l Thermodynamic principles 6.1.1 Flow rate and pressure increase
145 145 145

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.1.2 Fan temperature increase 6.2.1 Function 6.2.2 Types and characteristics 6.2.2. l Fan characteristic
6.2.2.2 Impeller 6.2.2.3 Similarity 6.2.3 Control and regulation of fans 6.2.4 Fan in the system 6.2.4.1
Series connection of resistors 6.2.4.2 Parallel connection of resistors 6.2.4.3 Series connection of fans
6.2.4.4 Parallel connection of fans 6.2.5 Transport fan 6.2.5.1 Dust in the air flow 6.2.5.2 Fan as a lock in
the chip suction side channel duct 6.3.1 Function and design 6.3.2 Characteristics 6.3.3 Linsat / Positive
Displacement Blower 6.4. l Function and design 6.4.2 Characteristic curves 6.4.3 Noise development
6.4.3. l Absorption silencer 6.4.3.2 Resonance silencer 6.4.3.3 Sound hood Screwdriver 6.5. l Function
6.5.2 Pressure increase 6.5.2. l pressure ratio p J p, 6.5.2. 2 The real pressure-volume diagram 6.5.3
Characteristic curves 6.5.4 Oil development Air supply for pneumatic conveying systems 6.6. l
Decentralized and /.central air supply 6.6.2 Compressed air preparation 6.6.3 Air volume flow control
6.6.4 Air volume regulation with lava dust 6.6.4.1 Theoretical principles 6.6.4.2 Measurements on Laval
nozzles 6.6.4.3 Execution

7 Eimschleusung in pneumatic conveyors 7.1 Purpose of the inclusion 7.1. l Sluice function 7.l.2 Dosing
function 7.2 Suction nozzle 7.2.1 Function and operation 7.2.2 Types of suction nozzles ~ .3 Transport
fan 7.3. l Function 7.3.2 Application criteria

10

147 149 149 150 150 52 53 53 55

59 159 159 160 161 161 163 163 163 163 165 168 169 171 171 172 172 174 174 174 175 l 177 l 77 l 79 l
80 181 181 IS? l S4

l 8 ~ 187 187 188 190 190 191 193 193 194

7.4

7.5

7.6

7.7

7.8

Injector sluice 7.4.1 Function 7.4.2 Pressure conversion 7.4.3 Types of construction 7.4.4 Application
criteria Rotary valve 1.5.l Function and designs 7.5. l. l Discharge sluice 7.5.1.2 Sluice 7.5.1.3 Sluice
standards 1.5.l.4 Sluice materials 7.5.2 Cell wheel designs and material mass flows 1.5.2.l Good mass
flow and degree of filling 7.5.2.2 Sluice inlet 7.5.2.3 Cell wheel shape 7.5.3 Column, pressure differences
and sluice leakage 7.5.3.1 Column the rotary valve 7.5.3.2 Leakage air flow 7.5.3.3 Leakage air
discharge 7.5.3.4 Sealed cell wheel 7.5.4 Influence of the conveyed material 7.5.4. l Sluice wear 7.5.4.2
Granule shear 7.5.5 Criteria for use of the pressure vessel 7.6. l Function 7.6.1.1 Functional sequence
7.6.1.2 Operating pressures 7.6.1.3 Time pressure curve 7.6.2 Flow of the material to the design 7.6.2.1
Pressure vessel for free-flowing granules 7.6.2. 2 Pressure vessel for fluidisable powders 7.6.2.3
Pressure vessel for cohesive bulk solids 7.6.3 Flow of air and material to be conveyed 7.6.3.1 Air volume
control 7.6.3.2 Gutzulauf 7.6.3.3 Good outlet 7.6.4 Pressure vessel arrangement for continuous operation
7.6.5 Application criteria for fluidised bed sluice 7.7. l Function 7.7.2 Operating example Auger 7.8. l
Function 7.8.2 Execution

Delivery line 8.1 Design 8.1.1 Pipe diameter 8.1.2 Pipe material 8.1.3 Flange connection 8.1.4 Hoses

195 195 197 201 202 203 203 203 204 204 206 207 207 207 209 211 211 211 213 214 215 215 216 219
219 219 220 221 221 222 223 224 225 226 226 226 228 228 229 230 230 231 232 232 233 235 235 235
236 237 238

11

8.2

Pipe routing ........................... ............................................ p. 2. l Pipe bend

.................................................. .......... 8.2.2 Pipe turnout .................................... ........................... 8.2.3
Pipe station ................... ..........................................

9 Gutabscheidung ................................................ .......................... Pre-separation after pneumatic

conveying 9.1 Fine separation in the cyclone 9.2 9.2.1 Function and design 9.2.2 Theoretical marginal
grain 9.2.3 Separation efficiency 9. '.4 Pressure drop in the cyclone 9.2.5 Finsatzkriterien Fine
precipitation in the filter 9.3.1 Theory of filter separation 9.3.2 Rest dust control 9.3.3 Filter load 9.3.4
Filter crawlers 9.3.4.1 Filter medium 9.3.4.2 Filter element 9.3.4.3 Filter cleaning 9. i. 5 Finsatzkriterien 10
Pneumatic conveyor system ............................................. .................. 1 0. l Planning and construction
......................... ............................................ 10.2 Example of a pneumatic pressure conveyor ....
............................. 10.3 Example of a pneumatic suction conveyor n ...

Bibliography Index

12

241 241 241 242 243 24.5 245 245 247 248 249 250 250 251 252 25.5 254 254 256 256 258 259 259 26l
262

Introduction

1.1

Fundamentals of materials handling

1.1.1
Tasks of conveyor technology

In the industry, conveyor technology has the task of moving the material or material to where it is needed
in production or in the warehouse. You will find the conveyor technology in all stages of
production. Solving the problems of material flow is an important task in the planning of a production
plant. The material or matter has on earth the three manifestations or aggregate states of the substance:
solid, liquid, gaseous. Liquid and gaseous substances are usually conveyed by pumps or compressors,
which in the narrower sense does not count as conveyor technology. Conveyor technology deals with the
transport of solids. The solids are divided into piece goods and bulk goods. The promotion takes place
along a conveying path from a delivery point to a delivery point in the room. In order to carry out a
promotion, you need a grant. This can work in three ways: mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic. The
mechanical promotion includes depending on the design of individual modules or devices for moving the
conveyed. The hydraulic promotion preferably takes place with water and the pneumatic with air. In the
hydraulic and pneumatic conveying the conveyed is usually a bulk material, which flows together with the
conveyor in a pipeline. Thus, the subject of this textbook can also be formulated as follows: "conveying
bulk material with air through pipelines". The hydraulic promotion preferably takes place with water and
the pneumatic with air. In the hydraulic and pneumatic conveying the conveyed is usually a bulk material,
which flows together with the conveyor in a pipeline. Thus, the subject of this textbook can also be
formulated as follows: "conveying bulk material with air through pipelines". The hydraulic promotion
preferably takes place with water and the pneumatic with air. In the hydraulic and pneumatic conveying
the conveyed is usually a bulk material, which flows together with the conveyor in a pipeline. Thus, the
subject of this textbook can also be formulated as follows: "conveying bulk material with air through
pipelines".

13

1.1.2

Pneumatic and mechanical continuous conveying

The conveyor system continues to differentiate between continuous and discontinuous production. For
example, a crane, which picks up one part of a machine in one part of the hall and transports it to
another, is inconsistently conveying. In contrast, a belt conveyor promotes by producing a
Fördergutstrom. In this case, one detects the mass flow of the conveyed material, which is present here
as bulk material, similar to the flow of a liquid. Like a conveying hand or a screw conveyor, pneumatic
conveying is one of the continuous conveyors. When solving a transport task, the project engineer often
has a choice ?, wiping a mechanical continuous conveyor for bulk material and a pneumatic conveying
system. The decision for the right system is often not easy, because each has advantages and
disadvantages. In Table 1. 1 decision criteria are compiled and evaluated. When using a production
process in an industry, certain criteria have priority or are even required. In a gravel plant, for example,
one encounters mechanical continuous conveyors (belt conveyors), while the plastics industry prefers
pneumatic conveying. The reason for this can be deduced from Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Comparison of the pneumatic based on Entschcidungskritericn

promote the mechanical

steadily promote
Entschcidungskritcrium

pneumatic conveying

mechanical conveying

energy consumption conveying r away Guraufgabe

large by Gutreibung flexible in all directions just at suction

Gutbeanspruchung of layers wear size of the grain diameter large grain density other Guteigenschaften
effort for driving effort for Fördcrwcg Mixing at change of grade Dust-free conveying

large limited in flight promotion

low frequently only straight paths mostly only with pre-dosage small large with hard grain with belt
conveyance almost unlimited insignificant insignificant low (geared motor) large (conveyor) special
cleaning device aspiration system required poorly controllable

energy demand increases due to clogging large (blower) low (pipe) avoidable by exhaust air filing

Danger of dust explosion High temperature

preventable by pumping under protective gas possible hot suction system

noise emission

a) on the fan b) on conveyor line

italics - advantageous conveying

14

possible with trough chain conveyor low with rubber belt

1.2

History

1.2.1

Overview of the literature on pneumatic conveying

It would go beyond the scope of this textbook if all the worldwide literature were to be listed here. Since
the first scientific papers in the field of pneumatic conveying [1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4], numerous publications
have appeared which, in their entirety, are hard to overlook and unmentionable at this point. For this
reason, the author has the following restrictions: a) The technical literature should only be mentioned and
not appreciated, so that every interested reader can get hold of the important publications for him and
continue with their bibliography. b) The literary overview is limited to German literature, despite the fact
that research is probably being carried out in every industrialized country in the field of pneumatic
conveying. It is possible to familiarize yourself with the German and foreign literature through reviews [1.5
and 1.6] and textbooks [1.7 to 1.15]. Reprints from meetings [1.16] or from magazines [1.17] can be
helpful here. c) A major contribution to the development of pneumatic conveying has been made in
Germany by the dissertations written since K. WAGNER [1.2] and G. SEGLER [1.4] (Table 1.2). The
spatial classification indicates that research is ongoing or interrupted at certain universities. d) It should
also be noted that the literature processed in each chapter is listed in the bibliography of the
textbook. 1.2.2 Reprints from meetings [1.16] or from magazines [1.17] can be helpful here. c) A major
contribution to the development of pneumatic conveying has been made in Germany by the dissertations
written since K. WAGNER [1.2] and G. SEGLER [1.4] (Table 1.2). The spatial classification indicates that
research is ongoing or interrupted at certain universities. d) It should also be noted that the literature
processed in each chapter is listed in the bibliography of the textbook. 1.2.2 Reprints from meetings [1.16]
or from magazines [1.17] can be helpful here. c) A major contribution to the development of pneumatic
conveying has been made in Germany by the dissertations written since K. WAGNER [1.2] and G.
SEGLER [1.4] (Table 1.2). The spatial classification indicates that research is ongoing or interrupted at
certain universities. d) It should also be noted that the literature processed in each chapter is listed in the
bibliography of the textbook. 1.2.2 The spatial classification indicates that research is ongoing or
interrupted at certain universities. d) It should also be noted that the literature processed in each chapter
is listed in the bibliography of the textbook. 1.2.2 The spatial classification indicates that research is
ongoing or interrupted at certain universities. d) It should also be noted that the literature processed in
each chapter is listed in the bibliography of the textbook. 1.2.2

Development in practice

Largely in parallel with the development of the theory of pneumatic conveying, the industry has built
pneumatic conveying systems with, but also without detailed calculation. For this purpose, the companies
have in recent years operated both process development (see Chapter 5) and component development
(see Chapters 6 to 9). Knowledge and experience from theory and practice is the basis for today's plant
construction in the field of pneumatic conveying.

15

Table 1.2 Dissertations in the field of pneumatic conveying in Germany, place

Year

PhD student

Literature

Braunschweig

1956 1956 1980 1981

Ackermann Matthies Legel Wagenkni-cht

[1.18 | [1.19] [1-20] [1.21]

Stuttgart

1962 1965 1970 1973 1974 1983

Welschof Keunecke Siegel Flatow Finkbeiner Hutt

[1.22] [1.23] [1.24] [1.25] [1.26] [1.27]

Karlsruhe

1954 1957 1958 1959 1961 1964 1965 1965 1966 1966 1970 1,972 1973 1974 1974 1974 1977 1977

Wcidner Günther Rausch Muschelknautz Sawatzki Moller Böhn et Lemp Weber Lips Krötsch Schauki
Rizk Rink Scholl Dedegil Stegmaier Dungeon

[1.28] 11.29] [1.30] [1.31] [1.32] [1.33] [1.34] [1.35] [1.36] [1.37] [1.38] [1.39] [1.40] [1.41] [1.42] [1.43]
[1.44] [1.45]

Aachen

1959 1961 1966 1967

Meyer Ostertag Ahland Vossen

| 1.46] [1.47] [1.48] [1.49]

Dresden

1925 1958 1963

Wagner Hardening Vollheim

[1.2] [1.50] [1.51]

Berlin

1952 1964 1968 1969 1970 1977

Horstmann Kriegel Schuchart Mill Piplies Bald!

[1.52] [1.53] [1.54] [1.55] [1.56] [1.57]

Erlangen

1980

Wirth

[1.58]
16

Fundamentals of pneumatic conveying

In order to provide a clear picture , the following simplification is made: a) After the word pneumatically
refers to air , should be used as a subsidy or fluid first air, which is true in most cases. The behavior of
support under other funding is discussed in Chapter 3. b) The pressure drop along the delivery line is
generally referred to as pressure loss. This already points to the not inconsiderable loss of energy of
pneumatic conveying.

2.1

Fundamentals of fluid mechanics

The laws of multiphase flow prevail in a pneumatic conveying system. The solid phase (bulk material)
flows in the gaseous phase (air). The general laws of fluid mechanics should not be derived here
again. They are largely taken from W. BOHL, Technical Fluid Mechanics [2.1]. Some peculiarities of
pneumatic conveying are explained in the following sections. 2.1.1

Dynamic pressure

In Figure 2.1, air flows around a pipe flow, a so-called Prandtl pipe. With three water U-tubes, the
following pressures are measured as differential pressures to the atmosphere: a) the total pressure Apgcs
in the direction of the pipe axis, against the pipe flow, b) the static pressure Apst in the direction of the
pipe wall, c) the dynamic pressure Ajt> jy "As the difference between the two. For dynamic pressure

:, / V, -AP "= ^ - ^

(Eq.2.1)

The dynamic pressure is the reference value for all resistors in the case of pure air flow and shall be used
in Chapter 4 for the calculations of pneumatic conveying systems.

17

Figure 2.1 DasPrandtl-Rohr / ur

Measurement of the dynamic pressure

2.1.2

Pressure loss with pure air flow

For the pressure loss with pure air flow in a circular pipe:

pi
Api is proportional to the dynamic pressure according to equation 2. L The pressure loss coefficient / L is
measured by Nikuradse | 2.2 | and many others a function of the Reynolds number

and the relative sand roughness d / k ^. This dependency is shown in Figure 2.2. The author has
measured the pressure drop coefficient /.] On test rigs with pipe diameters of 50, 100, 200 and 400 mm
and air speeds between 10 and 35 m / s | 2.3 |. The measurements (Figure 2.3) relate approximately to
the entire range of pneumatic conveying. The values are just above those of the technically smooth
pipe. Taking into account that in pneumatic conveying, the pressure loss due to the pure air flow is much
smaller (about one order of magnitude) than the pressure loss due to the product transfer (see Chapter
4), then with sufficient accuracy ~ /. \ = 0.02 for all pneumatic conveying systems are set. When
commissioning delivery pipes made of seamless steel pipes according to DIN 2448, the pipe roughness is
often high.

18

(DN

tn

33 O<d

he

19

0.03

0.01

8 106

Figure 2.3 Measured pressure drop coefficient / i in pure air flow according to [2.3], at the beginning (1)
and at the end (2) of a pneumatic conveying pipe with pipe diameters;

Smoothed from conveyed material. Here, through the decreasing friction on the pipe wall, throughput
increases up to .5% due to lower pressure loss were achieved after retraction of the plant. Conversely,
after prolonged delivery of polystyrene granules in the smooth steel tube (d - 50 mm) by applying the
conveyed material to the wall impact, the author has measured an increase of the drag coefficient / L by
10%. Since the pipe diameter had changed only insignificantly, the increased resistance coefficient could
be attributed to an increase in the tube roughness due to melting of the conveyed material. The old
value was restored after processing the pipe surface with steel wool. It follows that values according to
Eq. 2.2 may well change in pneumatic conveying.
20

2.1.3

Single Grain in the Pipe Flow

The single-grain theory has delivered many approaches to the description of pneumatic conveying about
30 years ago. They can be found at [2.4 to 2.12 | be read. If one wishes to describe the motion of the
single grain in the air flow, then the following influencing factors have to be considered: a) b) c) d) e) f)
g) h) i) k) 1) m)

grain mass, grain diameter, grain gain, symmetrical grain flow ( Fig. 2.4), another grain in the immediate
vicinity (Fig. 2.5), the pipe wall in the immediate vicinity (Fig. 2.6), the grain rotation (Fig. 2.7), the
velocity profile of the pipe flow (Fig. 2.8), the impact of the grain on the pipe wall (Fig 2.9), the impact of
the grain on another grain, the turbulence of the pipe flow without material to be conveyed, the
turbulence of the pipe flow with material to be conveyed [2.34].

Undoubtedly a description of the motion of the single grain with the consideration of all twelve
influencing factors is a hardly solvable task. The author has endeavored to provide a description with the
influencing variables a, b, d, g and i, and has discontinued the investigation without reaching a usable
result [2.13J.

Figure 2.4 Symmetrical Kornumströmung in the vertical tube

21

Figure 2.5 flow around zv grains in close proximity

Figure 2.6 grain Liniströmung on the pipe wall

Figure 2.7 Umströmiing a rotating grain

22

Figure 2.8 speed professional] in turbulent pipe flow

Figure 2.9 The impact of the grain on the tube wall

2.1.4

Sliding speed of the single grain

The required air velocity with which a grain in the vertical air flow must be blown from below in order to
remain in suspension is referred to as the hovering speed .sch. It is equal to the free fall
speed. According to Fig. 2.4, the flow resistance Fw is equal to the weight _F (of the grain, if the static
buoyancy is neglected.) For a spherical grain, if the average air velocity i prevails in the pipe, the grain
density is much greater than the air density p \ and the diameter of the pipe is much larger than the
grain diameter:

P \. - • uJ = g • / • s • -g- • aJ3s

71

g • ds • /> s

(equation 2.4) 23

Example: Determination of the floating speed of polyethylene granules with the following values: Grain
diameter: d $ - 3 mm Grain density: /> s = 1000 kg / m 'Airtightness: /; L = 1.2 kg / m 3 Drag coefficient: t
\ v - - ü , 6 With these values you get to the Cil. 2.4, if t% is constant here in the area of the law of
quadratic resistance: 9.81 - ^ - 0.003 m - 1000 - 3 s2 m 0.6-1.2 ^

= 7.4 m / s 2.1.5

Pressure loss in the bulk material bed

In Section 2.1.3, the behavior of the single grain moving more or less freely in the tube flow was
qualitatively described. The other possibility is that the grain in a bed (bulk material!) Lies in the delivery
pipe, which is traversed by air. This condition (Fig. 2.10) is encountered in bulk material storage and in
many process engineering plants. The pressure loss in such a bed, which can be flowed through
vertically or horizontally by air, is described in the VDI-Wärmeatlas [2.14]: l

-j

A/
(Gl.2.5)

Figure 2. K) Flow through a bed of bulk material

24

103

Curve B (sharp-edged packing) 2

4 6810 ° 2

4 6810 1 2

4 6810 2 2 fle =

* / P7

4 6810 3 2

4 6810 4 2

4 6810 5

*"

Figure 2.1 i Pressure drop coefficient hot flow through a bed according to [2.I4J

Where: 4 = 4VH ( see 2.6) 3 l -1 // v the air velocity, relative to the from Eqs. 2.5 and Eq. 2.6 we
get: ... 3 Aft = -r- • 4 \ -y A / / ; , ;; - 'A \' -J- • - = ~ ' »L // '« s 2 (Eq.
The pressure loss in the bulk material bed is also proportional to the back pressure according to
Eq. 2.1. It increases linearly with decreasing grain diameter d ^ and increases approximately with the
third power with decreasing void fraction. This particularly affects the plug conveying described later.

25

Fig. 2.12

Fluidisation characteristic

air

velocity 2.1.6 Feeding bed

The bulk bed in section 2.1.5 is initially at rest. The individual grains lie against each other and can be
hooked together depending on the grain shape. If you increase the airspeed u, then take G). 2.7 the
pressure loss until the force of pressure difference and cross-section equal to the weight of the load on
him bulk column is. This air velocity is also referred to in the fluidization curve (Figure 2.12) as the air
velocity at the loosening point o, \ p. At even higher air velocity, the fluidized bed expands. The bulk
material is in a liquid-like state from the loosening point, where the pressure aiTi soil

is equal to the hydrostatic pressure in a container filled with liquid. The bulk density /> ss decreases with
increasing air velocity u above the fouling point and the bed height A / becomes larger at the same
time. The product / A, S -A / remains, however, like the pressure Ap in Eq. 2.8 constant; because the
weight of the bed does not change. Not every bulk material is fluidizable. Depending on the particle size,
grain distribution and grain shape, the airspeeds O AP characterizing a bulk material lie between about 1
cm / s for cement and 1 m / s for cereals. Fluidizable material can be conveyed better pneumatically
than non-fluidizable. Nevertheless, the size of t; AP is not a measure of the quality of the pneumatic
conveying. Fluid bed technology is based on many process engineering processes (eg fluid bed
homogenization, coal dust combustion, etc.). It has already led to several thousand patents, starting
from the Winkler fluid bed. The influence on pneumatic conveying is described in more detail in Chapter
5.

26

2.2

State Diagram of Pneumatic

Delivery 2.2.1

On the Question of Generality

The state diagram is intended to illustrate as clearly as possible the delivery conditions that occur when
the transported goods are transported in the air stream. It has proven useful in the state diagram to
apply the pressure loss A / 7 over the air velocity u at constant mass flow rates Qs. This representation
should be the first step before proceeding to plot derived quantities (eg, the drag coefficient over the
similarity number). For this, the generality of this application for a conveyed material must first be
demonstrated for all parameters (air velocity, pipe diameter, material mass flow, air density). If that
succeeds, has

Fig. 2.13 State diagram of a pneumatic test conveyor with the following data: Material: PE granulate
Pipe diameter 84 mm Delivery length: 119 m Delivery height: 6m Number of manifolds: 10

bar

oQ

10

15

20

25

Final air velocity v

still every item to be transported at least one own state diagram for the horizontal and the vertical
promotion. However, since it is not possible to keep the air density constant along the conveying path, it
will only be possible in the future to create general state diagrams as design documents for pneumatic
conveying systems with great restrictions. The state diagram according to Figure 2.13, which is based on
measured values on a specific pneumatic conveyor system, is therefore quantitatively non-
transferable. However, it should be based on the further explanation.

27

30 m / s 35

2.2.2

Limit curves

Figure 2.13 plots the pressure drop over the air velocity at a constant material flow rate for a specific
polyethylene granulate in a specific conveyor system. The curves Qs - const. Have limits in all directions
of the coordinate system: a} in the direction + t; go to infinity. However, one must consider that at high
air speeds (LB over 40 m / s) most grains are smashed. b} In direction - p, the limit curve A is the curve
Qs = 0, below which no bulk material is conveyed. The curve Qs = 0 corresponds to Eq. 2.2 with the
values of the conveyor system according to Fig. 2.13, c) In direction - »the curves Qs - const. End on the
limit curve B in Fig. 2.13, below which the air flow is no longer sufficient to convey the conveyed
material through the system. This curve is intersected by the curves Qs - const. And not asymptotically
approximated, as can sometimes be read in the literature. Below the limit curve B, although a
promotion is possible, but not with the mentioned good mass flow. However, any good motion at the
airspeed t has finally ended; at the loosening point. At even lower air speeds, the fixed bed in the
vertical line is only flowed through but not loosened up. Between the curve tj, \ p and the limit curve B,
a fluidized bed forms, possibly with a bubbling fluidized bed, depending on the conveyed material
[2.15]. d) There is also an upper limit curve in direction + p, above which the conveyed material can no
longer be introduced into the conveyor system in the desired amount. On the one hand, this can be
based on the structural design of the infiltration, on the other hand, the air volume flow must not fall
below a certain minimum value. If no air is brought into the conveyor system through the conveyed
material, at least the void fraction (//) between the grains must be promoted, which amounts to 40 to
50% of the total volume with spherical grains according to measurements of the author [2.3] always
slightly larger than the good speed, then it becomes impossible to introduce a volume flow of bulk
material into the conveyor which is greater than the air volume flow, but this very highest limit is
practically not reached, but it sets a limit for very light materials such as foamed polystyrene beads
represents. On the other hand, for example, in the mineral industry heavy goods are conveyed up to
loads of 1000 kg / s conveyed per kg / s of air. This corresponds to the fact that the bulk density may
well be three orders of magnitude higher than the air density.

Figure 2.14 flight conveying material to be conveyed:

Air Speed: Speed ratio:

horizontally

perpendicular

wheat

25 m / s

clv 0.7 V

io

ttttt 2.2.3

phase conveying

Air transport (Figure 2.14) is the classic type of pneumatic conveying. As a result of the high air velocity
and the forces described in Section 2. l .3 on the single grain, it flies approximately uniformly distributed
over the pipe cross-section in the air flow. The individual grains meet at regular intervals on the pipe
wall and sometimes on a second grain. Since the air speed of about 20 to 35 m / s significantly exceeds
the floating speed of usually less than 10 m / s, there is no risk that the grain falls back in the
vertical. Nevertheless, the frequently-read claim that the airspeed should be equal to three times the
speed of levitation does not apply. For example, the author has field beans with a puffing speed of 13, 6
m / s at air velocities of 16 to 18 m / s [2.3]. The pressure loss during flight transport with constant mass
flow is essentially parallel to the pressure loss curve with pure air flow (Figure 2.13). This tendency was
noted by the author when conveying 11 items in 4 conveyors with pipe diameters of 50 to 400 mm
[2.3]. The possible good loading /; limits the state of funding of the flight promotion. Earlier values «= -i
^ = 10 limits the state of funding of the flight promotion. Earlier values «= -i ^ = 10 limits the state of
funding of the flight promotion. Earlier values «= -i ^ = 10

(«2.9)

are significantly exceeded today. Nevertheless, set as a limit // = 30 above which the grains no longer
evenly distributed through the pipe jump. In the case of pneumatic ship unloading systems in the
suction mode, loads of up to // = 28 have already been measured. However, not all conveyed goods can
be conveyed with high loading, in particular non-fine-grained, cohesive bulk goods.

29

Figure 2.1.5 Struhnenfon.len.ing a) Goods to be transported wheat at i; - 17.4 m / s according to [2-12]

b) conveyed quartz powder according to [2.16]

2.2.4

strand conveying

If the air velocity is reduced to below 20 to 23 m / s, the single grain increasingly moves in the lower half
of the pipe. Depending on the grain size and grain density, it falls out of the air stream and moves in part
as a strand through the delivery pipe (Figure 2.15). With granular conveyed the strand is an
accumulation of grains. It changes in time and forms rattles and also grafts (see Section 2.2..5} G.
WELSCHOF [2.12] has shown in detailed measurements that with increasing load and decreasing air
velocity, the air flow profile over the pipe cross-section becomes asymmetrical. The air then flows
mainly in the upper half of the pipe E. MUSCHELKNAUTZ and WKRAMBROK [2.16] observe a layer of
bulk material moving slowly along the tubesheet in the course of conveying quartz powder. There is
above this strand flying promotion. It may even be that under the moving strand a solid layer of bulk
material deposited. At dedusting lines of 3 m diameter z. B. observed that the tube fills so far stationary
until the air gap required for the pneumatic flight promotion prevails in the remaining cross-section. In
the field of strands promotion, the pressure loss has a M inimum. Slightly below the minimum pressure
drop is the point of minimal energy consumption; because the blower power required for the
promotion, calculated incompressibly, is equal to the product of pressure loss and air volume flow. The
operating point for a pneumatic conveyor system is usually chosen at a slightly higher air speed, since an
instable area joins the strand conveying in the direction of lower air velocities (see Section 2.2.6). F. RIZK
[2.17] calculates a relation for the air velocity in the minimum pressure loss and recommends the design
of pneumatic conveying systems at these air velocities. The limit of strands promotion in the direction of
small air speeds is the Stopfgrenze. This was determined by G. SEGLER [2.18] as early as 1933 as the
speed at which conveyed material remained in the pipe for the first time. However, the experience of
recent years has taught that the stuffing limit is none of the conveyor system 17] calculates a relation for
the air velocity in the pressure loss minimum and recommends the design of pneumatic conveying
systems at these air velocities. The limit of strands promotion in the direction of small air speeds is the
Stopfgrenze. This was determined by G. SEGLER [2.18] as early as 1933 as the speed at which conveyed
material remained in the pipe for the first time. However, the experience of recent years has taught that
the stuffing limit is none of the conveyor system 17] calculates a relation for the air velocity in the
pressure loss minimum and recommends the design of pneumatic conveying systems at these air
velocities. The limit of strands promotion in the direction of small air speeds is the Stopfgrenze. This was
determined by G. SEGLER [2.18] as early as 1933 as the speed at which conveyed material remained in
the pipe for the first time. However, the experience of recent years has taught that the stuffing limit is
none of the conveyor system

30

independent size is. It depends in particular on the fan characteristic (see section 2.5). This means that
the stuffing limit measured on a certain system can not be transferred to another conveyor
system. 2.2.5

Plug conveying

Built for about 15 years pneumatic plug conveyors prove that this state of conveyance is a stable state. If
you fill a pipe with bulk material and blow air through the bulk material bed, then the air has the
tendency to dissolve the bulk material column in grafting. Thus, G. WEI.SCHOF [2.12] had to install a
rotary feeder at the end of the delivery line in order to realize the so-called dense flow
conveyance. Otherwise, the pore flow through the wheat grains would have broken up the bulk solids
column into plugs. A. LIPPERT [2.19] indicates that the force required, and hence the pressure
difference, to displace a plug does not increase linearly but quadratically with the plug length (Figure
2.16). The cohesive wall friction thus runs less well from point 1 to point 2. If air flows through the
pressure difference in the pores of the bulk material, then the pressure between the points 1 and 2
according to equation 2.7 decreases linearly with incompressible and disproportionately with
compressible flow with the plug length. The difference between curves b and a acts as an internal force
on the plug and tries to split it from the end.

Figure 2.16 The formation of a bulk material plug according to [2.19] a required pressure for shifting the
plug of the length A / pb pressure profile during the plug flow according to Eq. 2.7

31

If the plug according to Figure 2.16 were to fill the entire pipe cross-section, it would have to
disintegrate directly into many disks due to its internal pressure as a result of the pore flow. However,
since the bed is looser in the upper cross section of the pipe, more air flows here than in the lower half
of the pipe. The frequency and thus the length of the plugs is by no means constant over the conveying
length, which R. FELLMLTH measured on a conveyor with a pipe diameter of 50 mm [2.20]. Rather, the
plugs disintegrate in the delivery line and build up again and again. Also interesting is the state of the
plug conveying in the vertical tube. The finel grain could no longer be conveyed vertically at an air
velocity of less than 8 m / s (PE granules), since it has a floating velocity of 7.4 m / s according to Section
2.1.4. After picture 2. 13, the conveying speed can be quite 2 and 3 m / s. In this case, the plugs init, for
example, lm / s speed up through the vertical tube. In the process, grains are constantly falling down
from the underside of the preceding to the top of the subsequent plug. From Fig. 2.13 it can be seen
that about three times the pressure difference and one third of the air quantity are necessary for
conveying the pegs of PE granules as well as for the transport of air. Of course, this changes with the
transported material, the conveying path and the pipe diameter. With the blower power at
incompressible calculation In the process, grains are constantly falling down from the underside of the
preceding to the top of the subsequent plug. From Fig. 2.13 it can be seen that about three times the
pressure difference and one third of the air quantity are necessary for conveying the pegs of PE granules
as well as for the transport of air. Of course, this changes with the transported material, the conveying
path and the pipe diameter. With the blower power at incompressible calculation In the process, grains
are constantly falling down from the underside of the preceding to the top of the subsequent plug. From
Fig. 2.13 it can be seen that about three times the pressure difference and one third of the air quantity
are necessary for conveying the pegs of PE granules as well as for the transport of air. Of course, this
changes with the transported material, the conveying path and the pipe diameter. With the blower
power at incompressible calculation

(Eq 2.10}

P = Ap - V

, the energy requirement for plug transport is approximately the same as for liquid transport, ie the
criterion of power

saving does not significantly affect the decision for or against a plug conveyor 2.2.6

Unstable range

In Figure 2.13 If, for example, the pressure loss in a delivery line is 2 bar, the pressure ratio of the air
state from the beginning to the end of the line is 3: 1. With the same pipe diameter and isothermal state
change, the Air velocity proportional to the pressure, and at an initial air velocity, one obtains a final air
velocity

n \ - 6 m / s ib = 18 m / s.

Accordingly, at the beginning would be a Pfropfenförderung and at the end of a strand promotion. Both
subsidies are very different as described in sections 2.2.2 to 2.2.5. On the basis of the curves Qs = const.,
It can be seen from Fig. 2.13 that the transition from the flight promotion to the strands promotion is
continuous. With further lowering of the air speed, the production at the beginning of the conveyor
system, where the lowest air speed prevails, suddenly switches to the state of plug conveying. This
transition is unsteady, since the plug promotion another state with other Strömlingsgesetzen and the
threefold

32

Pressure loss is. The Gehläse reacts to the higher pressure by supplying a smaller amount of air
according to the Gehläse characteristic Ap (V). As a result, the Luftgcschwindigkeit drops again ah, and
the Umschlagspunkt of the flight promotion to Pfropfenförderung moves on to the end of the delivery
line. This process is strongly dependent on the steepness of the Gehläse characteristic curve (see section
2.5). In former times one did not pay attention to it, so that in ignorance of the connections some
conveyor system is blocked. As already explained in section 2.2.4, the stuffing limit described by G.
SKGI.HR 2.18 depends on the conveyor system and especially on the blower. For this reason, also the
numerous state diagrams of the author in [2.3] ended at the lower limit of the strands promotion. Today
you are able to the air supply to a pneumatic conveyor should be designed so that the air flow and thus
the air velocity are independent of the fluctuating backpressure (section 6.6). This means that, if
properly designed, such an air supply will provide the same amount of air, regardless of whether the
subsequent production takes place in the state of flight promotion or plug transport. However, even
here the influence of the pressure on the air velocity in the delivery line has to be
considered. Nevertheless, the transfer point of the flight promotion in the Pfropfenförderung is not
stationary, since the Pfropfenförderung yes only stationary, if one considers larger times. At intervals of
a few seconds, it is unsteady. So is the Umschlagspunkt from one state of delivery in the other
temporally and locally not fixed. He can eg once before and once behind a pipe bend. This explains why
this transition region is unstable from grafting to strands and flying. Even if you design the air supply of a
conveyor independent of the fluctuating back pressure, you should avoid this unstable area for the
design and operation of a pneumatic conveyor. 2.2.7

flow promoter

The bulk material, or the conveyed material, sometimes behaves like a solid and sometimes like a liquid
in its properties. A liquid-like behavior occurs in fluidized bulk solids in the fluidized bed (Section 2.1.6
and Figure 2.12). If such a bulk material still has a good air retention capacity, then it can be "pumped"
through a pneumatic conveying system, much like water [2.21]. Incidentally, water can also be conveyed
pneumatically. In this case, a state diagram is obtained without grafting and unstable region (Figure
2.17). This diagram is similar to that of the flow of a fluid according to Eq. 2.2, in which the density of the
fluid is not equal to 1.2 kg / m ', but a multiple thereof. The compressibility of the air is neglected and
the conveyed evenly distributed over the pipe cross-section. Even with pneumatic conveyors in the high
pressure range (eg with nitrogen under 30 bar pressure) a similar state diagram could be measured.

33

Fig. 2.17 Accumulation diagram for

air ice Conveying air velocity v

2.3 Conveyed

material in the conveyor system

The basic function of a pneumatic conveying system is shown in Figure 2.18 using the example of a
pneumatic pressure-conveying system: A blower a brings the air drawn in from the atmosphere to the
pressure required for delivery. As a result of the pressure air flows through the delivery line c. Against
the pressure, a rotary feeder b feeds the conveyed material into the delivery line. Conveying air and
conveyed material flow through the delivery line into the separator d, which separates the material
from the air. The air flows through the clean air line into the open air again. The conveyed leaves the
separator and is then stored, promoted or processed. The movement of the conveyed goods is
conditioned by the conveying means and the structural design of the conveyor system. This will be
described in the following sections. Picture 2.

34

2.3.1

Good acceleration

Before the material can be accelerated, it must first be guaranteed that it actually gets into the delivery
line. The prerequisites for this are: a) The inlet cross-section must be as large as possible. b) The feed
rate of the conveyed material should not be too low and if possible have a component in the conveying
direction. This can be achieved by an inlet slope. c) The lock leak air against the incoming flow of
material is inevitable. However, it should be kept as small as possible or be managed separately, taking
into account Section 2..1.5. d) A transfer into the horizontal is to be preferred to the vertical upwards,
since the acceleration in the horizontal takes place faster. In addition, the descending conveyed then
only 90 ° instead of 180 ° must be deflected. One exception is the pressure vessel with emptying
upwards (section 7.6.2.2). e) An infiltration into a vertical or obliquely downward conveying line always
has advantages, since the conveyed material is already accelerated by the free fall. The opposite is the
greater height. In principle, it should be noted that the realizable material mass flow is set (metered) at
the point of entry into the delivery line at the point where the lowest product of the product velocity c
times the cross section A results according to the following equation:

(Eq 2.11) 2.3.1.1 Good

acceleration during flight transport

When the transported material has reached the delivery line, it is detected by the air flow and
accelerated by the flow around it at the differential speed v - C. The acceleration force is greatest at the
beginning and decreases with increasing material velocity c. For a polyethylene granule this is at high air
velocity (v = 30 m / s) according to Eq. 2.4 and the example in Section 2.1.4:

7,4

At 30 m / s, the grain is thus initially accelerated at 16 g, and at 15 m / s at the lower limit of the strands
promotion at least 4 times the gravitational acceleration (4 g). If the granule had the good velocity c = 0
m / s, nothing could be introduced according to equation (2.11). It must therefore be present in the
conveying direction when entering the delivery line a certain, albeit small Gutgeschwindigkeit. At low
material velocity, the distance between the grains is smaller. The

35

^ \ oo

^v

* °° o8 °

O°

3000?> S ° 0 0

cO°0°

Fig. 2. 19 The flow of the material in the acceleration path

Granulate veil is pulled apart along the following acceleration section with increasing material velocity
(Figure 2.19). With the number of forces on the single grain according to Section 2.1.3, the grains move
not only axially but also radially. They hit the wall and release some of their energy when they hit the
wall. Neglecting the wall friction in the acceleration section and the friction of the grains with each
other, then the following relation can be specified for the course of the good speed along the horizontal
conveying line:

(Equation 2.12) This equation, which can not be explicitly solved for c, is plotted in Fig. 2.20 for the
product polystyrene granules. It can be seen that even after a conveying length of 30 to 40 m, the
material velocity is less than the air velocity. Among the neglects made here, the good speed continues
to increase to infinity. By measuring and calculating [2.3] the author was able to prove, however, that
the pressure loss A /? / A / related to the pipe length was already constant in the case of seeds and
plastic granules after a pipe length of 8 m after the injection. This means that the acceleration of most
conveyed goods is completed after about 8 m of conveyance. However, due to the large grain density
ps, steel balls required 15 m and more for acceleration. The plant engineer is now interested in the
question of how much meters of conveying pipe are to be provided after the final smuggling for the
delivery line. This question can not be answered quantitatively. There are pneumatic conveying systems,
where immediately after the introduction of a pipe elbow m leads the perpendicular. Both Eq. 2.11
observed as well as to make sure that the air velocity after the injection is not too low. If necessary, the
short horizontal and the pipe elbow should be smaller in diameter. 8 m horizontal after the infeed are
often not available, Nevertheless, 2 m horizontal are better than the elbow directly after the injection. It
must be noted, however, that the pipe bend causes a lower pressure drop directly after the
introduction; because the excavated material is not fully accelerated between inflow and elbow. The
cheapest promotion with developed acceleration section is thus opposed to a higher pressure loss.

36

Pipe length / after injection

*-

Fig. 2.20 Theoretical course of the material velocity after infiltration without pipe friction according to
Eq. 2.12 for polystyrene granules with wsL-h = 6.5 m / s

2.3.1.2

Good acceleration with plug conveying

In the case of plug conveying, the air speed of 2 to 8 m / s is not sufficient to transport the transported
material immediately. It deposits on the tubesheet, moves slowly forward with the following conveyed
material and forms a plug. The actual promotion begins only when the plug has reached a certain length,
so that it fills almost the entire pipe cross-section. Then, a differential pressure builds up between the
end and the beginning of the plug, which according to Eq. 2.7 is big enough to move the plug. The plugs
disintegrate along the delivery line and form again in the vertical. The plug velocity of about 1 to 3 m / s
is below both the air velocity and below the floating speed of the single grain. Since the rates of plug
delivery are small, one receives here no additional pressure loss for the material acceleration. More or
less regularly the plugs remain in the delivery line. The velocities during the infeed correspond to those
when a plug is newly formed in the delivery line. In this case, the plug conveying basically differs from
the flight promotion, where the additional pressure loss during the acceleration of the material
approximately corresponds to the pressure loss in 20 m horizontal conveyance.

37

2.3.2
Steady

State The Steady State is a quasi stationary state for flight and strands promotion. The individual grains
are slowed home shock on the pipe wall and another grain constantly and accelerated again. However,
this process averages over the conveying length such that one can measure an average material velocity
c in the steady state. This good speed hedges a constant pressure drop over the conveying path with
incompressible flows (Fig. 2.21). Ap A

Fig. 2.21 Pressure curve over the pipe length

Acceleration

section 2.3.2.1 Continuing section

A/

Bcharrungszustand with horizontal conveying

The author has, as many other authors numerous measurements of pressure loss in the steady state
with horizontal pneumatic conveying performed [2.3] and thereby varies the influence parameters
systematically. The additional pressure loss Aps caused by the product transfer is a function of the flow
velocity of the grains in the air stream. For the ratio of the product velocity to the air velocity clv, it
follows from the measured additional pressure losses according to [2.3]:

(G! 2.13)

9-Qs-A / With Eq. 2.13 and the measurements given above, one obtains the velocity ratio clv as a
function of the air velocity o according to Figures 2.22, 2.23 and 2.24. The following conclusions can be
drawn from these pictures: D In the case of flight production, the speed ratio clv is greater than in
stratification.

38

B, ld2.22 Course of the velocity c / u according to [2.3] for horizontal extraction of seeds with the
values:

grain-grain density jj; throughg; in kg / m '

~ oj • * D) T3? =
knife j • c / sm mm

a Horn-cake clover 1.14 b Summer rape 1.92 c Wheat 4.0 d Winter pollen 3.44 e Bitter lupins 6.1

1420 1140 1380 1390 1340

Speed profile according to [2.3] for horizontal conveyance of bulk goods with different grain densities
with the values: Grain-grain density in os in kg / m 1 knife m m mm a Polystyrene granules 1,02 b Horn
cake clover 1,14 c Glass balls 1,14 d Steel balls 1 , 08

1070 1420 2990 78.50

^^ bn ^^ = ^ - de ^ =

^ 0_8 ^ 3 -2 = Qg

l? »^

^^ /

n, A

UH

• ^ g un> ^? -g Sg ü

° ()

10

15

20

25
Air velocity v

30 m / s 3 * •

0.8 "5 • = fr rt cg 'j> - • 2s u04' '1 - ^ Q ^ ^ J °. 2 -g «0 C)

a -b

- - = - = '~ ----'

10

15

_-

-c

_--

-d

20

25

30 m / s 3

25

30 m / s 35
Air speed v

Fig. 2.24 Speed ratio c / u according to [2.3] for horizontal transport of wheat in systems with different
pipe diameters dad = 50 mm bd = 100 mm cd = 200 mm dd = 400 mm

1.0

0.8

0.6 l

<n

l 0.4 D) T3 C

lo (O 0) O

0.2

10

15

20

Air speed v

D The horizontal pneumatic air transport has an approximately constant speed ratio over the entire air
speed range. H Fine-grained materials have a higher velocity ratio than coarse-grained. This is true only
for free-flying grains and not for strands. D A heavy material flows more slowly through the conveyor
than a light one. D In the pipe with a larger pipe diameter, the grains move slightly faster than in the
pipe with a smaller diameter. 2.3.2.2 State of

health with vertical conveying

In the vertical tube occurs in the promotion up an increased pressure loss by overcoming gravity. On the
other hand, the energy loss through the wall joints is lower because gravity is directed axially. For
example, the pressure loss minimum characterizing flight and strands promotion can also be
theoretically calculated, even if the conveying direction is neglected, neglecting the wall friction [2.22]. J.
FLATOW [2.22] and R. VOLLHEIM [2.23] measure that the steady state of flight promotion occurs after
12 m of acceleration. Vollheini determined in the steady state in the vertical tube, the material velocity c
as the expected without wall friction value:

According to Eq. 2.14 this results in no constant speed ratio in the vertical tube. Therefore, FLATOW did
not receive a constant factor when it divided the pressure loss in the vertical tube by that in the
horizontal tube. The value sometimes given with 1.6 to 2 is so flat overall so not right. 2.3.3

Good deflection in the elbow pipe

In contrast to mechanical conveyance, pneumatic conveying can easily redirect the flow direction in the
elbow pipe . In doing so, the conveyed material separates from the airflow during flight conveyance
(Figure 2.25). 2.3.3.1

Krümmcrströmung

The conveying air follows substantially the pipe bend, while the conveyed due to its inertia does not join
this deflection and bounces on the manifold wall [2.24], the first impact of the conveyed material on the
manifold outer wall, it loses some of its kinetic energy. The largest part of the conveyed material slides
on the elbow outer wall until the outlet of the elbow. He is then detected by the air flow and distributed
again at flight promotion evenly over the pipe cross-section. In particular, in the case of elastic conveyed
material and a large radius of curvature, part of the conveyed material jumps against the inner wall of
the elbow. Or the material moves in cracks on the outside wall of the elbow through the pipe (Fig.
2.26).

40

Figure 2.25 The material deflection in the elbow

Figure 2.26 Three possibilities of movement of the single grain in the pipe

bend 2.3.3.2 Manifold

and Good Wear

When the single grain hits the manifold outer wall, the grain and wall are particularly stressed. The high
speeds of the flight promotion (28 m / s correspond to 100 km / h) lead at this point often to broken
grain and grain wear. Conversely, the wear on the abrasive material is particularly high at this point (Fig.
2.27 and [2.25 and 2.26J). This can be reduced if one executes the elbow with a particularly deep
artificial wear recess, so that the conveyed remains and bulk material bounces on bulk material.

Fig. 2.27 Wear on the pipe

elbows Wear recess and '1. Good exit

41

Figure 2.28 Elbow with two points of impact according to [2.27]

2.3.3.3

Krümmergcometrie

K.WAGNFR [2.27 | assumed that the grain bouncing on the bend outer wall behaves as an idealized
elastic point mass, so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. With two impact
points (Figure 2.28) one obtains a ratio of the radius of curvature R to the pipe diameter d:

R: d = 6.07

{Eq. 2.15)

For example, some manufacturers of pneumatic conveying systems generally use pipe manifolds with R:
d = 6. However, this is not mandatory, as explained in section 2.3.3.1, because the grains in the elbow
pipe usually do not jump but slide. In flight promotion is essential that the radius of curvature is not too
small. For most missions, the result according to Eq. 2.15 a minimum. For structural reasons, this is
sometimes undershot up to K: d = 4. For the single-phase flow commercially available pipe manifolds
with R: d - 2.5 or 1.5 are offered. However, these are not recommended because of the greater risk of
clogging hot pneumatic conveying. Often pneumatic manifolds are used with non-diameter bend radii
with values such as

42

R = 500 mm, 1000 mm, 1500 mm, 2000 mm. These have basically proven themselves, since they usually
lead to values greater than R: d = 6. The service life of a pipe elbow through which the material to be
conveyed flows increases according to [2.26] with the ratio R: d. In addition, the pressure loss in the
manifold with a larger radius of curvature is somewhat lower to certain limits. Nevertheless, for reasons
of wear and tear, even pipe elbows with so-called baffle pots were used at the intersection of the
axes. Bulk goods in the pot collide with bulk material, which reduces system wear. In the plastics
industry, where so-called "angel hair" is formed by the melting of the granulated corners when sliding
against the pipe wall, the particularly large elbows should be somewhat less favorable. Finally, it should
be noted that all these statements apply only to the flight and strands promotion. When
Pfropfenförderung the elbows are unproblematic. In addition to elbows with 90 ° deflection, those with
180 ° deflection are also used there. At fairs it has even been shown that it is possible to convey with
plug conveying through a line laid as a pretzel. 2.3.3.4

Pressure loss in the elbow

Due to the friction of the conveyed material on the pipe wall, the conveyed material is decelerated
according to section 2.3.3.1. In the straight pipe section following the pipe bend, the conveyed goods
must be accelerated again to the material speed c of the steady-state section. This acceleration process
takes place similar to the Guteinschleusung when z. In Figure 2.20, for example, c does not start at the
initial velocity 0 but at a certain velocity c. For this reason, the additional pressure loss in the case of
product conveyance through a pipe bend is related to the additional pressure loss similar to Figure 2.21
for the acceleration of the material [2.28, 2.29, 2.30]. Depending on the design and position of the pipe
elbow, the additional pressure loss of the elbow is 30% to 50% of the pressure loss during the
acceleration of the conveyed material [2.31J. The ratio of the loss of the manifold to the loss of
acceleration is mainly determined by the transported material, the radius of curvature and the air
velocity. It obeys other laws than the resistance coefficient L in pure air flow. 2.3.4

Pressure profile along the conveyor line

Sections 2.3.1 to 2.3.3 describe the movement of the conveyed material through the conveyor system. A
movement is only possible if a performance - here the blower power - is applied to overcome the
friction losses. This achievement according to Eq. 02/10 represents at constant volume of air flow, a
pressure increase to

43

Figure 2.29 pressure profile along the conveying line

2 clean air resistance

I acceleration resistance pressure loss Indian horizontal l pressure loss in the pipe bend horizontally /
perpendicularly pressure loss in the perpendicular l pressure loss in the pipe bend perpendicular /
horizontal pressure loss in the horizontal pressure loss in the separator

0 © available, with which the resistances in the individual plant parts can be overcome. Figure 2.29
shows the individual pressure losses, the Sunirnierung in the correct order results in the pressure curve
along the delivery line. The pressure is always particularly strong at the points of the delivery line, where
individual resistances occur and the material to be conveyed has to be accelerated thereafter, eg during
the introduction of the product and in the elbow. An exact calculation of the individual pressure losses,
which is the task] of a pneumatic conveying system, is given in Chapter 4.
2.4

Suction and pressure system

Depending on whether the blower sits before or after the delivery line and thus the flow of bulk
material, a distinction is made between the pneumatic suction and the pressure feed system (Fig.
2.30). In both occurs during delivery along the delivery line, a pressure drop, so that the pressure at the
beginning is higher than the end. In the suction system is introduced at atmospheric pressure. As a
result, negative pressure prevails in the entire delivery line. From the pressure system is discharged at
atmospheric pressure, and the pressure loss in the flow direction causes everywhere in the
Förderlcitung there is an overpressure. This is greatest at the point of infiltration.

44

Filter

Figure 2.30 The two possibilities of the pneumatic conveying system a) Suction conveyor b) Pressure
conveyor

0 bar 0.6

Diverter

O-

0.65 bar \ /

aspirator

discharge

1 bar

introduction of

a)

1 bar deposition i introduction pipe switch

1.8 bar fan b)

The pressure on the earth's surface of about 1 bar is due to the standing air column of the
atmosphere. If this column of air is sucked off, the minimum possible pressure of 0 bar is obtained in the
world. Consequently, a pneumatic suction conveyor can theoretically be operated with the maximum
pressure difference Ap max = 1 bar - 0 bar = 1 bar. For reasons of vacuum generation and the operation
of a pneumatic suction conveyor system, however, only the range between p = l bar and 0.6 bar (0.5 bar
minimum) for the operation of a pneumatic suction conveyor is economical. This pressure difference of
Ap = 0.4 bar in pneumatic suction conveyors is opposed by a theoretically unlimited pressure difference
to the operation of a pneumatic pressure conveyor. In practice, the selected compressor determines the
design of the pressure conveyor (s. Chapter 6). It makes sense to divide the delivery according to the
pressure generated by the compressor: promotion

Compressor

Pressure difference

Low pressure Medium pressure High pressure

Fan Positive Displacement Blower Compressor

0 to 0,15 bar 0,15 to 1 bar 1 to 3 (6) bar

45

This classification, which is not mandatory, refers to the centrifugal fans offered commercially without
special measures. It deviates from the DIN standard 24 163 in that it differentiates between the
following pressure difference ranges: n When the pressure increases between 0 and 0.3 bar, the
compressed air generator is called the blower. D A pressure increase of 0.3 bar is referred to as a
compressor. Since the intake system injects at atmospheric pressure, the introduction is unproblematic
and reduced to a pure metering problem. On the other hand, at the end of the suction system, a
continuous discharge of the material to be conveyed must be ensured against a pressure difference. The
printing plant has this problem during the injection. This has led to many interesting lock developments,
especially at high pressure (see Chapter 7). The suction system is particularly suitable to convey bulk
material from several points to a central point (eg in a ship unloading plant or in a central vacuum
cleaning system). At the end of the suction system are filters and fans. On the other hand, the pressure
system better solves the conveying problems when it is necessary to feed from one point to one of
several points (eg when loading a silo plant). For special problems, if it is to be promoted optionally from
several to several points, one uses a pneumatic suction-pressure conveyor (Figure 2.31). Although this
design has many funding opportunities, but it requires a larger pipe diameter and more energy given a
good mass flow due to numerous pipe bend and the two accelerations; because the conveyed material
must be accelerated to the conveying speed both in the suction system and in the printing
system. Because of the small available pressure difference in the suction conveying pneumatic suction
conveyors have the same mass flow a larger diameter pipe than pressure conveyor systems. You need to
promote a larger amount of air and thus a slightly higher Antnebslcistung for the fan. The advantage of
easier introduction into a suction conveyor has meant that, despite the greater energy requirements,
the largest pneumatic conveyor systems have been built as Saugförderanlagen. These are ship unloading
systems for up to 800 t / h grain. In order to keep the energy consumption as small as possible, only the
intake of the pourable bulk material takes place pneumatically. In the course of further production,
transfer to a mechanical continuous conveying system or to a pneumatic high-pressure conveyor as
early as possible (see Section 10.3). A comparison of the suction and the pressure system is shown in
Table 2.1. If the printing plant performs better in this undoubtedly subjective evaluation, then this is
expressed by the fact that today probably a little more pressure conveyor systems are operated as
suction conveyor systems. Nevertheless, pneumatic suction conveyor systems are also being built
further, since this system has a number of significant advantages, particularly in the case of the
introduction of goods. Therefore, in chapter 4 the calculation of the suction conveyor should be given
the same care as the pressure conveyor.

46

Fig. 2.31 Pneumatic suction-pressure conveyor

Table 2. l

Comparison of pneumatic suction and pressure conveying

Criteria

Suction conveyor

- Infeed - Outfeed - Max. Delivery pressure difference - blower size - max. Conveying path - Pipe
diameter - Good mass flow achieved - Conveyor paths - Effort for dedusting - Dust generation -
Suitability for plug conveyance - Danger of clogging - Effort for obstruction removal - Plant costs -
Operating costs

at atmospheric pressure from negative pressure 0.4 (0.5) bar

Advantages: Disadvantages:

much lower than 800 t / h from several points large no small larger small

pressure conveyor +

++
+

bigger bigger

against overpressure at "Atmospheric pressure 6 (25) bar

++

less greater less 400 t / h

+++

at several points smaller available large

+++

smaller larger

less low

++

+ 10 +

10-

5-

47

2.5

Operating point of pneumatic conveying system

2.5.1

Operating point for flight conveying

As in the case of a plant with a single-phase flow, the operating point is also obtained in a pneumatic
conveying system as the intersection of the blower characteristic curve with the system characteristic
curve. The system characteristic is the state diagram (see section 2.2). This is what H. ÖTTINGER pointed
out for the first time [2.32]. In Fig. 2.32 the range of the flight production is taken from the state
diagram according to Fig. 2.13. For this purpose, the characteristic curves Ap (V) or A / 7 (o) of a rotary
lobe blower and a fan - here as a multi-stage fan - were entered. If a good mass flow of 6 t / h is
introduced into the conveyor system on which the Fig. 2.32 is based, the operating point A results
during operation with rotary lobe blower and fan:

u = 24 m / s, A / 7 = 0.45 bar, Qs = 6 t / h. If the mass flow were to be increased to Qs = 7 t / h, then the

pressure loss would increase to 0.5 bar when operating with rotary lobe blowers, and the air velocity
would remain approximately the same. If a multistage fan delivers the compressed air, then Q \ ~ 7 t / h
will no longer produce a real intersection. The conveyor would clog. Figure 2.32 Operating point of a
pneumatic conveying system A real operating point

B non-real operating point

20

air speed

48

25

Although the point of intersection B between the system and fan characteristics is real, it is not possible
for operation. A slight disturbance in the plant, which is always associated with a decrease in the air
velocity, would cause the operating point B to travel to the left on the curve Q = 6 t / h. The multi-stage
fan would no longer be able to produce the necessary to promote increased pressure with its flat
characteristic. It can be seen that the steeper the fan characteristic, the safer the
operation. Nevertheless, a fan in the area of flight promotion can also ensure secure operation. This
especially if its characteristic is steep at the operating point. It should be noted that the system
characteristic is steeper by operating the throttle. This leads to Figure 6. 11 for a better intersection of
blower and system characteristics. When assessing the stuffing limit of a pneumatic conveying system
(see Section 2.2.4), not only the state diagram but also the blower characteristic curve must be taken
into account. This undoubtedly diminishes the usefulness of the term "stuffing limit". If a pneumatic
conveying system with rotary lobe blower operates in suction mode, then not only is the air volume flow
V measured at the suction nozzle of the blower lower. V must also be converted isothermally to the
state at the suction nozzle. Only then is the air velocity required for the pneumatic conveyance present
at the point of introduction into the suction conveyor. That would z. B. at Ap = 0.5 bar lead to half the air
flow. The plant engineer knows this and doubles the air volume flow at the suction nozzle of the
blower. What is less taken into account, however, is the fact that the steep slope in the pressure
operation of the rotary piston blower in the suction operation as a result of the pressure dependence
becomes flatter, when one relates the air flow to the atmospheric state. Furthermore, an increased
intake temperature changes the blower characteristic. This is especially the case with the fan, whose
pressure increase depends on the air density, which decreases with increasing temperature. Finally, the
shoe leakage air must be considered both absolutely and in terms of changing the fan
characteristic. Thus, the following criteria for the interaction of the fan characteristic curve with the
system characteristic curve of a pneumatic conveyor system can be summarized: a) A real intersection
of blower characteristic and system characteristic is required. b) The fan characteristic must be steeper
at the point of intersection than the system characteristic curve. c) Even with fluctuations of the good
mass flow, the intersection must still be real. d) In the case of suction systems with rotary lobe blowers,
the required air volume flow must be converted to the atmospheric state and the flatter blower curve
must be taken into account during suction operation. e) The effects of higher air temperatures on the
pressure increase must be considered absolutely in fan operation and with regard to the slope of the fan
characteristic. d) In the case of suction systems with rotary lobe blowers, the required air volume flow
must be converted to the atmospheric state and the flatter blower curve must be taken into account
during suction operation. e) The effects of higher air temperatures on the pressure increase must be
considered absolutely in fan operation and with regard to the slope of the fan characteristic. d) In the
case of suction systems with rotary lobe blowers, the required air volume flow must be converted to the
atmospheric state and the flatter blower curve must be taken into account during suction operation. e)
The effects of higher air temperatures on the pressure increase must be considered absolutely in fan
operation and with regard to the slope of the fan characteristic.

49

f) Leaks in the system (eg lock leak air) change the air volume flow absolutely. In addition, they reduce
the steepness of the fan characteristic, since the leakage air quantity is pressure-dependent. It is quite
possible that the difficulties of many of the plants in question can be explained by the criteria a) to
f). The author has already rebuilt a Ventilatorsauganlage on site in a printing system. When almost all of
the negative criteria a) to f) were eliminated, the plant achieved the guaranteed mass flow rate of 10 t /
h of PE powder.

2.5.2

Operating point for plug conveying

The operating criteria mentioned in the previous section are generally valid and therefore also apply to
the pumping of plugs. However, in the field of plug conveyance, the plant characteristics are steeper
than in the case of air transport. The pressures are about a factor of 3 higher and the air volumes by a
factor of 3 lower. It is all the more important under these conditions, the steep fan characteristic. This
has recently been made possible by the increasing use of Laval nozzles for air volume control with an
absolutely vertical blower characteristic (see Section 6.6.4). The assumption that the 15 to 20 year old
plug production can only be reliably interpreted with the knowledge of Section 2.5.1 is plausible. The
sluice leakage air has a particularly unfavorable effect on the operating conditions of the plug conveying.

Figure 2.33 Operating points for plug conveying according to [2.21] for air volume control with Laval
nozzle, and I Conventional cell air lock with high leakage rate II Damping lock with low leakage rate A, B,
C stable operating point D unstable operating point

air speed v

50

ßer and pushes the steepness of the fan characteristic all the more because the amount of air required
for promotion is low. For this reason, high-pressure rotary valves with a pressure difference of up to 3
bar have been developed with a simultaneous reduction in airlock leakage [2.33]. These are discussed in
Section 7.5.3.4. R. ERNST [2.21] measured the plant identification with Qs = const. And the air supply
characteristics of a plug conveying system with Laval nozzle and two different rotary valves. Fig. 2.33
shows that the conventional rotary feeder with larger lock leakage air in the operated pneumatic
pressure conveyor has only the operating point A. By contrast, the system with the lower lock leak air,
due to the sealing lock, can also be operated in operating points B and C.

51

Material to be conveyed and conveying means

The influencing variables determining the pneumatic conveying are introduced by the following three
components: D the conveying system, D the conveyed material, D the conveying means. The design of
the conveyor system and its influencing variables are dealt with in chapters 5 to 10. Many influences
have the conveyed on the promotion.

3.1

Material to be transported as bulk material

In conveyor technology, a distinction is made between general cargo and bulk goods. Apart from the
fact that also lumpy conveyed goods (eg plastic housing) are blown with air through pipelines, then is
understood by pneumatic general cargo the so-called pneumatic tube. By pneumatic post documents,
books, files and other are pneumatically conveyed. In this case, a moving sleeve in the pipe receives the
documents. The bush fills almost the entire pipe cross-section. Blowing air through the pipe, the speed
of the can is almost equal to that of the airflow. This movement can be described with the basics of
single-phase pipe flow without much difficulty [3.1]. As explained in Chapter 2, the pneumatic bulk
transport is much harder to describe. This is due to the many different properties of the bulk material
and its behavior in the air stream. 3.1.1
Bulk goods

processing industry In a comprehensive study, K. WEHKINC; and R. HOLZHAUER [3.2] the fields of
activity of the bulk material technology. The four areas listed in Figure 3.1, on which practice and science
work, are to some extent all concerned with pneumatic conveying. Figure 3.2 shows the quantities of
bulk material that are mechanically and pneumatically conveyed in the individual branches of industry
according to [3.2. In doing so, the author drew red the branches of industry that use pneumatic
conveying as well as mechanical conveying. If half of the pneumatic conveying is used here, which can
be justified in terms of the other uncertainties

53

Fig. 3.1 Four working areas of bulk material technology according to [3.2]

1 Industrial branch with essential pneumatic conveying

million t

MOn 2

ml ': "nnn -"

9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Fig. 3.2 Mechanically and pneumatically conveyed bulk material quantities in the Federal Republic of
Germany in 1985. Source: Federal Statistical Office 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Sand, stones, earth, minerals Hard coal Iron ore Basic chemicals Feed, plant products Food and
beverages Fertilizers Cereals Cement, lime, cups Slags, ashes Non-ferrous ores Brown coal Potash and
salt wood non-ferrous waste

In 1985, about 75 million tonnes of bulk material would have been pneumatically conveyed in the
Federal Republic of Germany. This corresponds to a share of about 15% of the total volume of processed
bulk goods of about 500 million t. 3.1.2

Bulk solids in pneumatic conveying technology

In most industries, pneumatic conveying systems are encountered. In the VDI guideline 2329 [3.3 | the
main goods were allocated to the branches of industry (Table 3.1). The list of conveyed goods shows
where the conveyed goods occur. But it is inevitably incomplete, since not all substances are listed. In
addition, the bulk goods change their conveying behavior with many of the

54 in

Section 3.2.2 specified properties, such. As the grain diameter, the grain shape, the particle size
distribution, the Gutfeuchte, the Guttemperatur, etc. So actually the number of conveyed goods is
almost unlimited. In terms of behavior, it is certainly possible to specify 10 000 different conveyed
goods. The manufacturers of pneumatic conveyors carry several thousand samples of their bulk material
in their bulk material laboratories for bulk material analysis and as proof of exported conveyor systems.

3.2

Bulk properties

With the introduction of the Pool range up to a load capacity of 1000 kg, it has been possible to return
all the good qualities to one, namely the pallet dimension, in the case of mechanical general cargo
promotion. This is different when conveying bulk materials. 3.2.1

General bulk material properties

According to Table 3.2, there are a variety of bulk properties. The quality characteristics listed here are
necessarily incomplete, and some properties are such that they vary with production or change under
the influence of the atmosphere and time. This may be the reason why until now it has not been
possible to create a database of bulk materials available at any time [3.2]. A proposal for a classification
of the bulk material properties is contained in FEM 2581 [3.4]. In addition, there is undoubtedly a lot of
unpublished specialist knowledge of the manufacturers and operators of bulk material facilities.

Table 3.1

The materials to be conveyed in the various industries for [3.3]

industry

conveyed goods

Aluminum industry Breweries Chemical industry Feedstuffs Grain Wood industry Paper industry Plastics
(industry Mineral industry Mill industry Food industry Oil industry Cement industry Clay

, aluminum hydroxide Barley, malt, green malt, maltcitrate Nitrates, phosphates, soot Shred, fishmeal,
expeller Wheat, barley, corn, rice Sawdust, sawdust, woodchip Pulp, Kaolin Granules, powders,
aggregates Oxides, salts, pulverized coal Flours, grits, by-products Milk powder, coffee, cocoa Sugar,
starch Soybeans, rapeseed, copra Cement, raw meal

55

3.2.2

Main bulk material properties for pneumatic conveying

From Table 3.2, some of the properties of the material that are important for the extraction have been
taken and in Table 3.3 comments have been made on pneumatic conveying. These remarks are based on
many experiences and are of course subjective. One should not look at them detached from each
other. It is advisable to refrain from a funding procedure if several disadvantages accumulate [3.5].

Table 3.2

The conveyed goods in the individual industries according to [3.3]

Criterion

Flies Behavior

Dynamics

Property Bulk Density Bulk Density Height Iran Partial Compression Coherence Cohesion Wall Friction
Adhesion Angle of repose Grain Hard Fracture Grain Wear Wear modulus Impact factor Falling velocity
Drag coefficient cw Pressure loss coefficient xs Air velocity at airflow Good mass flow

Fluidizability Temperature

Air holding capacity Good temperature Flammability Explosion

pressure Explosion pressure rise Humidity

Environment

56

Good moisture hygroscopic property Tackiness Sorption isotherm Odor nuisance Perishability Dust
generation Toxicity

Table 3.3

Consequences from Table 3.2 for pneumatic conveying

Properties of the conveyed material

Comment on the pneumatic conveying

Bulk density Raurndichte Höh l raum part

- determines the type and size of the locks. - The pressure loss increases with increasing volume
density. - If the void content is too low, no plug conveyance is possible. - For granular material (l rnm),
the pressure drop decreases slightly with the grain diameter [3.8J. - Very fine conveyed goods
sometimes cake in smooth pipe. - Goods with spherical or cylindrical shape can be well conveyed in all
pumping conditions. - Fibrous and platelet-shaped grain shape is not suitable for grafting. - Wide grain
spectrum is not suitable for grafting. - Increasing wall friction makes plug conveying difficult and results
in greater pressure loss during flight transport Cohesive and adhesive goods can often only be conveyed
with special processes. - For larger grain hardness (from Mohs hardness 3 to 4) no use of rotary valves. -
Is largely avoided when Pfropfenförderung. - For granular material no significant influence on the
promotion. - see chapter 4. - Both allow gentle, economical flow. - Dust-shaped, explosive goods are
often conveyed under inert gas.

Grain diameter Grain shape

Grain size distribution Wall friction Cohesion, adhesion Grain hardness Cracking Grain formation Sinking
velocity Pressure loss coefficient Fluidizability, air holding capacity Flammability

According to Table 3.3, the problems of low air velocities in the area of so-called slow transport
increase. For this reason, the plant engineers have long since begun to carry out conveying experiments
on a laboratory installation before designing a pneumatic slow-moving conveyor for a new material to
be conveyed. This not only increases the safety of your own design, but is also demonstrative for the
later operator of the system and promotional for the manufacturer.
57

3.3

Measurement, Registration and Examples of Bulk Material Properties

Numerous Meisgeräte were developed for the measurement of the bulk material properties, which
should be present in a bulk material laboratory. Some of these, which are not yet sufficient for
pneumatic conveying, are contained in FEM 2481 [3.6]. After having previously registered the quality
characteristics of folders and punched cards, the state-of-the-art stand is, until further notice, the
company's own bulk material database. The values of this database can be retrieved within a company
for each plant planner. With proper database maintenance, he can keep all data up to date and take it
into account in his planning and design. The measurements of the bulk material properties according to
Table 3.2 are presented here. 3.3.1

Weight of the bulk material

The bulk density is in accordance with VDI Guideline 2031 [3.7] the mass of the room unit of the goods
poured loosely into a container. As a container one usually uses a measuring glass with 0.5 to ldm
'content. The bulk density is then equal to the mass of the content divided by its volume. By shaking the
bulk material to obtain the Rütteldichte ^ SR ^ depending on the bulk material up to 30% greater than
the bulk density can be. According to VDI guideline 2031 the volume density is the mass of the room unit
of a good, including the open and closed pores. In contrast, the apparent density only takes into account
the mass of the room unit, including the closed pores. Both are the same if the bulk material has no
open pores, which can usually be neglected. In [3.7J air and liquid pycnometers are described, with
which the spatial or apparent density can be measured. The displacement of air or liquid is
detected. The void fraction i // is a function of the bulk density and the bulk density

It depends on the geometry of the bed and on the grain shape. Horizontal and vertical parallel layered
spherical planes have a void fraction of i // = 47.7%, as shown in Figure 3.3a, if one plane of the sphere is
parallel to the other. This goes back to y / - 35.8% with tightest ball packing in the room. However, the
value is not feasible for the same ball diameter, since some places are usually not occupied by a grain in
the heap. The author [3.8] has measured void fractions of between 40 and 48% on 11 spherical and
cylindrical bulk materials with grain diameters between 1 and 8 mm. With the fine grain of the dust-like
bulk materials, this proportion is sometimes much higher. Usually densely stored bulk material can be
compacted mainly by vibration, less by pressure. This leads to the so-called Rütteldichte.

58

Figure 3.3 The void content of pebbles a) parallel ply a) puddles b) densest puddles in the plane c)
densest pebbles in space b)
1<

= 1- -

f 1/3

'/> = 1

= 0.477

3\3

' / '= 1 -

: - 0.358

2V6

c) pointed

out [3.9] that certain fine-grained powders can be compacted up to 300%. This compression is based
primarily on the displacement of accumulated air. According to Table 3.3, this hold-up capacity is a
prerequisite for flow promotion according to Section 2.2.7. 3.3.2

Dimensions of the bulk material

The grain diameter has an even greater significance for process engineering than for pneumatic
conveying. Nevertheless, the grain diameter has a significant influence on many production processes
(see Table 3.3). It is recommended that the following subdivision of the bulk materials according to the
grain diameter 0 0.1 l 10 over

to 0.5 to l to 10 to 100 100

mm mm mm mm mm

powdery or dusty, gritty, grainy, coarse-grained, lumpy.

Of course, these boundaries are fluid. There are only a few bulk materials where each grain is exactly the
same in diameter and grain shape as the other. Most bulk materials have a particle size distribution (Fig.
3.4), which is measured, for example, as a sieve characteristic (here for grained quicklime). The
measurement uses a sieve set with increasing mesh size from bottom to top. A sample of about 100 g of
the bulk material is poured onto the upper, coarse test sieve. When sieving through the downwardly
finer Siebcinsätze is measured as the sum of the proportion that still passes through a sieve. This
proportion is applied in% over the mesh size and thus over the grain diameter of the screen.

59

= 0.395

S*

i*m

60 /

O)

40

20

'

dsso = 2,14 0,1

0,16

0,25
0,4

- ± ^ 0,63 1

1.6

2,5

6,3mm1 Grain

diameter Fig. 3.4 Recording of the sieving characteristic of granulated quicklime

FN, na

',

b -c ^ ^

normal stress a

60

Fig. 3.5 Determination of the angle of internal friction according to A. JENIKE f3.11] hcd, T, A

Ring Shear surface Base plate effective angle of internal friction Cohesion stress End point of the
Flielsortc

A steep sieve characteristic characterizes a bulk material with almost the same grain diameter. In
contrast, a bulk material with a large coarse and fines content has a flat sieving characteristic. The mean
grain diameter d $$ o is read as the intersection of the ordinate 50% with the sieve characteristic on the
abscissa. For example, the mean grain diameter of the grained quicklime is 3.4: c / sso = d ^ = 2.14
mm. Test sieves are supplied for dry screening in geometric increments of mesh size from 0.025 mm. For
most measurements on pneumatic conveyed goods this minimum grain diameter is sufficient; because
other properties are more important for the pneumatic conveying than the knowledge about the grain
diameter of fine dust. The following particle size gauges for fine dusts are used in other fields [3.10]:
DDDD

Air jet sieving Wet sieving Gravity sedimentation

balance Centrifugal sedimentation balance 3.3.3 Flow

behavior of the bed

3.3.3.1

Internal friction and cohesion

from 0.030 mm Grain size from 0.005 mm Grain size from 0.001 mm Grain size 0.0001 to 0.001 mm
Grain size

In bulk material mechanics, the friction between bulk material and bulk material (internal friction) and
between bulk material and wall (wall friction) with the shear cell according to JENIKE 3. 1 1]. The shear
cell (Figure 3.5) consists of a solid, closed-down cylinder and a horizontally movable, top-mounted, open
cylinder of the same diameter. On the bulk material in the shear cell, a compressive stress n is applied
via a cover by a normal force. Then, with the horizontal shear force FSK, the shear stress T is increased
to the interface between the cylinders until the upper cylinder starts to move against the lower
one. Other authors have further developed this shear cell by rotating both parts into a rotary shear
cell. It has the advantage of an infinite shear path. The curve T (a), in which the individual specimens
solidified with a certain preload begin to flow, the place of flow is called [3.12]. This has an end point A.
A straight line through A and the origin enclose with the abscissa the effective angle of internal friction
(pt

61

Figure 3.6 Division of bulk materials according to L PESCHEL [3.13] a) free flowing bulk solids h) cohesive
bulk solids, 1 without time hardening 2 with time hardening c) fluidizable bulk solids, 1 aerated 2 vented
3 deaerated, cohesive

1. PESCHL [3.l3] divides the bulk materials into three types based on shear theory (Figure 3.6) with
different flow locations. Although this classification is not standardized to date, it is helpful in
understanding the behavior of some bulk materials in pneumatic conveying. The behavior a) has most
granular bulk materials, such as plastic granules and cereals, and many gritty powders in the range of 0.1
to 1 mm grain diameter. These bulk solids are not cohesive and can not absorb shear force without
normal force. They therefore also flow through bunkers with flat discharge cones. This behavior is
among other properties the prerequisite for a plug promotion. The behavior b) is preferably observed
for bulk goods with a small grain diameter (below d $ = 0.1 mm).

62

small grain diameter particularly strong. These properties increase with time, humidity and temperature
[3.13]. The behavior c) refers to fluidizable, powdery bulk materials. Due to the loosening with air flow
(see Section 3.3.5.3) these bulk materials lose the contact between grain and grain. In this fluidized
state, they behave like water (curve c1). After suspension of fluidization, these bulk materials take the
behavior b). There are bulk materials (eg certain paste PVC powders), which in Figure 3.6c make the step
from curve 1 to curve 2 and 3, but not vice versa. When storing these bulk materials in a silo, it is
necessary to aerate the silo through a porous bottom during storage at certain intervals. If the
ventilation fails for a few hours, then the bulk material does not flow off. It is only mechanically
discharged from the silo. 3.3.3.2

Wall friction and adhesion

If you replace the base frame d in Figure 3.5 with a flat plate of wall material (Figure 3.7), then you can
measure the angle of the wall friction. Again, the shear stress i is applied above the normal stress
a. Again, you get so-called Wandfließorte. The angle formed by the straight line through the origin and
the wall flow direction with the abscissa is the angle of the wall friction ^> x - where tan (p \ is equal to
the coefficient of friction when a grain starts to slide on the wall

[P

normal stress a Fig. 3.7

Determination of the wall friction angle

(p \ Angle of wall friction

TA Adhesion stress

63

Adhesion

stress Fig.

3.8 Wall shear stress as function l3-9! Dcr Zcit after

Shear tension

time

Similar to the internal friction, a distinction is made in the wall friction bulk materials that transmit no
wall shear stress or shear stress without normal stress and those that can absorb a shear stress TA as
adhesion stress without normal stress. If you throw z. B. a snowball to the wall, there remains a conical
rest hanging. This transmits at least its own weight in the shear plane bulk material / wall through the
snow bulk own adhesion tension. H. HOPPE and P. LÜBBKHUSEN [3.9] measured the wall shear stress in
bulk solids over time (Fig. 3.8). They have found that during shear, a maximum of shear stress is initially
passed through. After that, a constant value for the wall shear stress sets in. The difference between the
two shear stresses is equal to the adhesion. 3.3.3.3

angle of repose

The angle of repose or slope angle is not a scientific factor, although it is quite important for plant
construction. Flowable bulk solids according to Figure 3.6a form with the horizontal according to
measurements of the author [3.81 depending on the bulk material an angle of repose of 25 ° to 3.5
°. Non-free-flowing bulk materials according to Figure 3.6b rarely have an angle of repose over 45 °
during storage. Nevertheless, in the case of these bulk materials or those which interlock (for example
chicory chips), the angle of repose is sometimes 90 ° or more during the aging process. On the other
hand, bulk materials according to Fig. 3.6, curve c1, have an angle of repose of approx. 0 ° during storage
and when purging with ventilation. Without ventilation, the angle of repose can be anything between 0 °
and 90 °, depending on whether you are on one of the curves cl, c2 or c3. 3.3.4

Grain Hardness and Wear

The high air velocity, especially in the case of pneumatic flight conveyance, stresses the transported
material and the conveyor system. The wear depends on the hardness of the grain.

64 is still used today to denote the hardness of a substance

nor the hardness scale already established in 1832 by F. MOHS. Thereafter, the hardness of a crystal is
the measure of resistance that it opposes, depending on the area and direction of the mechanical
violation of its surface layering. In this way you can score the softer fabric with the harder one. F. MOHS
divides the substances into 10 classes. The softest substance in class 1 is talc, the hardest with grade 10
is diamond. Table 3.4 shows the hardness of some substances. They were taken from [3.14] and
supplemented. The starting materials of each class were highlighted.

Table 3.4

Examples of grain hardness according to Mohs

solid

hardness

solid

hardness
wax graphite

0.02

Iron 4.0-5.0 Glass

4.5-6.5

Talc Kieselguhr Asphalt Lead

1.0

Plaster Fingernail Caustic Soda Lime Hydrate Sulfur Saw (NaCl) Tin Zinc Anthracite Silver Borax Kaolin
Copper Aluminum

2.0 2.0 2.0 2,0-3,0 2,0 2,0 Calcite

Limestone Bauxite Mica Plastics Barite Brass Dolomite Fluorite Zinc Oxide Fired Lime

0,5-1,0 1,0-1,5 1,5 1,5

2,0 2, 0 22 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

apatite call asbestos steel chromite

5.0 5.0 5.0

feldspar iron oxide lava (tuff) Magncsiumoxid pyrite I itandioxid

6.0 6.0 6.0

5.0 -8.0 5.5

5.0-6.5 6.5 6.5

Quartz Zircon Beryll

7.0

3.0

Topaz Basalt Garnet

8.0 8.0 8.2

3.0-4.0

3.0

3.0

Corundum Tungsten Carbide Titanium Carbide Silicon Carbide Borkarbid Diamond

2.0-3.0

3.0 (PVC)

3.3 3.0-4.0 3.5-4.0

7.0 7.0

9, 0 9.2 9.4 9.4 9.5

10

4.0 4.5 2.0-4.0

65

In the case of pneumatic conveying, of course, the wear of the system increases with increasing
hardness of the conveyed material. So groceries with Zellenradschleuscn grain hardening above about 4
are usually avoided because the rotating in the housing cell wheel in the conveyed too much. On the
other hand one finds many promotions with Druckgefäßeinschleusiing of much harder bulk materials (eg
quartz sand with hardness 7) at; because at the pressure vessel, no rotating part moves in the
conveyed. Nevertheless, the figures in Table 3.4 should not be used in isolation, since often a few
percent of hard materials are stored in softer ones. So the author had to replace after a year running
time the pipe bend of a pneumatic conveyor system for sawdust. They had probably slipped because the
sawdust from the carpentry was contaminated. This may, for example, have been caused by emery
abrasion (corundum). Similar experiences were made with the particularly hard silicon carbide (hardness
9.4) in the pneumatic Schlackefördemng. For these pneumatic conveying systems, whole conveyor lines
are lined with wrought basalt. Basic tests on wear in the detection of higher-speed grains were made by
H. UETZ [3.15]. Fr distinguishes between glide jet, oblique jet and impact jet, depending on whether the
grain hits the solid surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The wear of conventional, especially hard
materials, such as steel, is greatest at high energy concentration. This is under the following conditions
of potash: DUDI] Similar experiences were made with the particularly hard silicon carbide (hardness 9.4)
in the pneumatic Schlackefördemng. For these pneumatic conveying systems, whole conveyor lines are
lined with wrought basalt. Basic tests on wear in the detection of higher-speed grains were made by H.
UETZ [3.15]. Fr distinguishes between glide jet, oblique jet and impact jet, depending on whether the
grain hits the solid surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The wear of conventional, especially hard
materials, such as steel, is greatest at high energy concentration. This is under the following conditions
of potash: DUDI] Similar experiences were made with the particularly hard silicon carbide (hardness 9.4)
in the pneumatic Schlackefördemng. For these pneumatic conveying systems, whole conveyor lines are
lined with wrought basalt. Basic tests on wear in the detection of higher-speed grains were made by H.
UETZ [3.15]. Fr distinguishes between glide jet, oblique jet and impact jet, depending on whether the
grain hits the solid surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The wear of conventional, especially hard
materials, such as steel, is greatest at high energy concentration. This is under the following conditions
of potash: DUDI] For these pneumatic conveying systems, whole conveyor lines are lined with wrought
basalt. Basic tests on wear in the detection of higher-speed grains were made by H. UETZ [3.15]. Fr
distinguishes between glide jet, oblique jet and impact jet, depending on whether the grain hits the solid
surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The wear of conventional, especially hard materials, such as
steel, is greatest at high energy concentration. This is under the following conditions of potash:
DUDI] For these pneumatic conveying systems, whole conveyor lines are lined with wrought
basalt. Basic tests on wear in the detection of higher-speed grains were made by H. UETZ [3.15]. Fr
distinguishes between glide jet, oblique jet and impact jet, depending on whether the grain hits the solid
surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The wear of conventional, especially hard materials, such as
steel, is greatest at high energy concentration. This is under the following conditions of potash:
DUDI] depending on whether the grain hits the solid surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The
wear of conventional, especially hard materials, such as steel, is greatest at high energy
concentration. This is under the following conditions of potash: DUDI] depending on whether the grain
hits the solid surface at an angle of 0 °, 0 ° to 90 ° or 90 °. The wear of conventional, especially hard
materials, such as steel, is greatest at high energy concentration. This is under the following conditions
of potash: DUDI]

Impact wear, large grain, high grain speed, high grain hardness.

This results in an elastic-plastic deformation. If these values change in the direction of sliding wear (small
grain, low grain velocity and soft grain), then the impact intensity decreases and the deformation
changes to the elastic, wear-free state. Impregnated rubber was used as a material for the impact wear,
with which the heavily stressed zone is shifted from the surface of the material to greater depths. For
rubber-elastic materials, the jet velocity is up to 2 with the material speed [3,15] and 3 or more in the
case of hard and brittle materials. The author [3.16] measured an increase of the broken grain with the
4th power of the air velocity in the pneumatic conveyance of dried corn. In picture 3. 9, the sieve
characteristic of carbon black is plotted before and after a flight production according to measurements
of [3.9]. It can be seen that even after a single promotion, the fraction of broken grains increases
significantly. The unwanted formation of broken grain in flight production, which is undesirable in many
industries, has contributed significantly to the development of slow-moving technology (see Chapter 5).
66

C »xo C

^ N ^ 5 bX

O)

ooooo ^ c

xa \ N,

I\i

. &.

0,2

0,4

^ \ ^^ 0,8 mm 1,0

0,6

Grain size

3.3.5

* • Siebrückstand
Image 3,9 Grain distribution of perlated carbon black a) before transport b) after airborne transport, 60
m conveying path, 6 elbows

*•

Flow properties of the material to be conveyed

These properties characterize the behavior of the material to be conveyed (bulk material) in static and
moving air. The basics have been discussed in Section 2.1. 3.3.5.1

Float velocity and drag coefficient of grain flow

The levitation velocity or rate of descent was determined for a polyethylene granule in Section 2.1.4 of
Eq. 2.4 calculated. Usually, the conveyed material does not consist of grains of the same size but has a
grain distribution as shown in Fig. 3.4. In addition, the floating speed of a grain in the individual flow
directions is different when the grain has no spherical shape. If the grain then rotates in the air stream,
which is always the case with the pneumatic conveying, so that the floating speed changes
continuously. To grasp these influences, G. ACKERMANN [3.17 | built a hover similar to Figure
3.10. There, in a vertical glass tube, the upwardly conveyed portion of a sample of about 100 g is
measured as a function of the upward air velocity.

Fig. 3.10 Exposure to the characteristic curve of gravity of a material to be conveyed a Tray with
Sicbboden b Conical riser c Cylindrical riser as sight pipe d Cyclone separator e Separator vessel f
Manifold g Suction fan

67

14

10

m/s

16
Stirring speed v / c lines after 3.8

grain diameter Js in

grain density c Qs in kg / m 1

abcdefghik 1

1.14 1.92 4.0 3.44 6.1

1420 1140 1380 1390 1340 1390 1070 1070 1070 2990 7850

Horny clover summer rape wheat winter vetch bitter lupins field beans fine polystyrene medium
polystyrene coarse polystyrene glass balls steel balls

8, 1 1.02 1.27 2.7

1,14 1,08

g 10 °

102

103

Reynolds number Res = v ^^ dj r

10

*-

Fig. 3.12 Intercritcal coefficients c \ v of granular materials as a function of the Reynolds number Re s at
levitation velocity (goods as shown in Fig. 3.11)

Measured characteristics of 11 conveyed goods are shown in Figure 3.11 after measurements of
[3.8]. The floating characteristic curves are similar to the sieving characteristic according to Fig. 3.4. For
the same conveyed goods, the drag coefficient according to Eq. 2.4 at the hover speed «sdi and shown
in Figure 3.12. It follows that all granular materials in the pneumatic flight promotion essentially in the
range of Newton's law, cw = const. The resistance coefficients are larger than those of the ball (c \ v =
0.44), but smaller than those of the axially flown cylinder of the same length (cw = 0.91). Spherical
grains, such as winter vetches, have a smaller coefficient than elliptical (wheat) or cylindrical
(polystyrene). 3.3.5.2
Pressure loss coefficient and airspeed for aircraft transport

The pressure loss coefficient in the case of product conveyance and the air velocity required for delivery
are the essential values for the design of a pneumatic air conveyor system. The current state of
knowledge does not allow the coefficient of resistance to be determined in the laboratory and
transferred to the production plant. In addition to the experience gained so far, the plant manufacturer
continues to rely on the final measurements of the plants that have been completed. Since the
worldwide determination of the pressure loss coefficients is still not uniform, a description of these
properties of the conveying properties is not given at this point and reference is made to Chapter 5,
Calculation of pneumatic conveying systems. 3.3.5.3

Fluidizability and air retention capacity

In Section 2.1.6, the basics of the fluidized bed were addressed (see Figure 2.11). The fluidized state
according to Figure 3.6c in curve l is the state in which the grains of the bulk material do not transmit
any mechanical friction friction stress. As a result, the fluidized bulk material behaves like a liquid. Since
it can not be predicted whether a bulk material is evenly fluidized when air is blown through and the air
does not flow in channels through the bulk material, a so-called fluidization test stand (Figure 3.13)
should be present in every bulk material

laboratory. Figure 3.13 abcdef

fluidization test bench

Throttle valve Blower Fluidization pot , approx mm 0 porous soil bulk material column pressure gauge,
z. B. water U-tube

his. Thus, fluidization characteristics similar to Figure 2.11 can be recorded. Many fluidization
characteristics are also available in the literature [3.18]. However, owing to the abundance of the
properties (see Table 3.2), it must be checked whether the available measurements are transferable. In
addition to the elutability of a bulk material, the air retention capacity is important for pneumatic
conveying. If the air in the conveyed material, even if it is exposed to a centrifugal force in the elbow,
then the liquid-like state is maintained throughout the promotion. This results in the particularly
favorable state of flow promotion according to Figure 2.16. 3.3.6

Properties with effect on good quality and the environment

3.3.6.1

Influence on the quality of the product

When designing a pneumatic delivery, care must be taken to ensure that the value of the conveyed
material is not reduced by the delivery. The following properties, some of which have already been
listed, must be checked: DHDGD

broken grain and good abrasion, good temperature, flammability, good moisture content, hygroscopic
properties.

There are many measures that can be taken to ensure that these properties do not change
negatively. 3.3.6.2

Environmental impact

The environment is also stressed by pneumatic conveying. The following properties are effective:
DDDDDD

Danger of dust explosion, perishability of the material to be conveyed, odor nuisance, toxicity of the
conveyed goods, dust generation, noise generation, a) by the blower, b) by the flow of material in the
delivery line.

There are regulations pertaining to the prevention of dust explosions. Detailed material values for the
explosion pressure and explosion pressure increase are available [3.19 |. There is already an isolated
solution to the general bulk material file in this special field. In TA Luft [3.20], the legally required
procedure for protecting the atmosphere in Germany is set at a high level.

70

3.4

Subsidies

In Chapter 2, in order to simplify the description, pneumatic conveying has been restricted to production
with air. In principle, however, any medium in the gaseous state is suitable as a conveyor for the
pneumatic conveying. However, certain conditions must be considered. 3.4.1

Consequences of the Gas Act

The conveying means or fluids for pneumatic conveying are gases that also occur in the
atmosphere. These are almost ideal gases whose behavior describes the equation of thermal equation:

£> L ~

X
'

Hence, for the density of the gas:

R, • T

(Eq.

By the individual gas constant R, we mean the energy that can give off 1 kg of gas per degree of
temperature increase at constant pressure to the outside [3.21]. From Eq. 3.2 shows that the gas density
changes with both temperature and pressure. In the state changes of the conveyor in a pneumatic
conveyor system meets in most cases, the isothermal state change. If the temperatures of the material
to be conveyed and the conveying medium are different, the temperature of the material to be
conveyed in the delivery line is approximately equal to the mixing temperature shortly after the
injection; because the good mass flow is generally one order of magnitude higher than the air mass
flow. This temperature usually remains without heat insulation until Gutabscheidung, because the
conveyed material has a high stored heat. The pressure in the delivery line behaves
differently. According to the explanations in chapter 2, this steadily decreases along the delivery
line. Thus, in isothermal pipe flow, it can be assumed that the air density or gas density Q \ according to
Eq. 3.2 is proportional to the absolute pressure in the delivery line. This gas density again goes to the
dynamic pressure of Eq. 2.1 linear on. As will be shown in Chapter 4, the dynamic pressure is based on
the calculation of pneumatic conveying systems. 3.4.2 2 is proportional to the absolute pressure in the
delivery line. This gas density again goes to the dynamic pressure of Eq. 2.1 linear on. As will be shown in
Chapter 4, the dynamic pressure is based on the calculation of pneumatic conveying systems. 3.4.2 2 is
proportional to the absolute pressure in the delivery line. This gas density again goes to the dynamic
pressure of Eq. 2.1 linear on. As will be shown in Chapter 4, the dynamic pressure is based on the
calculation of pneumatic conveying systems. 3.4.2

Used conveyors and their properties

Table 3.5 summarizes the conveyors or fluids used in pneumatic conveying and their properties. Some
values were taken from [3.21 and 3.22]. There are only four subsidies listed, which does not exclude that
other gases are occasionally used as a subsidy. Thus, the author

71

Table 3.5

The conveyor (fluids) and their properties

conveying
individual gas constant R density in standard atmosphere gas humidity oxidizing reducing present in the
atmosphere

air

nitrogen

dioxide

argon

N,

co.

Ar

287

296.8

188.9

209.2

1.225

1.185

1.873

1.691

no

yes / no
no

yes

no no 78.08

no no 0.03

no no 0.9!

kg - kg

m3

no Vol.%

100

mpir: 288.15 K - 15 ° C • uclc: 1.01325 bar

For example, a conveyor with helium designed as a conveyor for reactor construction. It is estimated
that more than 95% of pneumatic conveyors use air as a means of transport. Therefore, this funding
should be specifically addressed in Section 3.4.3. The use of other means of transport than air in
industry always takes place on special occasions, since every other means of transport is more expensive
than air. The reasons for this measure are based on the properties of the bulk material and not
specifically the promotion. Examples of this are listed in Table 3.6 and have been presented in [3.23]

Table 3.6

Examples of the use of other means of transport than air (protective gas overlay)

Material to be conveyed

Conveyor

Cause

Remarks

Coal dust Carbon

dioxide

Dust explosion

Lignite explosive at more than S ",> Oxygen

Methylzelhilosc 'Polyethylene powder

Nitrogen Nitrogen

Dust explosion

Gas explosion Polypropylene powder

Nitrogen Gas

explosion

Polyester granulate

Nitrogen

Oxidation of

polyamide granulate

Nitrogen

Oxide of

magnesium powder

Argon

Dust explosion

72

Ethylene residues in conveyed material Propylene residues in conveyed material Higher temperature of
the conveyed in fiber plants at higher temperature of the conveyed in fiber plants highly explosive
In order to economize on the inert gas, such systems are designed as «air circulation systems». The
conveyor in a closed circuit is theoretically used as often as required [3.24]. Particular attention should
be paid to the variations in gas flow during pressure and volume changes in the system. For this you
sometimes use a storage balloon (see example in Section 10.2). 3.4.3

Density of the conveying medium air

The earth's atmosphere consists of a mixture of different gases called air. In addition to the proportions
listed in Table 3.5, air still contains 20.95% oxygen [3.21], which is the reason for the protective gas
overlays according to Table 3.6. For the dry air, a standard state was determined with the following
values: standard temperature TN = 288.15 K = 15 ° C, standard pressure pN = 1.01325 bar. This gives the
standard density of the air according to Eq. 3.2

V = 1,225 kg / m '

(Eq.3.3)

This density of air changes with temperature, humidity and air pressure. Due to gravitational pull, air
density in the atmosphere decreases with increasing geodetic altitude. 3.4.3.1

Influence of temperature and humidity

In Figure 3.14, the air density was plotted as a function of the temperature for dry and 100% moist air
according to [3.21]. From this it can be seen that the standard density varies between 10 ° C and 30 ° C
under normal operating conditions by only about 5% around the value of gl = 1.2 kg / m '. A fluctuation
of about 10% may be allowed in the operation of a pneumatic conveyor within the general design
accuracy. 3.4.3.2

Influence of the barometer reading

Figure 3.15 shows the air density of dry air as a function of atmospheric pressure (barometric pressure)
at different air temperatures. It follows that even under extreme conditions (temperature 30 ° C, air
pressure 950 mbar), the underlying air density QI = 1.2 kg / m 'is only 9% below. Thus, the influence of
the weather on the operation of a pneumatic conveyor system is also negligible. The author is also no
case known where the operation of a pneumatic conveyor system could not be maintained by
weathering.

73

1, -J
Bfld3.14 Dependence of air density on air temperature and humidity at standard pressure 1.01325 bar

kg

m3 ^

14

13

Standard Density

___

1 9 l \ <-

LN

dry air

l S Luf with 10 O'Xj '' rela liver F searched

<\

V\

10 -30

-10 0 10 15 Air temperature T

30

Figure 3.15 Dependency of Density of Dry Air from Pressure and Tempcrauir in the Atmosphere

0C

10 "C

20 ° C

30" C "

950

50

+•

3.4.3.3

Influence of the Geodetic Altitude

In Figure 3.16 the air density is above the geodesic height at normal conditions (15 ° C, 1.01325 bar). For
isothermal air stratification, according to [3.211: (G13 4)

BL-tor.-tfJT

'

From Fig. 3.16, the decrease in air pressure and air density known to any mountaineer is evident in
altitude. If we again allow a decrease in the air density of 10%, then the lower air density must be taken
into account already from about 900 m geodetic height. This is done in Chapter 4 by increasing the air
velocity to reach Eq. 2.1 to obtain the same dynamic pressure as at the height z = 0 m. This requirement
is demonstrated by the observation that z. B. a pneumatic suction conveyor at 2000 m altitude in the
Andes did not come to the guaranteed good mass flow.
Figure 3.16

1.3

Air density as a function of the geodesic height according to [3.21], if at sea level standard condition h. >

kg kg. 1,2

1,1

1.0

0.9

0.8

500

1000

1500 2000

geodetic height z

2500

3000 m 3500

»•

75

If many influences on the air density are piling up, it is recommended to recalculate the air density
according to section 3.4.3 and the need is later to redefine the air speed to be set for the conveyor
system. 3.4.4

Condensate failure in humid air

The influence of air humidity on the air density is significant according to section 3.4.3.1 for pneumatic
conveying when the water is dissolved as water vapor in the air. However, the water which precipitates
or condenses from the conveying air in the form of drops has many unpleasant side effects: D The water
separators run over if they do not discharge the water automatically. D Air ducts fill with water at the
lowest points. D Rust steel pipes. Ü In winter, the condensed water in the overhead lines freezes. D
fittings freeze. D The conveyed material is contaminated. Therefore, it is advisable to check especially in
compressed air, oh the so-called dew point is reached at certain points of the conveyor. This is the
criterion for the loss of condensation. K.-H. KONKA [3. 25] indicates a modification of the / 7-x diagram
for compressed air, after which the amount of water separated from the humid air can be determined
(Figure 3.17). Figure 3.17 shows a relationship between the absolute humidity .vt, the relative humidity
(0, the temperatures T | and T ± and the pressures p \ = \ bar and pi, respectively before and after the
change of state, where the initial state is usually the atmospheric state This is plotted on the left side of
the diagram, the right side shows the state after the pressure has been increased by the compressor,
and the relative humidity is 100% along the lines of constant temperature T on the right side With
increasing pressure, the fact that the ability of the air to absorb water is inversely proportional to the
absolute pressure. This will be explained with an example: Atmospheric air with a temperature T] = 20 °
C and a relative humidity (p = 60% should be compressed to 6 bar absolute.) In this case, the
condensation must be checked the given air has an absolute humidity of .x, = 11 g / m 'When
compressed to 6 bar, the air must reach a temperature of 43 ° C, if no water should precipitate, cooling
the air down to T2 = 20 ° C at p2 - 6 bar, it can take up only xt = 3 g / m1 of water, based on the
atmospheric state, so that A.rt - 11 - 3 - 8 g of water per m 'of air precipitate Conveyor, which requires
1000 mVh of air, would incur S kg of water every hour which has to be drained off, which is about 200-1,

76

Figure 3.17 Determination of the failure of condensed water from compressed air according to [3.25]

40 g / m3 30 20

Atmospheric pressure • »<> - * • Overpressure / /

//,

l / lm sy

relative humidity <

'/

\J\
/\

oX

-MK / -; LJ ^ / ^ 6 //// / ^ '/// / /// 1 ./ / / 1 t 3 vT // «2 15 1 1 / -

10 8

S1 1' 17

\\ \

15

_\

V\\

0.8 / ° 0.6 n ra 0.5 '0.4 1

s.
\\\\

\\

\0\r\

\\

\\

\:

\\

\•

• -.s

\\

0.2 1

\?

\
0.3

Sätti'gungs- \ ^ temperature T2 ^

<\ 0, 1

20

20

Lijfttemperatur T,

40 ° C60 1 »•

1.5 2

4 5 6 bar 10

absolute air pressure p2

>•

Such a water attack has already led to some malfunction in the use of compressed air with the
accompanying symptoms listed above. In the temperate zone industrial countries, eg in Europe, the
absolute humidity in heated rooms is usually higher than in the open air. Here it has proven to suck in
the air to operate a pneumatic conveyor system from the outdoors.

77

Calculation of Pneumatic Conveying

Systems 4.1

General

Based on the undoubtedly sketchy foundations of Chapters 2 and 3, an instruction to determine all the
data of a pneumatic conveying system is to be presented in Chapter 4. 4.1.1

Objectives of the calculation procedure

Research at universities and colleges is not a priori earmarked. Nevertheless, the public expects that the
lessons of years of research will benefit the state, society and industry. This benefit often only sets in
after years and decades, depending on the difficulty of the problem. Thus, the technology implemented
today builds on the research of earlier times. The beginning of the development of a project is basic
research. In addition to the basic connections, it is important to investigate many details in theory and
experiment. At the end of the processing of the overall project "Pneumatic production", the industry
expects a manual for the design of a pneumatic conveyor system, unless the time has come so far that
the individual companies had to help themselves, to design their facilities. A guide for this is a
calculation method. The task of the calculation method is to tell how all values required for the
construction of a pneumatic conveyor system can be found from the given data. Table 4.1 compares the
given values of a pneumatic conveying system with those required. Here, air was again required as a
subsidy. As will be shown later, a calculation method involves knowledge of required air velocities and
possible drag coefficients. At the center of the calculation of a pneumatic conveying system is always the
relationship between pipe diameter and pressure loss. From both follows the air flow and the fan
power. This allows the blower to be selected. With the good mass flow, the lock can be determined, and
from the air flow follows with the dust properties of the design of the filter. The decision on the choice
of pipe diameter, according to which the pressure drop is determined by the calculation method, is not a
purely technical decision. A large pipe diameter leads to high investment and operating costs with low
pressure loss. By contrast, the investment and operating costs for small pipe diameters

79

Fig. 4. l Total cost of a pneumatic conveying system depending on the choice of pipe diameter A
Operating costs, h Plant costs, c Rcgrc costs, d Total costs Pipe

diameter
usually lower, and the pressure loss is higher. The risk that the blast pressure is insufficient, becomes
larger with decreasing pipe diameter. If a system does not work satisfactorily because the pipe diameter
has been chosen too small, this can result in sudden recharge costs, up to consequential costs, eg due to
loss of production. Thus, the design of a pneumatic conveyor system is always an interaction between
the sales interest and the minimization of the risk. In Fig. 4. l the principal course of the costs over the
pipe diameter with a guaranteed material mass flow was plotted. Depending on the uncertainties of the
calculation and the operation, the curves are provided with bandwidths. Regreßkosten (c) occur with
decreasing pipe diameter leaps and have already led some plant builders to R uin. The task in the
construction of a pneumatic conveying system is to select the pipe diameter to be above the limit, by
the amount containing all possible risks. These risks are based on a) security of the calculation
process; b) Peculiarity of the system (suction or pressure system, piping, blower, infiltration, etc.); c)
characteristics of the conveyed goods (see chapter 3); d) Task of pneumatic conveying system in the
overall process. Finally, the nature of the operator also enters into the satisfactory overall function of
the pneumatic conveying system. Thus, the choice of pipe diameter may exceed the competence of the
project manager and become a business policy decision; because a too large pipe diameter in
connection with the higher costs can in turn lead to the loss of the contract.

80

Table 4.1 Given values and values for designing a pneumatic conveying system Given values

conveyed Gutmassenstrom grain diameter particle shape particle size distribution grain density bulk
density, among others

Bez.

Popular values

Bez.

Qs d,

air velocity tube diameter pressure drop Airflow fan power

ud Ap VP

£? S

it

grants (air) Air velocity air density

Qw

Conveying system Total displacement stroke Hub elbow number

MA /; /

4.1.2

Blower Sluice Filter

«0

Other calculation methods

The most important factor in the calculation of a pneumatic conveying system is the determination of
the additional pressure loss caused by the product transfer. The additional pressure loss in steady state
depends on the properties of the conveyed material. In addition, it is a function of the conveying length
A /, the good mass flow Qs, the air velocity i> and the pipe diameter d:

Aps ='(A /, Qs, v, d)

(Eq.4.1)

There is a plethora of computational methods in the literature that are defined by the generally
conceived Eqs. 4.1 will be described. 14 of these, the author has already collected in 1972 [4.1] with
simplifications for pure flight promotion. These have been supplemented by some newer ones in Table
4.2. Nevertheless, the 20 calculation methods listed here are only part of the process by which the
industry now designs its pneumatic conveying systems. In most calculation methods according to Table
4.2, the material mass flow Qs and the delivery path A / linear are included in the additional pressure
loss Aps at Gutförderung. Some contain the air velocity v with different numbers, others do not. Since
the optimal air velocities are not too far apart, the different air velocities do not have a particularly
detrimental effect on the calculated value of the pressure loss. Thus, in the calculation method
according to [4.18J, the author also decided on a dependency of the pressure loss on the air velocity v,
after he had not been able to ascertain it in general when examining the principles [4.16].

81

Table 4.2 Approximate equations for the additional pressure loss in pneumatic conveying according to
literature Proximity equation A /

Ap - K
APS

'Ss' "

Af • Qs' a

Authors

References

CASTERSTÄDT, J.

[4.2]

LTNGEN, T., KOPPE, R. BAR -IH, W. MORIKAWA, Y. HARIU, O., MOLSTAD, M. MEHTA, N. 1'INKUS, O.
HILKI.E, B. ROSF, H., BARNACLE, H. EBERT, F. SATHYAMURTHY, N ; RAO, M.

[4.3] [4.4] [4.5] [4.6] [4.7] [4.8] [4.9] [4.10] [4.11] [4.12]

PAPAI, L.

[4.13]

VOLLHUM, K. SCHUCHART, P MÜLERUS, O.

[4.14] [4.15] [4-18] [4.17]

SEAL, W.

[4.16]

VOGT, E., WHITE, R.

[4.19]

HlTCHCOCK, J., JONF.S, C.

[4.20]
WEBER, M.

[4.21]

SEAL, W.

Ki '

\p-K

"

A/

' ji ^

'- O' s M-x

A / • yi; - "» •!, "• - <'' - 41 AI • £> ': • • • /. '. '

More serious, however, is the influence of the pipe diameter d. In the denominator of [4.2 to 4.12] this
is used as a third power, but in [4.13 to 4.18] only as a second power. Thus, for example, a difference of
100% would result, if one converts after the first group and then after the second group a plant from
pipe diameter d - 100 mm to d = 200 mm. The plant-building Finns react in such a way that, if possible,
they do not move too far away from the findings of already built plants in the case of new plants.

4.1.3

Fundamentals of the calculation of pneumatic conveying systems

4.1.3.1
Pressure reduction coefficient for material conveying

Since G. SEGLER [4.22], experts have been looking for a pressure loss coefficient ÄS for the product
promotion similar to the coefficient for pure air flow (see equation 2.2 and Fig. 2.2). W. BARTH [4.4]
described the pressure loss in pneumatic conveying analogous to the pure air flow with the following
equation:

Ap = (;, + /

,. ;. S) ^. ^. ^ (Gi.4.2)

Since the proportion of the pressure loss coefficient by the Gutförderung with the Good loading
/; multiplied and the load loading according to Chapter 2 in flight promotion is between about 10 and
20, the 2nd term in the bracket of Eq. 4.2 the more essential. If one is aware of the validity of Eq. 4.2
today essentially agree, the numerous representations of the pressure loss coefficient /.$ depending on
the influencing variables have not yet led to a generally satisfactory result. The pressure loss coefficient
/ s is not a constant. For a given product it depends on the three influencing variables listed in Table 4.1:
Good mass flow Qs, air velocity i ;, pipe diameter d. The influence of the tube length A / is already in
Eq. 4.2 detected. W. BARTH [4.4] and later E. MUSCHELKNAUTZ [4.23] and M. BOHNET [4.24] and others

At first glance, the measurement points seem to meet the requirement approximately, after one is not
spoiled in accuracy and repeatability in measurements in bulk solids technology. Nevertheless, the
application /.s (Fr) has both disadvantages and inaccuracies leading to errors with regard to further use
in a calculation method:

83

L_

0.02

U - = 0.25 U = 1 0.01

isv.

10

K
20

A / = 16

30

40

Jd-g

Figure 4.2 Dependence of the additional pressure loss coefficient / $ for horizontal pneumatic conveying
of the Froudezalil Fr at constant material load // according to [4.4]

Figure 4..i Dependence of the additional pressure limit coefficient / s on in the case of the horizontal
transport of two polystyrene granules in tubes of 50 and 100 mm diameter, measured by [4.16J

0.012

10

15

20

Froude number Fr =

\ fd-g

S4

30

35

40

0.012

0.010
0.008

0.006

0.004

x: o

0.002

Froude number Fr = Fig. 4.4 Dependence of the additional pressure loss coefficient on the Froude
number Fr for the horizontal transport of wheat in

tubes with diameters of 50, 100, 200 and 400 mm

a) The pressure loss coefficients are not constant in the area of flight production. In the pipe with a large
diameter, they are many times higher than in the pipe with a small diameter. They crowd in the range of
small Froude numbers to ambiguous / s values together. b) For large Froude numbers, one only
encounters values of small pipe diameters. Here, the values seem to be closer due to the plot. However,
they differ up to a factor of 2, which is too much for a precise calculation. c) The pressure also changes
the air density and the air velocity along the delivery line, which is not taken into account by the
proposal of W. Barth. E. MUSCHELKNAUTZ [4.25] suggests that air density should be taken into
account. With not constant coefficient /. However, this makes the practical recording in a calculation
process and its manageability more difficult. d) A disadvantage that is theoretically incomprehensible is
undoubtedly the fact that the curves of constant pipe diameter intersect in the range of small Froude
numbers. This suggests that perhaps other than the previously reported dependencies of pneumatic
horizontal conveyance underlying.

85

Gutb elad ung u

Rohrdmr. d 0,05m 0,1 m

curve 0,08

0,2m

0,07
2 4 (JB 10 | 1 £ 1416 • • 4 v

l »AE

0,06

0,05 l

0,04

0,03

V\

0.02

0.2m

3,

HT -v

0.01

/ d = 005m> - «t» 7-

10

15
20

25

30

35

40

45

Froude number Fr = • jd-g Fig. 4.5 Additional pressure loss coefficient A as a function of Froude number
Fr for the vertical conveyance of wheat in pipes of various diameters according to [4.26] In the
promotion of perpendiculars, J. FLATOW [4.26] can be compared with the similarity relationships
according to W BARTH prove a better match (Figure 4.5). In the vertical tube, the pressure loss due to
the friction on the tube wall is much lower than the stroke loss, and this is better detected by the
Froude number than the friction in the horizontal tube. A definite curve in J. FLATOW describes all
points of vertical conveyance when the pressure loss coefficient in the vertical pipe is related to the pipe
diameter and plotted against the air velocity (Figure 4.6).

86

0.45

Figure 4.6 Additional pressure drop coefficient ÄS • A / i / rf as a function of the air velocity v for the
vertical transport of wheat in pipes with different diameters, according to [4.26]

Raw diameter

0.4

C ontact / j

1
2 4 6 8 10121416

0,05m

>

^ 7 ADO <

0,1 m

0,35

0,02m

•i

TAU

0,3

'

i•i

0,25

\•\

0,2

•v

0,15 0) O)

V tb

0.1
U

0.05

10

15

20

Ic) W

25 m / s 30

Air velocity v -

4.1.3.2

Pressure drop coefficient related to the pipe diameter

In the search for a more favorable plot of the pressure drop coefficient (s) for horizontal pneumatic
conveying, the author referred to the same as [4.26] for the pipe diameter and plotted the air speed. To
make the coefficient dimensionless, it was related to the tube length A / i = 1 m. From the measured
values of polystyrene granules and wheat, there are series of curves according to Figs. 4.7 and 4.8. These
show in the field of flight promotion at air velocities over 20 m / s constant values and parallel to the X-
axis curves. Constant drag drag coefficients can be specified for the versions in sections 4.2 to 4.4, and
the pressure loss can be integrated for all pipe diameters, load capacities and pressures over the pipe
length.

87

Curve 00:10

50mm 100mm 200mm 400mm

0.08
\

•v

0.06

0.04

3ut at ädung u 2 4 6 8 10 "AD • • o OD

Rohrdmr. d

AT

\o\c\

0,02 -T--

()

10

15

--- $ B £

20

25
r ~ »-

30

m/s

Air velocity v

Fig. 4.7 Relative pressure loss coefficient / s • A / , / J as a function of the air velocity t> in the pneumatic
conveyance of polystyrene granules in horizontal tubes according to measurements of [4.16]

Fig. 4.8. Negative pressure coefficient As • A / i / d as a function of the air velocity u in the pneumatic
conveying of wheat in horizontal tubes according to measurements of [4.16]

0.16, -

0.12

0.08

0.04

100 -400

200

10

20

Air velocity v

"s, s

Figure 4.9 Air condition in the delivery line

OLI" 1 4

P,
4.1.3.3 Basic

equations for the condition in the delivery line

With pneumatic delivery , as with pure air flow, the continuity equation applies, as shown in Fig. 4.9 in
that the air mass flow in the cross-section 1 is equal to that in the cross section 2:

Q ... = Qu K

Jl

J2

01.1 '- 4 7 - «I •» l = 01.2' 4 'OJ' "2 0L1 - df - O j = 01.2 - ^ - U 2

(Eq.4.3)

If the pipe diameter is constant, ie d \ = d ±, then, from equation 4.3:

0i.i '"i = 012'" 2

(Cil. 4.4)

According to section 3.4.1, the state change in the delivery line is to be based on the isotherm. This
follows from Eq. 3.2: (Eq.4.5) 0L2

P2

With Eq. 4.4 is obtained from this for the air velocities with a constant pipe diameter: ^ - = - £ L "i Pi

(Eq. 4.6}

That is, with decreasing pressure, which is the case along all delivery lines, the air velocity increases in
proportion to the ratio of the absolute pressures. However, this increase in speed is undesirable, since it
increases the energy consumption, the wear of the conveyed material and the wear on the
system. Therefore, the pipe diameter is extended at certain points along the delivery line. Thus, the
speed increase can be reduced to some extent. If a minimum air velocity is required for the flight
promotion at atmospheric conditions, then the same may be slightly lower at higher pressure, because
the air at the higher density caused thereby "better" carries. Thus, the levitation speed is lower at higher
air density. It has proven itself at a pressure other than the standard density of air, a minimum required
dynamic pressure according to Eq. 2.1 to be based on pneumatic conveying. For example, in a subsidy

89

the absolute pressure would be 4 bar, then with Eq. 4.5 and 2.1, the air speed can be lowered to half the
atmospheric pressure of 1 bar. At the same dynamic pressure, the grain in the air stream is then
impinged with the same force. If the diameter of the pipe is widened from d \ to d ± according to Fig.
4.9, then with the requirement of the minimum or the same dynamic pressure:

L-.oj

(Eq.4.7)

From Eq. 4.3, 4.5 and 4.7 we then obtain the double equation for the determination of the states in the
pipeline: P 'Pi

I ^ -Y = i ^ -Y \ »il Ui /

(Eq.4.8)

Eq. 4.8 has a fundamental influence on pneumatic conveying. From Eq. 4.8 two measures follow: a) If p ±
is the pressure at the bottom of a pneumatic conveyor (eg the atmospheric pressure in the pressure
system), then the air velocity at the higher pressure p] at the beginning can be a factor equal to the root
of the pressure ratio p2 / p be diminished. b) When grading the diameter of the pipe from d \ to di, the
pressures / ?, pi must be the same as the pipe diameters d ± to d- \ high 4. Eq. 4.8 is actually an
inequality that follows from the minimum required dynamic pressure. Of course, the delivery will be
maintained if the dynamic pressure is greater than the minimum required. With a constant pipe
diameter, the lowest dynamic pressure always prevails at the beginning of the delivery. This increases
with the increase in air velocity along the delivery line, because the increasing air velocity goes according
to Eq. 2.1 in the dynamic pressure quadratic and the decreasing air density only linear. This is also the
reason why the obstruction of the non-tiered delivery line usually begins at the point of fin-splicing.

4.2 4.2.1

Calculation of pneumatic conveying systems without consideration of the compressibility of the air
General

It has been pointed out in section 4.1.3.3 that the air velocity along the delivery line increases in
proportion to the absolute pressure in the delivery line. Inversely proportional changes the air
density. Thus, according to Eq. 4.2 related to the tube length pressure loss along the conveying path
to. In the approximate equations according to Table 4.2, this change of state is usually not taken into
account by determining the pressure loss as if the air were incompressible. Some plant engineers
calculate a pneumatic conveying system incompressible in sections by dividing the delivery line into
sections in which the pressure change is only slight. This is possible with the use of a computer, but
makes the overview of the clerk, who needs a good overview according to section 4.1.1, difficult. to
make the right decision. With regard to the calculatory uncertainties caused by the conveyed material, it
is possible to neglect the compressibility of the air in the calculation of the pressure loss at a pressure
increase of up to about 10% (or a maximum of 15%). These are at atmospheric pressure 100 mbar. This
limit includes the pressure range of the relatively simple pneumatic conveying systems with compressed
air supply by a single-stage centrifugal fan. If one calculates with mean values for the air speed, then one
can also calculate a pneumatic delivery in the lower pressure range of the rotary piston blower (up to Ap
= 500 mbar) neglecting the compressibility of the air. However, pneumatic conveying systems in the
upper pressure range of rotary lobe blowers or those with compressors (single-stage up to 3 bar
pressure difference) should be designed taking into account the compressibility of the conveying
air. 4.2.2

airspeed

The economic air velocity, based on atmospheric pressure, is close to the pressure loss minimum in the
case of flight production (see state diagram, Figure 2.13). According to Section 2.5.1, however, a safe
operating point for a pneumatic conveying system is also dependent on the compressed air supply. For
example, by using a lava nozzle with an absolutely vertical characteristic (see section 6.6.4), the
minimum air speed could be reduced by 40% compared to the fan mode. Nevertheless, it is helpful to
specify an airspeed as a recommendation for common airborne aircraft with blowers. This can of course
be interpolated taking into account similar conditions for other conveyed goods. The values compiled by
the author in the past 20 years for over 50 items in Table 4.

91

Table 4.3 The main bulk material

data for pneumatic air transport, collected by the author Conveyor Ackcrhohnen Activated carbon
Bentonite Bitter lupins Barley Glass balls Mica, burned Mica, raw Green malt Oats Hol / lamellas Wood
chips Wood wool Horned potato mashed potatoes, concentrated maize, dry Maize flour Maize flour
Macroion granular malt malting meal methylcellulose sodium bicarbonate cardboard cores phenolic
resin polyethylene granules polyethylene powder polyester pellets polypropylene granules
polypropylene powder polystyrene granules PVCN powder rice rice hulls rye sawdust soap noodles
soybean summer rape steel balls rock salt stratospheric balls dry grains

92

yss
l/s

A • A /, d

mm

kg / m '

kg / m'

m/s

8.1 i 0.04 6.1 4.0 1.14 2 0.93 4.5

1390 1860 2680 1340 1420 2990 2520 2550 1320 1340 720 470 470 1420 1200 1370 1250 1300 1440
1400 1230 1370 1480 1230 2700 970 1380 1070 1070 1400 1000 1000 1070 1320 1620 1280 1180 470

830 340 720 830 690 1780 100 830 400

23-27 20-23 25-27 23-27 20-25 22-27 18-22 25-30 23- 27 22-25 23-27 22-25 20-25 22-25 20-23 22-25 22-
27 22-25 23-25 23-25 22-25 20-22 22-25 22-25 22-25 18 -20 20-25 20-25 20-25 23-27 20-25 20-25 20-25
20-25 20-25 18-20 22-25 20-25 23-27 22-25 20-25 25-35 22-27 10-20 20-22

0.04 0.06 0.1 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.04 0, 04 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.04
0.04 0.06 0.06 0.1 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.1 0.06 0 , 04 0.1 0.04 0.1 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.12 0.08
0.04 0.04

3.4 100x50x4 50x20x1 200x3x3 1.1x10x10x1 0.86 8.7 7.7 0.75 0.19 3.2v 0.7 0.35 0.063 100x20 0.65 3.5
0.25 6x4x2 3.5 0.22 2, "0.2-i ~ 2.5 3.0 0.7 20 x 5 6.3 1.9 1.08 1.6 3.5 0 , 96

1100 1270 1140 7850 2190 84 680

510 500 150-400 20 830 300 540 680 680 650 460 670 540 400 370 1070 50 520 500 450 700 500 570
600 570 800 105 620 190 600 690 680 4420 1200 29 260 Conveyed

goods

White mustard Wheat Weizenklcie Wheat Flour Wheat Wheat Flour Winter Wheat Cellulose Powder
Cement Cement Raw Flour Chicory Zinc Oxide Sugar
4

"s

oss

"o

mm

kg / m '

kg / m!

m/s

2.1 3.9

1190

1380

700 730 300 540 370 820 230 1420 960 300 2000 860

20-25 22-27 20-25 18-23 20-25

0.1

1470 1470 1470 1390 1380 3100 3100 1320 4850

0.52

1610

1.0 0.09 0.15 3.4 0.04 0.05 0 , 05 25

22-25 20-25 20-25 20-25 23-27 25-30 20-25

df,

grain diameter
£ js yss DO

grain density bulk density required air velocity in the delivery line hot QIO = 1.2 kg / m '(the high values
apply to large, the lower ones to small pipe diameters)

/ LS

'

/ s • A / id 1 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.18 0.15 0.06 0.15 0.08

Pipe diameter related pressure loss coefficient

The specified air speed range refers to the diameter of the delivery line. The smaller air velocity for small
pipe diameters, eg d = 50 mm, and the larger air velocity for large pipe diameters, z. B. d = 400
mm. However, not all pipe diameters are documented with measurement results. For example, you
should not pump any heavy powder at these air velocities in pipes up to 400 mm pipe diameter. The air
velocities in Table 4.3 are fairly close together. By no means does the required air velocity increase with
the Froude number, where four times the pipe diameter would already lead to twice the air
velocity. The influence of the grain diameter and the grain density is also only tend to be detected. 4.2.3

Pressure

The pressure loss Ap in pneumatic conveying is composed of six individual pressure losses. Of these, two
are caused by the pure air flow and four by the conveyed.

93

4.2.3.1 Air

friction

loss This pressure loss is defined to be the same as the pressure loss in pure air flow. Should it change in
the good-air flow, which is hard to detect by the way, then this change should be included in the loss of
credit, since the latter is an additional pressure loss. It applies Eq. 2.2: A / d

Qi 2

(equation 4.9)
As explained in Section 2.1.2, for most promotions, with sufficient accuracy, -i = 0.02 can be set. Equally,
considering section 3.4.3 for the air density, the following applies: 0io = 1.2 kg / m3 4.2.3.2 Air

individual resistances

The individual air resistances are recorded using the following equation:

Apw = Ef - ^ '»2

(GL4 10)

Here are ^ and u are the local air density and the local air velocity. C is the resistance coefficient for a
single resistor. The following individual resistances can occur: a) b) c) d) e) f) changes in

cross section, elbows, nozzles, separators, cyclones, filters.

It has proven to be useful to calculate the pressure loss in the delivery line and in the air line
separately. Therefore resistors c to f should not be dealt with in this chapter. In a neatly laid delivery line
cross-sectional changes occur only in the form of extensions of the pipe diameter along the delivery
line. These are percentage low. Thus, a certain pressure recovery in the calculation can be
neglected. Finally, the elbows have a large radius of curvature (see section 2.3.3.3). The author has
measured the additional pressure drop in the air flow of the elbow as compared to the straight pipe of
the same length 14.16].

94

It can therefore be concluded that no air individual resistances are to be included in the neatly laid
delivery line. It makes sense to determine the resistance of the air line of any nozzles, separators,
cyclones and filters separately and to add the selection of the fan to the pressure loss in the delivery
line. Here, the relevant literature can be used. Finally, the pressure difference, which is needed to suck
in the air in the conveyor system, neglected. It is small compared to the pressure loss in the delivery
line. For this reason, no measures are taken on completed systems to recover the kinetic energy of
conveyed material and conveying air at the end of the conveyor system. 4.2.3.3

loss of credit

The loss of credit loss should be recorded in accordance with section 4. 1 .3.2 taking into account section
4.1.3.1. It thus applies:
In Eq. 4. 1 1 /.s • A / i / rf is a constant pressure loss coefficient for the transport of air. /.s is equal to the
resistance coefficient /.s according to W. BARTH (see equation 4.2). This is based on the pipe diameter d
and multiplied by the pipe length A /, = lm. As a result, the coefficient is dimensionless. For a tube of 100
mm diameter, /.s • A / i / rf is 10 times as large as the values /.$ according to W. BARTH and others. If
the conveyor length A / in m is used, then A // A / I describes the number of meters of conveyor. In
addition, in Eq. 4.11 contain the load // and the dynamic pressure. The author has carried out numerous
measurements on pneumatic conveying systems in the pilot plant and on site and used this to calculate
back the pressure loss coefficients /.$ • fd \ ld listed in Table 4.3. The over 50 conveyed goods cover the
entire range of grain diameters, Grain shape, bulk density and bulk density, so that coefficients of not
listed here goods can be determined by interpolation. For highly adhesive and cohesive bulk solids (see
Section 3.2.2), however, this coefficient of friction may increase due to caking under pressure. In this
case, production trials in the technical center are required for a correct design. 4.2.3.4

Stroke Loss

The stroke loss is equal to the weight of the bulk material column in the vertical tube or in relation to
the tube cross-section:

A /; 1 1 = A /; • n • - • o, -g

c - • üV

95

The stroke loss is, according to measurements of J. FI.ATOW | 4.26j, substantially greater than the loss in
the vertical tube. For most pneumatic conveyors, the vertical conveyance is significantly shorter than
the horizontal one. If, in order to simplify the calculation, the friction loss in the vertical tube is the same
as in the horizontal plane, then the calculated pressure loss will be somewhat (but negligibly) greater
than the actual pressure drop. The calculation method gains clarity by using for A / the entire (ie
horizontal and vertical) conveying path. The stroke loss then refers only to the overcoming of the
geodesic height A / 7, not to the friction in the vertical tube. Eq. 4.12 contains the speed ratio c "of the
good to the air speed. In pictures 2.22, 2.23 and 2. 24, you were plotted above the airspeed. From this it
can be seen that fine-grained goods have a greater proportion than coarse-grained goods; because they
offer the air flow an overall larger inflow area. In view of the simplification of the calculation method,
the following generalization is proposed: dusty and gritty conveyed granular material

(Eq. 4.13)

The transition is flexible to handle. It should also be noted that in the next section, if you are losing
acceleration, you are in the meter, while in the loss of lift, you are in the counter. 4.12 appears in the
denominator. As a result, an error is partially resolved, a fact that has already given some weak
calculation methods useful results. 4.2.3.5
Acceleration loss

In the acceleration section, the material to be conveyed is moved along the conveying length / to the
material speed c of the steady state (see Figure 2.20). The set of impulses can be used to determine the
required pressure loss [4.16]:

((T! 4.14)

The acceleration loss is therefore proportional to the speed ratio dv. So in Fig. 2.23 at t; - 30 m / s the
heavy steel balls are accelerated with cl \> = 0.55 only to 17 m / s, while the fine polystyrene granules
with r / o = 0.9 is accelerated to 27 m / s. This is according to Eq. 4.14 of course associated with
increased energy loss.

96

4.2.3.6

Krümmerverlust

According to Section 2.3.3.4 of the pressure loss in the pipe bend is also a loss of acceleration, however,
from a certain initial Gutgeschwindigkeit to which the conveyed material has been decelerated by the
impact with the pipe wall. With the set of impulses one then obtains for the manifold loss similar to
Eq. 4.14: ty K = H ~ -eL-v *

(Eq.4.15)

According to Section 2.3.3.4 and numerous measurements by the author [4.16], the manifold loss is 30
to 50% of the acceleration loss. In addition, the horizontal pipe elbow has a different pressure loss than
the manifold horizontal / vertical or vertical / horizontal. After all, two pipe manifolds one behind the
other at a short distance do not have twice the pressure loss as a single one; because the conveyed
material is not accelerated after the first manifold to the full good speed in the steady state. Since these
many possibilities are difficult to determine precisely, the following now-proven simplification for all
elbows is proposed: ^ L = J_. £. v 2 v

(Eq.4.16)

With Eq. 4.16 becomes from Eq. 4.15, if the total elbow loss is related to / manifold: lc ApK = / • / <• y -
• Qi. • v2

4.2.3.7 Total
pressure loss

From Eqs . (4.9, 4.11, 4.12, 4.14 and 4.17) we obtain the total pressure loss as the sum of the individual
pressure losses (without Ap \\ -): Ap = ApL + Aps = Ap ,. + Ap R + Ap H + ApB + ApK

_ 61.

,f

A/

/ X s - A /,

A/

'"! - ^ -Ä / T

2-A /; - £ - ir

In Eq. 4.18 the l in the last bracket stands for the acceleration according to Eq. 14.4. Should Eq. 4.18 be
used to calculate the pressure losses in graduated piping for each stage of constant pipe diameter, the
oil is then replaced by a 0, if no acceleration is required at the beginning of the stage. Here, the
conveyed usually already has the steady-state speed c.

97

It is appropriate, in Eq. 4.18 Combining individual terms by factors: Ap, = KI • - - ir

(01.4.19)

(Eq 4.20) Ap - Api + Aps Ap = K • y- • i> 2 = (K, + / (• K s ) '-y • u2

(Eq.4.21)

where: A /

K ^^ -% i3 A /,

(Eq 4.22) +
^ -g + 2. ^. (l + L' c u \ 2 / u

(Eq.4.23)

. ;; -

A/

[/ -s' A /,

A/

2 • A /; - ^

The pressure loss according to Eq. 4.21 is therefore equal to the product of the dynamic pressure O [•
{rll and the factor K, into which all the properties of the conveyed goods, the conveying means and the
conveyor system are incorporated. 4.2.4

Design of a pneumatic conveyor system neglecting the compressibility of the air

Neglecting the compressibility of the air, which is permissible only at low pressures according to Section
4.2.1, then the pneumatic delivery in the suction system is the same as in the pressure system. Since the
calculation according to sections 4 ..- $ and 4.4 can be carried out with reasonable effort, the exact
calculation will always be made according to these chapters. Nevertheless, the calculation according to
section 4.2 has been retained for the estimation of the pipe diameter in suction, pressure and high-
pressure conveyor systems. 4.2.4.1 Pipe

diameter

For most economically operating air handling units, the net load ft is greater than 10. Thus, the pressure
loss component A / JS in Eq. 4.21 an order of magnitude higher than Api. For the estimation of the pipe
diameter suffices in this case Eq. 4.2Ü:

98

QS

ös-4-.Ks - ^ - v

ei 02 * >> = &; - vK * - T = -. m

2-K, -Qs-0_ Jt • a2
(GL 4 _ 2 5) The following

is obtained for the pipe diameter: d

• Ks • Qs • u

(GL 4 ^ 6)

K • A /> s

Here KS is from Eq. 4.23 to calculate. The good mass flow Qs is given. The air velocity v should be
selected according to Table 4.3. Finally, the pressure drop to be used for Aps must be reconciled with
the total pressure increase of the intended blower, so that the later calculated total pressure loss from
the blower can also be applied. For medium pressure systems with positive displacement blower
(pressure increase max 1 bar) it is recommended to use about 70% of the pressure increase of the
blower for Aps. If the delivery line is very long or a long air line is present, this proportion can also be
smaller. The according to Eq. 4.26 calculated pipe diameter has a size that is not exactly available. After
the calculated value, a pipe must be selected according to the standard pipe diameters. If one chooses
the pipe diameter larger than the calculated one, later analogous to Eq. 4.26 the pressure loss is smaller
and vice versa. So here you have the opportunity to more or less exploit the pressure increase of the
blower. If the pressure increase of the blower is not sufficient, you have to choose a larger pipe
diameter and repeat the calculation. 4.2.4.2

Air volume flow

With the selected pipe diameter d and the previously defined air velocity u, the air flow rate is: Vl =

4.2.4.3

JL .di. "

. (Eq 4.27}

power requirement

Neglecting by small pressure changes the compressibility of air, is assigned the following performance to
the air by the pressure increase in the blower:

p = Ap • VL = * - • d2 • i • Ap

(G1 4.28 )
In this case, the blower receives a higher drive power in accordance with the blower efficiency

99

4.3

Pneumatic pressure boosting taking into account the compressibility of the air

4.3.1

General

The design of pneumatic conveying systems according to section 4.2 is only possible with small pressure
differences (up to about 100 mbar). With larger pressure differences along the delivery line, it is no
longer possible to neglect the changes in pressure, air velocity and air density, which is the case with
most conveyor systems. Since the calculation methods presented in Sections 43 and 4.4 are more
accurate and easier to handle, they have also been well-established for pressure differences up to 100
mbar. For example, the author has successfully designed pressure feed systems with injector injection at
differential pressures of only 6 mbar using these methods.

4.3.2

Air speed

According to Eq. 4.6 changes in isothermal flow, the air velocity between the points l and 2 in Figure 4.9
inversely proportional to the ratio of the absolute pressures. Since the pressure at the end of the
delivery line is less than at the beginning, the air velocity is greater there. The air velocities
recommended in Table 4.3 refer to the atmospheric state. This is characterized according to section 3.3
by the air density o, n = 1.2 kg / m 1

Here, the index 0 stands for pressure, density and air velocity for the atmospheric state. According to
Fig. 2.30, at the end of the pressure conveyor system, the atmosphere usually prevails at p, () - 1.2 kg /
m3. Should this deviate more than 10% due to the process or due to a greater geodetic height, this is
with a speed change according to Eq. 4.8 to compensate. This takes into account that a minimum
required dynamic pressure is not exceeded. If a pneumatic pressure conveying system has a constant
pipe diameter c / and at the end the atmosphere prevails at an air velocity according to Table 4.3, then
at the beginning the air velocity is inversely proportional to the pressure ratio smaller. This is an
example of the conveyed PE granules with the following values explain. Pressures: pi = Pu = l bar,

With j; = 22 m / s according to Table 4.3 results for the initial velocity: (J

100

= vo - 2-- = 2 2 - ^ - = 1 1 m / s P \ 2

If in this Appendix i> t = 22 m / s, the air velocity would be at the end with the same pressure
difference:!> 2 = "o = 44 m / s

This high air velocity would lead to higher pressure loss, higher energy requirements, increased material
abrasion and higher system wear Pressure, with Eq. 4.8, the air velocity at the end should only be raised
in accordance with the root of the pressure ratio: ,,,

~V~i

The initial velocity is then: "= 31.1 ^. [= 15.6 ^ This air velocity ensures that at the beginning the required
dynamic pressure k m2 N ,, d>, = -jQi. Is

not exceeded , for it is: 2 • 1? ke m2 NA / 7 llvn = ^ - ^ - -gr- • 15,62 -, 2- = 292 ^ 2 m 's m2

In addition, in order to reduce the high air velocity of 31.1 m / s at the end, it will be endeavored to
reduce the air velocity by extending the pipe diameter. Also, the minimum required dynamic pressure
must not be undercut. So you can on the larger pipe diameter d ± according to Eq. 4.8 extend only at the
point of the delivery line, where the absolute pressures p] to pj behave inversely as the pipe diameters d
\ and d ± high 4. Otherwise, would fall below the required dynamic pressure. In known commercial pipe
diameters must go with the gradation as far along the delivery line until the pressure p, has fallen to the
newly determined pressure p2. Small errors (eg 5%) do not affect, as in the air velocities according to
Table 4. 3, taking into account the steepness of the fan characteristic still certain collateral are
included. However, the following example shows that people are often mistaken in ignorance of the
matter. An operator's pressure conveyor clogged after increasing the conveyor length. The blower still
had pressure reserves. Taking into account the previous one, the diagnosis was: The required dynamic
pressure was undershot at the point of infiltration due to the increased pressure loss after the extension
of the delivery length. From this follows the measure to use a tube with a smaller diameter at the
beginning of the delivery line. This measure is difficult to understand without knowledge of the basics,
because the non-expert does not envisage that the conveyed should flow through a smaller pipe better
than by a larger one.

101

4.3.3
Pressure loss

4,3.3.1

Compressive air flow pressure

Eq. 4.9 only applies to incompressible funds. With compressible flow, the state variables (pressure, air
density, air velocity) change along the pipe length. Strictly speaking, since this is true for air, this
equation is correct only in differential notation:

(Eq 4.29)

When the atmospheric state (index 0) is reached at the end, the dl. 4.5 and 4.6: / 'po

(Eq 4.30) (Equation 431)

This yields Eq. 4.29: dp dl

_ _AL_. _ £ LO JL.ul. l P »V d 2 'po' l MP /

• * L ei.o 'd' 2

.2 °. P

(Eq 4,32)

Hence, for the pressure p in the pipe at the distance A / from the beginning with the boundary
conditions p (0) = p and p (A /) = p0, where p> po: = - 7 '^ f - »j - pjd 'or:

For the pressure loss A /; in the tube with the length A / one obtains: A /

pj o - ^ o

V1- ' (GI.4,33)

According to Eq. 4.33 the pressure drop in the case of compressible air flow in the pipe is proportional to
a product of the atmospheric pressure p (t at the end of the delivery line (pressure delivery) and a
reduced expression containing the following quantities: J the atmospheric pressure two times dynamic
pressure, ÜD the tube geometry, LH the resistance value

102

4.3.3.2

Pressure loss with compressible good-air flow

In Eq. In 4.33, the term (.) Takes the fraction of air friction, which, together with the four other parts,
gives the factor K in Eq. 4.24. If this term is replaced by K in Eq Delivery line no longer for pure air flow,
but for pneumatic conveying: (Eq.4.34) As in Eqn.4.3.3, in Eqn.4.34 the resistances are evenly distributed
over the entire delivery line, but in practice this is not the case for acceleration and deceleration
However, the resulting error is small and the acceleration loss occurs at the beginning of the delivery
line at low air velocity, which is why it is smaller than if it is integrated in Eq according to equation 4. 34
calculated pressure loss is always slightly above the actual, even if more manifolds are installed at the
end, such as a silo-charging system. There is no known case where the calculation results deviate too far
from the ones measured later. 4.3.4

Designing a pneumatic pressure-conveying system taking into account the compressibility of the air

It has proven to be sensible to design all pneumatic pressure-conveying systems taking into account the
compressibility of the air. However, the relationship between good mass flow, pipe diameter and
pressure loss leads to the fact that one must approach the final result gradually. In doing so, the
compressibility of the air can still be disregarded in the first steps up to the decision for the pipe
diameter. 4.3.4.1 Pressure conveyor

without grading the pipe diameter

Table 4.4 shows the procedure for designing a pneumatic pressure conveyor without grading the pipe
diameter. Included in this plan, however, is a possible extension of the pipe diameter over the last few
meters, so that the material to be conveyed impacts the separator wall at not too high a speed. In the
first step, the data entered by the future operator of the system to the manufacturer. In the second
step, the manufacturer with his knowledge (eg according to section 4.2) determines the additionally
required values for the calculation. The third step is to estimate the pipe diameter. Up to this point, the
compressibility of the air can be neglected. The choice of pipe diameter is possible according to section
4.2.4. If it was correct, finally confirmed only the 4th step. Until the 3.

103
Table 4.4 Start-up diagram for the design of a pneumatic pressure conveyor without grading the pipe
diameter. Data given Material to be conveyed Good mass flow Conveyor path insgs. of which Hub
Number of elbows

Name A / A /?

Selected data (Table 4.3) (Table 4.3)

Air velocity t> o Pressure loss coefficient /.s Speed ratio (air density o \

3rd step: Pipe

diameter decision for fan type Estimation of d according to equation 4.26 Selection according to trade
list (Table 8.1) Grading option at higher Rohrdurchme 1 to Gl.4.8

step 4:

... pressure loss fi material charge according to Eq 4:39 factor K according to equation 24.4 pressure
drop Ap, Ap "according to Eq 4:34 correction of the air speed r> ()

according to Eq. 4.35

p. Step:

1.Volume flow Selection of outlet pipe diameter dt} Selection of air velocity »(} Lock air flow V - / _ Air
flow V [

v Step 6:

Blower Type Air volume flow Pressure increase Characteristic Temperature increase Speed Power
requirement Engine speed Motor power

V 7. Step:

Lock Type Speed or cycle time Pressure difference Leakage air flow V / pressure loss 1

8. Step: Air
line a) in front of the delivery line Diameter Length Pressure loss b) after the delivery line Diameter
Length Pressure loss

9th step:

Separator, filter Air volume flow Filter surface Filter load Pressure Pressure loss Purge air requirement
(pressure, quantity)

Late

105

In the 4th step, the pressure loss according to Eq. 4.34 calculated with all necessary preparatory work. In
this case, the calculation of pressure equipment can be related only to the end of the delivery line,
where the atmosphere prevails. However, the lower dynamic pressure during the injection into the
pressure system then makes it necessary to raise the air speed. If!> ,, the air velocity at the beginning
and (;) the air velocity at the end, then Eq. 4.H for the required initial velocity at the increased pressure

p "+ AP and isothermally converted to the state at the end: p" + Ap _

lp "+ AP_

/ '<>

(Eq 4.35) Is A /; eg equal to I bar, then the new final speed increases twice. Thus, in the 4th step, the
good load /.i and the factor K becomes smaller. In a second calculation, the pressure loss Ap increases
according to Eq. 4.34, because here the air velocity is quadratic. And so, according to Eq. 4.35, the
airspeed increases again, so that another calculation is to be carried out. After 3 to 4 iterations,
experience has shown that the pressure loss only increases insignificantly. Thus, the pressure loss
calculation can be ended. In step 5, the previously calculated pressure loss is compared with the
pressure loss determined in the third step with a possible pipe diameter graduation and the pipe
diameter d is decided. Then according to Eq. 4.27 the air volume flow is determined. If one adds a
possibly present lock air leakage current, then one obtains the air volume flow \\, related to the
atmospheric pressure. With the air volume flow after step 5 and the pressure distribution after step 4,
the blower can be designed (step 6). This blower must already be based on the estimation of the pipe
diameter in the third step. If the calculated pressure loss after the 4th step, including any pressure losses
through steps 7, 8 and 9, is greater than the pressure increase of the blower, the pipe diameter can be
increased or the blower can be changed. Finally, proof must be provided that the blower is capable of
delivering the required air flow rate at the pressure difference that occurs. The performance of the
blower is not calculated, but taken from the relatively accurate characteristics of the blower
manufacturer. It is customary to select the drive motor of the blower with about 10% power reserve. A
comprehensive design of a pneumatic pressure conveyor also includes the design of the lock, the air
lines and the filter (steps 7 to 9). These not only have to fulfill their separate function but also influence
the function of the pressure conveyor in various ways.

106

Table 4.5 Flow chart for the design of a pneumatic high-pressure conveyor system with multiple grading
of the pipe diameter

Step 1:

Selection of a pipe diameter series d up to Step 2: Approximate determination of the pressures at the
beginning and at the end of each stage according to Eq. 4.34 3rd step: Approximate determination of
the pressure losses in each step according to Eq. 4.36 4th step: Determining the initial air velocity \> \\
according to Eq. 4.37, the final air velocity and the material load p according to Eq. 4.39
Step 5: Determine the tube length of each step according to Eq. 4.38 6th step:

Divide horizontal conveyance, vertical conveyance, acceleration and manifold to each stage using pipe
isometry

. Step 7:

Calculate the pressure losses in each stage, backwards, starting from the last stage according to Eq. 4:34
8th stage:

summing the Druckverlustc in stages /; ,, - /; ,, = X Ap "

From Table 4.4 it can be seen that the design of a pneumatic conveying system, not only a pure
arithmetic operation, but a control process with grinding, returns and Decisions is. 4.3.4.2 Pressure
conveyor

with multiple gradation of the pipe diameter

It is unavoidable to graduate the diameter of the delivery line by pneumatic high-pressure conveyor
systems several times. At a pressure drop of 3 bar, the air velocity would increase without gradation, for
example, 12 m / s to 4H m / s along the delivery line. As a result, the conveyed and the conveyor system
is very stressed. For the planning of a multi-stepped high pressure pump, it makes sense to design a
non-graded conveyor according to Table 4.4. Then you can concentrate on the high pressure conveyor
on steps 3 and 4. In step 3, a pipe diameter is obtained which is in the range of the later determined
pipe diameters. In the vicinity of this pipe diameter, commercially available pipe diameters are selected
(about 4} and continue according to Table 4.5.

Eqs . 4.36) Pll-prt-pl

In GL 4.36, the first index stands for the step. For the second index, l is the beginning and 2 is the
end. This is how the designations are based on Figure 4.10. The initial pressure which can be used is the
absolute pressure at the inflow calculated in Table 4.4. For a possible iteration, then more accurate
values are available. The air velocity i / l} at the infiltration can be compared with the values of Table 4.3,
which apply to the atmospheric state at the end, according to Eq. 4.8 are converted:

z | Air pressure p "," p "2

bar

Pn

air density" Ln,; BLn2

kg m3

• t ,,
air velocity

m/s

"n,!" "2

pipe diameter cfn Figure 4.10

108

mm

Pi2

ftl

~ -L21

P22

= Pai

P32 = P ",

P42 = Po

-L22

~ '~ L31

^ L32 =" L4,

° L42

...

,,
"2l

" 22 "3l

" 32 "41

" 42

a,

a,

d2

d2

d3 d,

The

multistage delivery line rf3

= eLO -0

=^0

Thereafter, the pressures determined in the second step are converted to the pressure loss at each
stage The delivery length A / is set to the lengths A / each Stage distributed so that they are proportional
to the pressure losses in each stage: A / = A / - P "'"P "2 Pn-Po

(Gl.4.38)

From the course of the delivery line can now determine how much horizontal conveyance, vertical
conveyance, acceleration (only in the first stage) and elbows each stage contains. To calculate the
pressure loss in each stage, the material load is still required: ,, =

(Eq 4.39) Q,

n • QU> • dfi • «o
Now, the pressure loss of the last, ie the n-th stage according to Eq. Calculate 4.34; because here the
atmosphere prevails at the end. From the beginning of the last stage can be closed to the state at the
end of the penultimate, and so on to the first stage. When calculating the factor K, make sure that the
acceleration loss occurs only in the first stage; because in all other stages enters the conveyed even with
increased speed. Therefore, in Eq. 4.24 To delete the l in the last bracket from the second step for all
other stages. The summation of the pressure losses in each stage gives the pressure loss Ap in the
delivery line. This gives the new initial pressure:

This is to be compared with the previously selected initial pressure. Depending on the deviation of the
two pressures from each other, there are three possibilities for the further procedure: a) p \\ is
significantly different than the pressure increase of the blower. In this case, new pipe diameters are to
be selected. b) pn is fairly close to the pressure increase of the blower, including all pressure losses
according to Table 4.4. In this case, the calculation procedure in Table 4.5 can be repeated for more
precise values. c) p] i is sufficiently close to the pressure increase of the blower, including all pressure
losses according to Table 4.4. In this case, the calculation is completed. The progress is decided by the
project engineer. Several calculations have shown that a repetition (iteration) with more accurate initial
pressure / ,, always leads to convergence. It is recommended to set up a calculation program for the
graduated high-pressure conveyor. This is well practicable according to relevant experience and saves a
lot of time, especially during iterations.

109

4.4

Pneumatic suction conveying with consideration of the compressibility of the air

4.4.1

General

According to Section 2.4 and Figure 2.30 the atmospheric suction pressure prevails in the pneumatic
suction conveyor and at the end, ie before the blower, a negative pressure. The suction system is
theoretically limited in its pressure loss to the atmospheric pressure Ap = 1 bar. In this chapter it is
shown that an economic operation only works up to a pressure difference of A /? = 0.5 bar. 4.4.2

Airspeed

The pneumatic suction conveyor has at the beginning, ie at the infeed, the air velocity i; 0. This can be
selected according to Table 4.3 for the individual conveyed goods. Since the dynamic pressure increases
with the expansion of the air along the delivery line, with the right choice of t, 0 and with a constant
pipe diameter, the minimum required dynamic pressure is not undershot at any point of the delivery
line. In the intake system increases at the same pressure difference A / J, the air velocity along the
conveyor more than in the pressure plant, since according to Eq. 4.6 behave the air velocities like the
absolute pressures. In order to avoid an excessively high air velocity at the bottom of the delivery line,
the delivery diameter is also the same as in the pressure system according to Eq. 4.8 graduated. Since
the pressure ratio / 7 | : p 2, As explained above, the maximum is equal to 2, while it may well be 4 and
more in the pressure plant, suction systems are stepped at most once. Many suction systems with
surface or room extraction have one or two telescopes in the vertical and horizontal. The telescopic
tubes are nested

Figure 4. ll T'deskoprohr in a pneumatic Saugtörder.inlage

110

pipes. In the conveying direction, the smaller pipe flows in front of the larger one (Figure 4.1 I). Usually
the tubes are fitted together as tightly as the manufacturing tolerances allow. They are usually not
sealed, so that the gap is flushed due to the pressure difference. The sucked purge air increases the
dynamic pressure, while the tube diameter enlargement lowers it. Since the purging air quantity
depends on the gap length, it is greatest when the telescopic tube is extended furthest. 4.4.3

Pressure loss

4.4.3.1

The integration of the pressure loss in the suction system

The simple approach to pressure loss according to Eq. 4.29 can also be applied to pneumatic suction
conveying, with only other limits to be used. For the intake system, the limits apply: p (0) = po (usually p
() = 1 bar) p (A /) = p with

po

>p

Thus, from Eq. 4.29:

j / y /.o

u-

-
j

'

'

"0

PO J

ul

A / P = P-f- \. '-J-' Qui • UB 'Po

This results in the pressure loss Ap in the pipe with the length A / with pure air flow:

(Equation 4.40) As in the case of the pressure system in Section 4.3.3, the transition from the suction
flow of clean air to the pneumatic suction conveying would be carried out by specifying in Eq. 4.40:

This gives the pressure loss in the pneumatic suction conveyor: («4.41)

Po

with the factor K according to Eq. 24.4. The same applies to the error that is made when integrating the
individual resistances in the intake system as for the pressure system according to Section 4.3.3.2. 111

Figure 4.12 Pressure loss in a pneumatic suction conveyor as a function of the factor K at the air velocity
values: «o = 25 m / s Air density: o ,,, = 1.2 kg / m! a pressure loss according to Eq. 4.40 (compressible) b
pressure loss incompressible c physical (absolute) limit of the suction system d limit of the suction
system by the economic blower insert

Q. l

1.0

bar
7

0.8

0.6

Q. <

io, 4 0>>

0, 2

40

80

120

160

Factor K = KL + u Ks

4.4.4

Design of a pneumatic suction conveyor taking into account the compressibility of the air

Table 4.6 shows the flow chart for calculating a pneumatic suction conveyor. The L, 2 nd and 3 rd steps
are the same as for the pressure conveyor, since the compressibility of the air is not taken into account
here. Thus, in the 4th step, the calculation of the load loading / <and the factor K is still the same as in
the printing plant. Only the pressure loss Ap is calculated according to Eq. 4.41 calculated. Since the
intake system has the lowest dynamic pressure at the beginning and the values (atmospheric pressure)
are known here, the pressure loss calculation does not need to be iterated during suction delivery. In
step 5, the air flow rate is calculated: 7t

(equation 4.43)

For this air volume flow, add any leakage air flow to the conveyor discharge: V ,. - V, .0
Vz

113

Table 4.6

Flow chart for the design of a pneumatic suction conveyor

L, 2., 3. Step:

As in Table 4.4

4. Step:

Pressure loss Gutbcladung /; according to Eq. 4.39 Haktor K according to Eq. 4.24 Pressure loss Ap
according to Eq. 4.41 Grading option according to Eq. 4.8

Step 5:

Air volume flow Air volume flow V \ (> according to Eq 4.43 Lock air flow V / total volume flow VL
according to equation 4.44 Air volume flow V (] 1, |, i at the suction nozzle of the blower according to Eq
4.45

6., 7., 8 ., Step 9:

As shown in Table 4.4.

End

Very important and sometimes forgotten by the beginner is now the air volume flow at the inlet of the
blower. Since the delivery quantities of the blower are always related to the condition at the suction
nozzle, VL has to comply with Eq. 4.44 are converted isothermally according to the prevailing pressures:
V, po -

^ p_

(Eq 4.45)

Po

In Eq. 4.45 Ap refers to the pressure loss from the inlet to the blower inlet.
114

4.5

Calculation

Examples 4.5.1

General

Tables 4.4 to 4.6 describe the exact procedure for calculating pneumatic air handling
systems. Pneumatic plug conveyors or flow conveyors can be calculated in a similar way. However, other
values of the calculation must be used as a basis. Actually, with the sections 4.3 and 4.4 everything is
said to the interpretation of the conveyor systems. However, since decisions are required at certain
points in the calculation process, it is helpful to understand these decisions using calculation
examples. 4.5.2

Example of a pneumatic pressure conveyor

The plant to be designed has the following data: 1. Data given: Material: Cement raw meal Grain
diameter: d ^ = 0.01 mm Density: £> s = 2700 kg / m! Bulk density: £> ss = 960 kg / m 'Cjut mass flow: Qs
= 20 t / h = 5,55 kg / s Conveyor: total A / = 100 m of which stroke Ah = 20 m elbows i = 3 Conveying
path: infiltration, 50 m horizontal, elbow horizontal / vertical, 20 m vertical, manifold lot / horizontal, 20
m horizontal, horizontal elbow, 10 m horizontal, gut separation 2. Selected data: Air velocity: u0 = 24 m
/ s (Table 4.3) Pressure loss at values: / i. = 0.03 (rough tube) /.sA/i/rf = 0.15 (Table 4.3) Speed ratio: c / i)
= 0.7 (heavy powder)

115

3. Estimation of the pipe diameter When using a cell compressor, the following pressure increase of the
fan is available: Ap = 2 bar. Of this, the pure product promotion applies: Aps = 1.5 bar = 150 000 Pa

From equation (4.23) follows for K,: 2 • 20 m • 9.81 - "^ K, = 0.15 • 100 + -r5- + 2 • 0.7 (l + 0.5 • 3) 0.7 •
576 s = 15 + 0.97 + 3.5 = 19.47 This gives the pipe diameter: 1 2 - 19.47 • 5 , 55 kg / s • 24 r ^ / TV 7t-
150000kg / (ms 2) = 0.1049 m = 104.9 mm Selected pipe diameter according to DIN 2448 (Table 8.1): d =
107.1 mm (114.3 mm) 3,6) Next larger pipe diameter: d = 113mm (121 - 4)

If the pressure at the beginning is p \ = l + 1,5 = 2,5 bar, at the following pressure p2 can be reduced to
the larger diameter according to equation (4.8) graded: p2 = 2.5 bar l

') = 2.03 bar

This corresponds to a pressure drop Ap = 2.5-2.023 = 0.477 bar. 4. Pressure loss material charge:

4 - 5 5 5 kg / s

JT 1,2 - ^ - 0,01147m 2 - 2 4 - m 's factors:

K = KL + ft • Ks = 28 + 21.4 • 19.47 = 444.5

116

Table 4.7

Iteration of the state values of Example 4.5.2 Calculation

step

Dimension

Air velocity and material loading // Factor K Pressure drop Ap

m/s11N/m2

24 21.4 444.5 101800

34.1 15.06 321.2 134100

36.7 13.99 300.4 142000

37.3 13.76 295.9 143700

Pressure drop:
Ap '= 10 5 - • m2r

-l

l + 444.5 • 10

= 101,800 Pa = 1.018 bar

With this calculated pressure loss, the required air speed is redetermined. This changes the load and the
factor K as well as the pressure loss. The iteration takes place in a loop (Table 4.7). After the fourth step,
the values change only insignificantly. These values are the basis for further calculations. Since,
according to 3., estimation of the pipe diameter, can be graded to the pipe diameter 113 mm already
after a pressure drop of 0.477 bar, this gradation could be carried out; because according to Table 4.7
the pressure loss without gradation is 1,437 bar. A further recalculation of the delivery line, which is
then graduated several times, should be carried out in the example section 4.5.3. If the delivery line is
not stepped, the following calculation values apply: Pipe diameter: d Pressure loss:

= 107.1 mm

Ap = l, 437 bar

Air flow rate: V = 4 0,1071 2 m 2 • 37,3 - = 0,336 - 4 ss = 20,16 ^ These values are used to select the
blower (6th step in table 4.4) from the delivery list of blower manufacturers.

117

4.5.3

Example of a pneumatic high-pressure conveyor

Due to the high air velocity of v () = 37.3 m / s at the end of the conveyor system according to section
4.5.2 should be stepped several times. The pipe diameters are used according to Table 8.1. The
procedure is based on Table 4.5 and is performed in Table 4.8. The multi-stepped high-pressure
conveying system has a lower pressure drop with Ap = 1.211 bar than the non-graduated one with Ap =
1.437 bar. In addition, the final velocity i; 0 = 27.5 m / s is considerably

lower than the air velocity u = 37.3. Table 4.8 game 4.5.3

Calculation of a multi-stepped pneumatic pressure boosting at the

inlet pressure /? nl; pl] 2

bar

Pu

P \>

Airtight pi n | ; pi Il2

kg m3

giu

«ii2

Air velocity

m/s

"II

" 12

"2l

" 22

<'.)]

"32

" 4l

"42

-" u Pipe

diameter dn

mm

dt
d,

di

di

d,

d; 1/4 = d " tubular bar (n = 1 to 4) = pn Pu = Ol.2l6> L22 = Pil Pi2 =" Hl "L 12 1 3 4 107 113 119 125 mm P
\\ ~ Pni according to Equation (4.36) at /? ,, = 2.437 bar 0.478 0.844 1.129 bar 0.478
0.366

0.285

A / ,, according to equation (4.38)

33

26

20

21

mm

33 1 -

17 9

9 11 1

21 1
-

pressure /> n2

bar

air velocity nn 2

m/s

air density p [Il2

kg m '

factor X "

pressure loss in stage

Total pressure loss

ba r

118

0.308

in pipe flow keeping: horizontal. Length lotr. Length Acceleration

Header 1,809 20.7 2,171

96 0,402

1 1,492

22,6 1,790
77

0,3 1 7

1,236

24,6 1,483

63 0.256

P42

= (<| 4 | 0 | 42

Pipe diameter dn (according to Table 8.1)

P "1-P" 2

=? 4I

1.0 27.5 1.20

58 0.236

A /; = 0.402 + 0.317 + 0.256 + 0,236 =, 211

= pa = pin

m / s for the non-stepped delivery line As the calculated pressure loss is not too far away from the
assumed one, the calculation is not calculated in the following: 4.5.4

Example of a pneumatic suction conveyor system

The system to be calculated has the following values: 1. Data given: Material to be conveyed:
Polyethylene granules Grain diameter: d ^ = 4 mm Bulk density: gs = 1000 kg / m 'Bulk density: Pss = 550
kg / m' Good mass flow: Q = 6 t / h = 1.67 kg / s Delivery: total A / = 50 m of which stroke A /; = 15 m
pipe bend i -4 2. Selected data: Air speed: DO = 23 m / s Pressure loss coefficients: / L = 0.02

; .s • A /, d
= 0.04

Speed ratio: c / u = 0.7 3 Pipe diameter: Pressure difference of rotary lobe blower: A /> <;, w. = 0.4 bar
Of this, the pure material production is accounted for: A / s = 0.3 bar = SOOOOPa From Eq. 4.23 follows
for K .: O O1

K, = 0.04 • 50 + - ~ Q "7 \ 52'9

+ 2 • 0.7 (1 + 0, 5 - 4)

= 2 + 0.8 + 4, 2 = 7.0

For Ks it can be seen that about 60% of the additional pressure loss is needed for the acceleration and
manifold losses. For the pipe diameter:

d-

/ 2 - 7 - 1.67 kg / s - 2 3 m / s 7t • 30000 kg / (m • s 2)

= 0.0755 m = 75.5 mm Selected pipe diameter (stainless steel pipe , see section 8.1.2):

d = 82.5 mm

119

4. Pressure loss: Good load:

4 - 1.67 kg / s it • 1.2 kg / m '• 0.08252 m 2 • 23 m / s Factors: K, = 0.02 -frj- = 12.12 0.0825 m

K = 12.12 + 11.3 - 7 = 91.2 Pressure loss:

NF / 1 2 - 5 2 9 \ <>. 5 AP = 10 * ^. [l - (l -91.2- ^) = 35100Pa = 0.351 bar With an additional pressure loss

in the air line, separator and filter of 4000 N / m2, it is very close to the initial value estimated by Aj &
Gebi. = 0.4 bar. By a gradation of the pipe diameter, the pressure loss could be reduced, and the
granules would be easier to transport. With the tube diameter d = 82.5 mm and an extension diameter
(stainless steel tube) = 88.5 mm, Eq. 4.8:

The pipe diameter of this plant could therefore be graded about 35 m after the start of production, if
the pressure drop according to Eq. 4.38 proportional to the conveyor length attaches. 5. From Eq. 4.42 is
still the theoretically maximum possible load in this intake system can be determined. The following
applies:
61 o '«ol O5 N / m 2 1 1.2 kg / m' • 232 m 2 / s 2

K ,. + / c K. = £ 157.52 12.12 + / / • 7 s = 157.52 // s; 20.8 However, this load would not be possible with
the rotary lobe vacuum blower provided; because the same brings neither the delivery quantity nor the
negative pressure, which is here according to Section 4.4.3.2 close to the absolute pressure 0 at the
suction nozzle of the blower.

120

Pneumatic conveying methods

5.1

Development objectives

Section 2.2 describes various delivery conditions that occur when you transport a bulk material
pneumatically through a delivery line. As has already been indicated several times, not all conveyed
goods can be transported through the delivery line in any condition. On the other hand, a large number
of operational measures are available to the plant manufacturer in order to achieve a certain production
status with a certain more or less "difficult" conveyed material. The technical implementation is carried
out in a funding procedure that is often protected as novelty and inventiveness as a process patent (see
the bibliography for this chapter). The many years of development activity of many companies and
institutes in this industry suggest that there is no optimal universal method for the pneumatic
conveying. Rather, for each task, the most favorable funding for the conditions from the abundance of
offers must be selected. 5.1.1

operational safety

Operational safety is taken for granted in every procedure. With the purchase contract, the plant
manufacturer undertakes to ensure safe transport of the goods on a specific route through the conveyor
system included in the offer. According to the VDI guideline 3671, Technical warranty for pneumatic
conveying systems [5.1], the guaranteed material mass flow must be reached or exceeded under the
conditions entered into. The tolerance width therefore contains no negative, but only positive
tolerances. Since the will of the contracting parties is based on the case law at the time the contract is
concluded in a dispute under applicable law, it is advisable for both parties to clarify the technical details
as precisely as possible before signing the contract. When the author was commissioned in 1965 by his
supervisor G. SEGLER to review existing theories of pneumatic horizontal conveyance through the
experiment, his first concern was the prob- lem of whether the measurements are repeatable. Without
repeatability no law can be found. In addition, you can not guarantee operational safety if the behavior
of the substances in a system is constantly changing. In the extensive measurements of [5.2], which
lasted more than 3 years without interruption, the author was able to prove that in the pneumatic In
addition, you can not guarantee operational safety if the behavior of the substances in a system is
constantly changing. In the extensive measurements of [5.2], which lasted more than 3 years without
interruption, the author was able to prove that in the pneumatic In addition, you can not guarantee
operational safety if the behavior of the substances in a system is constantly changing. In the extensive
measurements of [5.2], which lasted more than 3 years without interruption, the author was able to
prove that in the pneumatic

121

Flight promotion the repeatability is guaranteed. Deviations in the annual measurements carried out on
one of the test rigs with a pipe diameter of 50 mm could be attributed to measuring errors or to changes
in the conveyed material or the conveyor system. After eliminating the changes, the previous
measurements could be repeated. Certainly, the proof of repeatability in the field of plug or flow
promotion is more difficult. The reproducibility of the measurements on pneumatic conveying systems
in the unstable region is not given (see Fig. 2.13). Therefore you should avoid operating a pneumatic
conveyor in this air speed range. However, it should be noted that this area does not exist in all
subsidies. So he is missing z. B. in the flow promotion and loses importance, when the air density is
much greater than at atmospheric pressure (QL = 1.2 kg / m '). 5.1.2

Vulnerabilities or design zones

The manufacturer and operator of pneumatic conveying systems are aware of problem cases where
reworking had to be carried out. Fs seems to be due to the difficulty of the matter that must be done on
pneumatic conveyor systems more reworking than on mechanical conveyor systems. This is based inter
alia on the fact that z. B. in the design of a pneumatic conveyor system 36 can undergo good properties
according to Table 3.2, while a belt conveyor can interpret essentially with the knowledge of only three
good properties: good mass flow, bulk density, Schüttwinke]. Thus, the pneumatic conveying is closer to
the mechanical process technology than the mechanical continuous conveying.

Blower: lock: delivery pipe: good separation:

amount of air; Pressure

increase; Power; Noise; introduction; Dosage; Wear; Constipation; caking; Wear; Pressure loss; Residual
dust content.

The behavior of components a) to d) is dealt with in chapters 6 to 9. The problems mentioned make high
demands on the development departments of the plant construction companies and are reflected in an
above-average number of patent applications. Most of the rework on pneumatic conveyors can be
attributed to these problems.

122
5.2

Extreme conveyances of the flight promotion

In a pneumatic air handling system, the particles of the transported material move more or less freely in
the delivery line. In doing so, they touch the pipe wall at irregular intervals according to the explanations
given in section 2.2. This classic case of conveying with air has been applied to many other applications
and successfully carried out. a) The pneumatic tube In conveyor technology, a distinction is made
between bulk material and general cargo according to Section 3. l with regard to the conveyed goods. A
pneumatic general cargo is the pneumatic tube according to Figure 5.1. Due to the fact that the sleeve
moved in the conveyor tube fills approximately the entire tube cross-section, the product speed is only
slightly smaller than the air speed. If the liner does not jam in the pipe, which is easy to reach, this
promotion will not cause any problems. b) Pneumatically driven transport trolleys If you put the rifle in
the pipe on wheels to reduce friction (Fig. 5.2), then you will get a transport option already used around
the turn of the century in England for passenger transport. Recently, this system in the USSR is again
used to transport grain and sand with several cars in a row.

- »•

-» •

rr \ Fig. 5.1 The pneumatic tube a Delivery pipe b Bushing (conveyed material)

Fig. 5.2

»r \

Pneumatically driven

transport trolley

c) Pneumatic transport of bulk goods with conveyed goods It is not possible for all groupage
consignments to convey the conveyed material in the pipe with minimum gap widths. The greater the
gap, the greater the differential speed D - c. This meets z. As for the promotion of
Zündverteilergehäusen and piston engine valves (Figure 5.3 a and b). If you want to promote a whole
range of valves of different sizes and weights pneumatically, you have to use tubes or hoses with
different diameters. A special task of the handling technology is the secure introduction of the piece
goods.
123

11 a)

Fig. 5.3 Pneumatic unit load transport with directed conveyed material a) Distributor housing h)
Kolhenmotorventil

b)

d) Pneumatic general cargo conveyance of molded parts with any cross-section According to Figure 5.3,
a delivery is only possible if the piece goods length is considerably larger than the piece goods width,
because then the part in the pipe can not jam by self-locking. Irregular piece goods, eg plastic molded
parts, can be pneumatically conveyed according to Fig. 5.4 if the largest corner measure is smaller than
the pipe diameter. Here is a part, for. As a switch housing, promoted by the change through the
pipe. This avoids that two parts jam together. With a smaller ratio of the grain diameter to the pipe
diameter, pieces of conveyed goods can also be pneumatically conveyed together. Such subsidies
include the pneumatic ship suction systems for tapioca roots or the wooden lamellas listed in Table 4.3.

Fig. 5.4 Pneumatic general cargo conveyance of molded parts of helical shape

a<d

e) Pneumatic promotion of leathery skin In leather production, so-called glue leather skins are caused by
scraping of the dermis. These have an extension of about 2000 mm X 3000 mm X 2 mm. They weigh up
to 7.5 kg and have a gelatinous, unaesthetic appearance for humans. The author was asked to promote
the same from the production hall to an external waste silo. This could be done without difficulty in a
suction conveyor line with only 80 mm pipe diameter; because it is able to exert a force of 250 N on the
skin which has collapsed into an aqueous lump at a pressure of 0.5 bar.

124

Figure 5.5 Pneumatic conveyance of belts or threads

f) Pneumatic garbage extraction Garbage consists of all kinds of general cargo and bulk materials, which
can be dry or damp. These can be largely pneumatically conveyed in a suction conveyor with 500 mm
pipe diameter (because of the trafficability). However, you should not throw any car batteries in the
system. Many plants were built and operated up to several kilometers in length. However, the
profitability is only given where the population density is high by building with high-rise buildings. g)
Pneumatic conveying of continuous filaments or endless belts Edge strips made of paper during the
trimming of paper rolls or continuous filaments of the paper industry can be conveyed through an
injector with an annular gap (Figure 5.5).
5.3

Special solutions for plug and dense

phase

conveying 5.3.1 Pumping

The more the behavior of fluidized bulk goods approaches that of the fluid (see Figure 3.6 c, curve 1),
the more obvious is the use of pumps for pumping. For example, kieselguhr has already been pumped
with diaphragm pumps. The wear could be limited by the choice of a viscoelastic membrane
material. Also volumetrically works the eccentric screw pump, which is actually a special version of the
screw lock according to section 7.8. In the construction sector, the peristaltic pump with compressed air
support has proven itself for the introduction and conveyance of wet concrete mixtures. Here, the
improvement of the lubricity by the water has a particularly positive effect on the promotion, so that
almost a dense phase promotion of the wet concrete mass can be achieved.

125

Figure 5.6 Pneumatic dense phase conveying

P,

5.3.2

P?

Combined pneumatic-mechanical conveying

In the case of dense phase conveying according to Fig. 5.6, the conveyed material fills the entire pipe
cross-section. The pressure A /? = p \ - p2 leads over the normal force, supported by a wedging effect of
the grains to a friction thrust T. This can be so large in some items (eg sawdust) that a bulk material plug
with any high pressure p can no longer move in the delivery line , An explanation is given by W.
KRAMBROCK [5.3]. Since the resting friction is always greater than the sliding friction and no wedging
occurs in the latter, methods have been developed to avoid the resting friction. By continuous rotation
of the conveyor tube can be in many bulk materials not only stopper formation avoided. It also achieves
a dense phase conveying with high material loading, which, according to Figure 5.6, does not contain
any intermediate air spaces. If the delivery line is allowed to vibrate axially and the pressure vessel for
introduction horizontally [5.4; 5.5], then you can convert the high static friction into sliding friction. In
connection with the throughflowing conveying air, even in difficult to convey, preferably granular bulk
materials, such as moist molding sand, no standing grafts. Also suitable for preventing or dissolving
blockages is a rotating, flexible shaft that is axially displaced in the pipe [5.6].
5.4 Careful

conveying of granules

5.4.1

Prerequisites and data for the

pumping of plugs Section 2.2.5 describes the pumping of granules as a stable transport state. This
condition is stable although the plugs moving in the delivery line disintegrate and reform again. A
conveying process based on the condition of the plug conveying is only possible under the following
conditions: a) The fan for (pressure generation) has sufficient pressure reserve. b) The fan characteristic
curve is steeper than the system characteristic according to Section 2.5.2 and Figure 2.33. c) The
conveyed goods must have certain good properties. d) The dosage of the good mass flow at the
infiltration is adjustable and stable.

126

The knowledge of the points a) and b) is probably the reason that the method of grafting has only been
used industrially for about 10 to 15 years. For item c), R. ERNST [5.7J cites the properties of goodness
that ensure undisturbed plug movement: DDDD

free-flowing, spherical or cube-like shape, narrow grain spectrum, grain size greater than 0.5 mm.

The point d) expresses that the once set Gutmassenstrom should not change as much as possible due to
the Pfropfenbildmig pressure fluctuations. Under no circumstances should the good mass flow increase
with a higher back pressure, as this increases the risk of clogging. This requirement is met in the
introduction with pressure vessel or rotary valve. Here, the good mass flow decreases with increasing
backpressure rather than too. That is why these locks have proven themselves when used in pneumatic
plug conveying systems. However, one must take into account that the air leakage of the rotary valve
makes the fan characteristic flattened. The methods of pneumatic plug conveying are characterized
according to [5.7] by the following features: D air velocity: D good load: D pressure loss: D realized
delivery lengths:

v = 3 to 10 m / s, / <= 10 to 100, A /; = 0.5 to 6 bar (falling with increasing air speed), A / up to 1000 m.

In compliance with the above-mentioned good properties, it was possible, even with long conveyor
routes, to restart a system if it was switched off without prior emptying. 5.4.2

Comparison of plug conveying with and without timing

The pellets forming in the plug conveying with great regularity were often taken as an opportunity to set
a pulsed plug delivery by means of air intervals. The correct procedure is to guide the constant air flow
in a certain frequency first through the granulate (Fig. 5.7a) and then directly into the delivery line (Fig.
5.7b), ie without granules. In the first part of the cycle, the valves VI are opened in Figure 5.7 and V2
closed, reversed for the second part of the cycle. The longer VI is open, the larger the granule plug,
which is pushed into the delivery line. Over the entire cycle time and the plug length of the good mass
flow can be adjusted. This would be greatest without timing if VI is always open and V2 always closed. If
VI and V2 are always partially opened, the good mass flow of the non-pulsed plug delivery can be
adjusted in this way. R. FELLMETH [5.8 and 5.9] is thus involved in a pneumatic plug conveying system

127

Figure 5.7 Clocked plug delivery 000 o O 0 0

o oo

o ° ° o ° °°° o

10 Air velocity v at the end Figure 5.8 State diagram of the uncommutated puffing demand according to
[5.8] with the following values: Pipe diameter: d = 56.3 mm Material: PF granules Grain diameter:
Conveyor: A / = 56 m = 3.5 mm Ah = 3.5 m Head: Bulk density: = 575 kg / m ', 90 ° elbow: 5 pieces
Density: = 1320 kg / m' 180 ° elbow: 1 piece A Pressure loss of pure air flow, B Range of «clean» plug
delivery with repeatable plug formation, C, D areas of plug delivery without repeatable plug formation

56.3 mm pipe diameter compared to the non-clocked with the clocked plug delivery by
measurement. Dahei he proceeded so that he set the rate of delivery of the clock to one second and the
pure air injection into the delivery line between 1 and 9 seconds per clock varied. R. FKLLMETH observed
in this attachment without clocking that only between the air velocities 4 and 8 m / s the plugs were
adjusted with a certain regularity. Below 3 m / s, the system began to clog. Above 8 m / s prevailed
between the plug flight promotion. The state diagram of the uncactivated plug delivery is shown in Fig.
5.8. There, area B is the area of «clean» plug conveying. At these air velocities, plugs of the same length
appeared, the measurement of which was also repeatable. Picture 5. 9 shows the state diagram of the
clocked plug delivery. With the timing described above, only the speed range was measured in which
the grafting formed by the timing remained until the end of the delivery line. That was only possible if
the portion of the conveying time was about one second of the total cycle time. This gives grafting of l to
1.5 m in length. For larger or smaller Pfropfenlängen the plugs disintegrated and formed along the feed
line new in the described length. At the same mass flow, the pressure loss of the clocked plug delivery is
slightly larger than that of the untimed. This is probably due to the long interval times (maximum 10 s),
during which the conveyed material comes to rest in the delivery line. With the timing described above,
only the speed range was measured in which the grafting formed by the timing remained until the end
of the delivery line. That was only possible if the portion of the conveying time was about one second of
the total cycle time. This gives grafting of l to 1.5 m in length. For larger or smaller Pfropfenlängen the
plugs disintegrated and formed along the feed line new in the described length. At the same mass flow,
the pressure loss of the clocked plug delivery is slightly larger than that of the untimed. This is probably
due to the long interval times (maximum 10 s), during which the conveyed material comes to rest in the
delivery line. With the timing described above, only the speed range was measured in which the grafting
formed by the timing remained until the end of the delivery line. That was only possible if the portion of
the conveying time was about one second of the total cycle time. This gives grafting of l to 1.5 m in
length. For larger or smaller Pfropfenlängen the plugs disintegrated and formed along the feed line new
in the described length. At the same mass flow, the pressure loss of the clocked plug delivery is slightly
larger than that of the untimed. This is probably due to the long interval times (maximum 10 s), during
which the conveyed material comes to rest in the delivery line. That was only possible if the portion of
the conveying time was about one second of the total cycle time. This gives grafting of l to 1.5 m in
length. For larger or smaller Pfropfenlängen the plugs disintegrated and formed along the feed line new
in the described length. At the same mass flow, the pressure loss of the clocked plug delivery is slightly
larger than that of the untimed. This is probably due to the long interval times (maximum 10 s), during
which the conveyed material comes to rest in the delivery line. That was only possible if the portion of
the conveying time was about one second of the total cycle time. This gives grafting of l to 1.5 m in
length. For larger or smaller Pfropfenlängen the plugs disintegrated and formed along the feed line new
in the described length. At the same mass flow, the pressure loss of the clocked plug delivery is slightly
larger than that of the untimed. This is probably due to the long interval times (maximum 10 s), during
which the conveyed material comes to rest in the delivery line. At the same mass flow, the pressure loss
of the clocked plug delivery is slightly larger than that of the untimed. This is probably due to the long
interval times (maximum 10 s), during which the conveyed material comes to rest in the delivery line. At
the same mass flow, the pressure loss of the clocked plug delivery is slightly larger than that of the
untimed. This is probably due to the long interval times (maximum 10 s), during which the conveyed
material comes to rest in the delivery line.

Figure 5.9 State diagram of the gated stump delivery

1.5

according to [5.8], (designations as in Figure 5.S)

bar

0.5

air velocity v at the end

6

m/s

»•

129

av ^ -

A 8rr / s

4 m / so 6 nn / s

Hz

>

/ Vo

1-2

Fig. 5.10 Plug frequencies for the measurements of Fig. 5.8 after [5.8] A Starting frequency E Final
frequency

1.0

^D

g"

i> x" rn

0.8
X

ii 0.6

o ^ - ^ "• '\

^^

. 0,4

^^

^ 0.2

10

20

30

40

50

60

Good loading u

70

80
»- Limit

curve c" = v

12 m / s

10

6-

äo

O) CD

Air velocity v at the end

130

10 m / s 12

Figure 5.11 Measured graft speed as a function of air speed with and without clocking Aa Initial speed
without clocking Eg Final speed without clocking AT Initial speed with clocking ET Final speed with
clocking

The area B in Figures 5.8 and 5.9 has both an upper limit, beyond which not enough conveyed material
is to be introduced into the conveyor system, as well as a lower limit. Beyond the lower limit, which was
also observed by R. ERNST [5.7] and by the author [5.2], no plugs are formed. The granules fly or roll at
too low concentration individually through the delivery line. A comparison of Figure 5.8 with 5.9 shows
that the lower limit of graft delivery at clocking is much lower (approximately at Qs = 0.5 t / h) than
without clocking (approximately at Qs = 1.5 t / h). This is the special advantage of the clocking that it
also causes a more accurate metering of the good mass flow by batch by batch gapping after the other is
allocated. The state of the plug promotion is basically possible without clocking. The higher structural
and control-technical effort can only be justified with the better dosage in the range of small mass
flows. R. FEI.LMETH [5.8] has measured the plug frequencies at the beginning and at the end of the
delivery line for the previously described state diagram (Figure 5.8) and plotted them above the product
load (Figure 5.10). These frequencies occur without any timing. Figure 5.10 shows that the plug
frequency changes along the delivery line. It is about twice as big at the beginning as it is at the
beginning. This is only possible if the plugs are longer in the end than at the beginning. According to
Figure 5.10, the plug frequency increases approximately linearly with the load. This suggests grafts of
approximately equal length. By contrast, the air velocity has almost no influence on the plug
frequency. According to the comments on section 2.3, in pneumatic conveying, the material velocity and
thus the plug velocity are lower than the air velocity. The measurements of R. FELLMETH according to
Fig. 5.11 are essentially in agreement with the statements of M. BOHNET [5.10]. Since the air velocity is
lower at the beginning than at the end, also the plugs move slower at the beginning than at the end. In
addition, the plug velocity with and without clocking is approximately equal. Finally, it can be inferred
from Fig. 5.11 that the differential velocity between air and plug u - c is approximately constant as a
function of the air velocity when the plug is conveyed. This has caused B. Legel [5.11] to plot the plug
velocity as a parallel equalization curve to the line c = u. Assuming a constant resistance and thus a
constant pressure loss to the plug displacement, then would analogous to Eq. 2.7 the differential speed
i; - c become constant. The slight curvature of the curves c in Figure 5. ll can have the following causes:
a) The displacement resistance changes with the plug velocity. b) The term

according to Eq. 2.7 changes with increasing airspeed, especially as the plug loosens at higher
airspeed. That is, the void fraction increases with increasing air velocity.

131

5.4.3

Method of plug conveying

In Table 5.1, practical application procedures were compiled and provided with data, as far as they were
accessible to the author. The specified limit values refer to realized plants. However, they are often not
the end of a possible development. The first two process developments (Waeschle and Bühler) refer to
the classical plug conveying of granules with a large void content. Due to the timing of the third process
developer (Gericke) also reaches a Pfropfenförderung of fine-grained and cohesive conveyed. Since such
plugs can disintegrate similar to the Granulatpfropfen during the promotion, they could enforce the
delivery line such that no air can flow through it to dissolve the plug formation in grafting. That's why
this development is limited to shorter conveyor lengths. For extreme conveyed goods and conveyor
lengths, this manufacturer offers other methods as described in section 5.6. The development no. 4
should also be used for cohesive and sticky goods, since after each durchgedörderten graft a ball as a
sliding body cleans the delivery line. The methods listed here, which are compulsory company-related,
can only describe a part of the methods and systems used in industry. More elaborate procedures for
more difficult materials are discussed in Section 5.6. Finally, it should be mentioned that the
Pfropfenförderung a natural law and as such is not patentable as a whole. In addition, the patent
protection period of 20 years would have expired; because the phenomenon has been observed and
described a long time ago, although the Propfenförderanlagen have only been built for 10 to 15
years. Table 5.1 Procedure for pneumatic plug conveying Development Manufacturer

1 Waeschle Ravensburg

2 Buhler U / .wil

3 Gericke Zurich

4 Kabushiki Tokyo

base

prospectus

prospectus

prospectus

Name

slow conveyance No 2-8 m / s

clock boost

Pulse Flow

German Patent 2,628,811 promotion with thrust body

yes

yes

\*

2 -6 m / s

2-8 m / s
5m/s

10-100 0.5-10 mm no

10-100 0.5 -10 mm no

max. 80 coarse and fine ia (?)

1000 m

1000 m

200 m

50 t / h

50 t / h

1-6 bar

0.5-6 bar

Clocking Air speed Good loading Grain diameter Cohesive bulk material Maximum conveying path
Maximum material flow pressure

132

to 3 bar

coarse and fine yes

5.5

Process of pneumatic flow conveyance

According to the remarks in Section 2.1.6, many bulk materials can assume a liquid-like state due to the
flow of air in the fluidized bed. Liquids are easier to convey than solids (here in the form of bulk
solids). The state diagram of fluid delivery describes the quadratic parabola of Eq. 2.2. This is similar to
the state diagram of the flow promotion according to Figure 2.16. 5.5.1
Fluid bed conveying

In the case of fluid bed conveying, which does not count in the narrower sense of pneumatic conveying,
a bulk material of air is flowed through at a velocity greater than the air velocity at the loosening point
UAP 'n Figure 2.12. As a result, the bulk material is fluidized. If this happens in a channel with only a few
degrees of inclination (Fig. 5.12), then the bulk material in the so-called flow channel flows downwards,
similar to a liquid. Figure 5.12 The flow channel a Clean air duct b porous floor made of fabric, sintered
metal or sintered plastic c conveyor channel \

, The trough inclinations required for a bulk material movement and the consequent material velocities
were investigated by K. KEUNEKE [5.12]. Especially for fine-grained and heavy powders, flow channels
work very economically. For the compressed air generation, the use of a fan is sufficient. The low energy
requirement leads to good mass flows of up to 3000 t / h [5.13]. 5.5.2

Executed flow-conveying processes

With data similar to the state diagram according to Fig. 2.17, Bühler carries out the Fluidlift flow-
conveying systems [5.14]. From the curves in Figure 5.13 can be concluded that this promotion is in the
field of strand promotion. The values given for this conveying method are: Grain size: Conveying path:
Good mass flow: Pressure range:

0 to 2 mm 100 to 1000 m 10 to 100 t / h 0.5 to 2 bar

The high pressure is required here because the powdery material to be conveyed is not only fluidized as
shown in Fig. 5.12, but also conveyed according to Fig. 2.17 (state diagram).

133

1.5

Figure 5.13 Pressure drop as a function of Luftgcschwindigkcit executed at flow conveyors (Flmdlift) for
[5.14J

bar O) (D

1.0

OO

15

20
25

m/s

30

air velocity v -

5.5.3

special procedures of the flow promoter

A connection of the energy-saving fluid bed conveying according to section 5.5. l with pneumatic flow
conveying as pure plumb bob conveying according to section 5.5.2, H. HAHN [5.15] proposes. Figure
5.14 shows the system diagram and pressure curve of this pneumatic fluidized bed flow conveying
system. The flow cross sections, pressures and air volumes of both types of delivery must be
coordinated with each other.

5.14 Combined methods of the pneumatic Fließbctt- and flow promoter for [5,15]

pressure curve

conveyor

134

5.6

A method of promoting cohesive and adhesive solids

5.6.1

influence of cohesion and adhesion to the funding procedure

Most of the bulk materials described so far are not cohesive. In other words, they can not absorb shear
stress i (see Figure 3.6a) when unloaded (normal tension: a = 0). If, at a = 0, a shear stress can be
transposed in accordance with Figure 3.6b, which can also increase as a result of time hardening, then
these bulk solids tend increasingly to form a plug in the delivery line by means of cohesion. This
cohesion occurs with most bulk materials together with the adhesion (Figure 3.7). The adhesion leads to
increased wall friction and promotes plug formation. If the wall friction is greater than the wall shear
stress due to the dead weight of the bulk material, wall projections form. The influence of the cohesion
occurs preferably in the dense phase conveying and in the plug conveying; because here are in the range
of small air velocities, the grains or particles of the conveyed to each other. Coherence interferes less
with free flight in flight promotion. For example, sawdust can be pneumatically conveyed at 20 to 25 m /
s air speed without difficulty. However, blockages in pneumatic chip conveyor systems can be so tight
that already clogged parts of the delivery line have been removed and thrown away. In one specific
case, the author "drilled" such plugs by turning a long batten, and was always astonished at the
resistance that a chip-slug counterposed to axial displacement. Extreme cohesion with time hardening,
which goes so far that the bulk material assumes solid-state properties, is based on the following
examples: a) The bulk powder snow solidifies under pressure to glacial ice. b) Granulated sugar in the
silo absorbs water from the air at a relative humidity above p = 60% and solidifies again at lower air
humidity to a sugar crust, which gradually adds the silo outlet. c) If Sihziumdioxid blown through pipes
with air transport at »= 20 m / s air velocity, it starts at the points of the elbow where the manifold
wears. This goes so far, until the elbow grows and no more air flows. Similarly, certain milk powders and
special blacks behave. These processes are often time-dependent. It may also be that a cohesive
conveyed after several days of promotion forms only 0.5 m long plug that can not be eliminated even
with the pressure of the factory air network of 6 bar. In order to safely convey cohesive and adhesive
bulk materials at low air velocities, it is not sufficient to set the plug in accordance with Figure
5.7. Rather, measures must be taken that are able to dissolve a plug tending to plug already in the
making or shortly thereafter. Such measures are described by W. KRAMBROCK [5.16J. If already in the
sections

135

5.3 and 5.4 mechanical methods for eliminating plugs in delivery lines have been described, but the best
method for avoiding plug is the injection of air at certain points of the delivery line W. KRAMBROCK has
measured the pressure required to move a plug of a certain length in a tube , In the process, this plug
was previously compressed with air at various pressures. Figure 5.15 shows the measured displacement
pressures for titanium dioxide grafts in the 80 mm diameter tube. It follows that z. B. can move such a
previously compressed with 4 bar plug at a pressure difference of 3 bar on the plug only if it is not more
than 0.7 m. In order to avoid blockage in all operating conditions in a plant with these values, The plant
would be built so that if required, every 0.7 m along the delivery line air can be blown. If this pressure is
applied to a not previously compressed plug, it must not be longer than 1.2 m. Compression pressure
4bar

2bar

1 bar Fig. 5.15 Displacement pressures of the bulk material plugs according to W. KRAMBROCK [5.16]
depending on the plug length and the compression pressure for the bulk material titanium dioxide, type
Kronos AD with
• D CD

Obar
n CD

CD CD

.co CD-a

l CD

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 m 1.2

plug length /

It follows that z. B. the conveyed titanium dioxide is unlikely to be emptied with compressed air from a
delivery line, if it has previously deposited there. On the other hand, the additional air injection is
suitable to blow free a clogged with such conveyed delivery line. This expense was not required for
granule production in the range of low air velocities according to Section 5.4.

136

5.6.2 Conveying process

for cohesive bulk solids

From Fig. 5.15 it can be concluded that compressed air with a high pressure difference at the plug is to
be blown into the delivery line as directly as possible at short intervals to remove the plug. The better a
method solves this problem and the smaller the apparatus required with low wear and at the same time
high operational reliability, the better the conveying method used for the pneumatic conveying of
cohesive bulk solids. Since this is a demanding task, a variety of methods have been developed, which
will be described below. In order to understand the overall development, the individual procedures are
treated in chronological order as they were applied for a patent. There is no claim to completeness of
the mentioned procedures. The designation is made in this way that in the first place the inventor or
inventors, secondly the applicant or the company is called, which develops the method. a) KANics /
Gattys A. KANICS was the first to realize the importance of secondary air injection for pneumatic
conveying at low air velocities. In the patent application filed in 1961 [5.17], an air-permeable hose (Fig.
5.16) is inserted into the delivery line and clean air flows through it. The constantly flowing from the
hose into the delivery line loosens the conveyed material and counteracts the emergence of
plugs. KANICS recognized the importance of auxiliary air injection for pneumatic conveying at low air
velocities. In the patent application filed in 1961 [5.17], an air-permeable hose (Fig. 5.16) is inserted into
the delivery line and clean air flows through it. The constantly flowing from the hose into the delivery
line loosens the conveyed material and counteracts the emergence of plugs. KANICS recognized the
importance of auxiliary air injection for pneumatic conveying at low air velocities. In the patent
application filed in 1961 [5.17], an air-permeable hose (Fig. 5.16) is inserted into the delivery line and
clean air flows through it. The constantly flowing from the hose into the delivery line loosens the
conveyed material and counteracts the emergence of plugs.

Fig. 5.16 Delivery with additional air through perforated hose according to [5.17]

Fig. 5.17 Delivery with additional air through by-pass line according to [5.1 <S] a) Outer line

o °° o

g ° Q ». *" Oo ° o b) internal line pQ ooo ° oo ° ° o. a) O »OQOOOOV o O o O o OOO v 'OO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 ° 0 00 0 0 <?' 0 oo 0 o 0 o b )

b) LIPPERT, MuscHELkNAUTZ / Bühler In this procedure [5.18], the additional air is conducted in an air
duct located in the pipe or outside, which allows the return of additional air into the delivery pipe at
regularly recurring connections (Figure 5.17). This process was further developed by Bühler, Uzwil,
under the name Fluidstat and used in numerous plants [5.14]. The airspeed for the otherwise necessary
flight

137

could be lowered to 5 to 11 m / s. A start was possible after switching off the delivery with filled delivery
line. The method has proven itself among other things in the pneumatic cement production. It was
possible to extract 4 million t of cement with 50% energy savings in 50,000 working hours without
replacing conveying pipes or elbows. The limits of the process are strongly adhesive and heavily abrasive
goods. These either add the bypass or wear it due to increased air velocities at plug dissolution. c)
KANics / Mittelmann, Bühler A. KANICS [5.19] uses non-return valves between the secondary line and
the delivery line to prevent the product from being transferred to the secondary line. These are
separated from the delivery line by a small filter against soiling (Fig. 5.18). The process, which was
initially marketed by Mittelmann, Laasphe, was further developed by Bühler, Uzwil, and used under the
name FluidSchub (5.20].

oooo

~^°

Fig. 5.18 Delivery with additional air via non-return valves according to [5.19]

After the correct filters for the check valves were found, this delivery method covers the gap of the
previous, by the conveyed material does not get into the secondary line. Of course, this requirement is
met by the use of bulk materials. D) LINDKR The previously described methods carry the additional air
with connections parallel to the delivery line. Although the additional air acts on a separation of the plug
out, but it can also flow past the stopper in the secondary line. As a result, the pressure difference for
separating the plug is reduced, which corresponds to a lower displacement pressure in Figure 5.15. The
plug removal is then not as efficient as when the full pressure of the secondary line is pending as a shift
pressure. For the first time, H. LINDER points to the removal of plugs with the total pressure of the
secondary line. The patent [5.21] describes an entire method of plug delivery, which is used under the
name Vibro-Puls-Pneu [5.22]. The preferred cohesive bulk material is introduced through a vibrating
pressure vessel with pneumatic control. At critical points of the delivery line, so-called "power
amplifiers" are used to inject compressed air. However, these react to the absolute pressure in the
delivery line and not to the differential pressure between the beginning and end of the plug. At critical
points of the delivery line, so-called "power amplifiers" are used to inject compressed air. However,
these react to the absolute pressure in the delivery line and not to the differential pressure between the
beginning and end of the plug. At critical points of the delivery line, so-called "power amplifiers" are
used to inject compressed air. However, these react to the absolute pressure in the delivery line and not
to the differential pressure between the beginning and end of the plug.

138

Fig. 5.19 Delivery with targeted additional air via check valves and sensors according to [5.24]

Q ooo o0 nooo oo2o ° o8o ° n °° nO ° O

V- ^ c °
R Check valve S Sensor / JHNO p FI p Ne i pNei Apsi Aps2

Pressure in Delivery and secondary line without stopper Pressure in delivery line with stopper and open
sensor Pressure in secondary line with stopper and open sensor Maximum pressure in secondary line
with closed sensor Split pressure at stopper with open sensor Maximum possible split pressure at
stopper

e) KRAMBROCK / Waeschle W. KRAMBROCK [5.23] has set itself the goal of preventing the formation of
plugs even during the phase of their formation by targeted injection of secondary air [5.24 and
5.25]. The process, developed under the name Pneumosplit by Waeschle, Ravensburg, is shown
schematically in Fig. 5.19. The secondary line is connected at intervals of 0.5 to 1.5 m to the delivery line
via two to four non-return valves and one sensor. In normal production without stopper, the delivery
line and the secondary line are flowed through in such a way that the pressure curve in both is
approximately equal (/? KNO). - If a stopper or a collection of accumulated material forms in the delivery
line, the pressure rises in front of it - This leads to the last Check valve that the plug still covers, the
pressure difference Ap S i between secondary line and delivery line. This leads to the overflow of air
from the secondary line into the delivery line and to the "tracking" of the plug from behind. At a certain
pressure difference p Nc! - pH the sensor closes the secondary line. The then adjusting pressure pN c 2
leads to a higher grit pressure p, which is suitable for efficient removal of even solid plugs from
behind. The advantage of the method lies in the automatic adaptation to the conveying state: D In the
case of flight and strand conveying no secondary air is injected. D When delivering bales, some air flows
via the differential pressure Ap S i into the delivery line. D If there is a blockage, the maximum pressure
of the secondary line to stopper dissolution is at the end of the plug. This behavior is comparable to the
braking behavior of the tram with partial and full braking. However, this must be bought with a higher
expenditure on equipment than in [5.19].

139

without pneumosplit

: Pneumosplit

Fig. 5.20 State diagram of pneumatic conveying with secondary air injection according to the
I'neumosplit method (5.26) Material: Bulk density: Conveying distance: of which Hub: pipe elbow:

10

15

20
m/s

Glass batch 1300 kg / m '62m 5m 6

25

air speed v at the end

Figure 5.20 shows in the state diagram the advantages of conveying with the pneumosplit method
compared to transport in a smooth tube using the example of conveying glass mixtures [5.26]. By using
this method, the service life of the elbows increased from one to twelve weeks due to the lower air
velocity. Both the inventor and the applicant have further developed this method [5.27,5.28, 5.29]. f)
MÜNSCH / Waeschle While at KRAMBROCK / Waeschle the valves and sensors still control themselves,
in the age of electronics it was obvious to make this control electronically. E. MÜNSCH [5.30] proposes
to specify a target state for the pressure in the delivery line. If the actual state, measured by sensors
along the delivery line, deviates from the nominal state, At certain points of the delivery line, secondary
air is selectively injected. The acquisition of the measured quantities and the conversion of the
secondary air injection is carried out by a control unit (Fig. 5.21). This method, which has not been
developed until today, requires a program of measures programmed by the human being of the control
unit. A "teach-in" program could control such a conveyor, much like a robot. g) RoTZiNGER / Gericke
RoTZiNGER / Gericke achieves a constantly constant flow of air between the secondary line and the
delivery line by metering the injection volume with Laval nozzles along the delivery line [5.31]. The Laval
nozzles (Fig. 5.22) have the advantage that at constant flow This method, which has not been developed
until today, requires a program of measures programmed by the human being of the control unit. A
"teach-in" program could control such a conveyor, much like a robot. g) RoTZiNGER / Gericke
RoTZiNGER / Gericke achieves a constantly constant flow of air between the secondary line and the
delivery line by metering the injection volume with Laval nozzles along the delivery line [5.31]. The Laval
nozzles (Fig. 5.22) have the advantage that at constant flow This method, which has not been developed
until today, requires a program of measures programmed by the human being of the control unit. A
"teach-in" program could control such a conveyor, much like a robot. g) RoTZiNGER / Gericke
RoTZiNGER / Gericke achieves a constantly constant flow of air between the secondary line and the
delivery line by metering the injection volume with Laval nozzles along the delivery line [5.31]. The Laval
nozzles (Fig. 5.22) have the advantage that at constant flow g) RoTZiNGER / Gericke RoTZiNGER /
Gericke achieves a constantly constant flow of air between the secondary line and the delivery line by
metering the injection volume with Laval nozzles along the delivery line [5.31]. The Laval nozzles (Fig.
5.22) have the advantage that at constant flow g) RoTZiNGER / Gericke RoTZiNGER / Gericke achieves a
constantly constant flow of air between the secondary line and the delivery line by metering the
injection volume with Laval nozzles along the delivery line [5.31]. The Laval nozzles (Fig. 5.22) have the
advantage that at constant flow

140
Fig. 5.21 Delivery with secondary air injection, triggered by control unit according to [5.30] S, his S 4 A / ji
to AM St

Sensors Pressure differences Air flow meter Control unit

AP,

Ap2

Fig. 5.22 Delivery with secondary air injection and dosing of air mass flow through Laval nozzles
according to [5.31]

Pressure in the secondary line The amount of air flowing through is independent of the fluctuating
counter-pressure in the delivery line if the secondary line is at least 1.89 times the pressure of the
delivery line (see section 6.6.4). In addition, an overflow of material to be conveyed into the secondary
line against the speed of sound in the Laval nozzle is not possible. F ^ to some disadvantage is seen in
the constant air consumption at the injection points, the increased air pressure in the secondary line and
in the effect on the air velocity in the delivery line. Since the latter can be calculated, the air velocity can
be determined by extending the delivery pipe diameter according to Section 4.3.4.2. Extremely low
conveyor speeds of 0.2 to 0.8 m / s can be guaranteed with great reliability [5.32]. h) MUSCLES, MÖLLER

H. MÖLLER observes pronounced fluctuating pressures in the delivery line during prolonged pneumatic
conveying of fine-grained heavy bulk materials, such as alumina. This he leads to a decrease in the
turbulence of the conveying air along the delivery line back. The turbulence can be increased by a
secondary line in the delivery line (Fig. 5.23), whose air flow is routed at regular intervals partly into the
delivery line and partly through an additional throttle plate through the secondary line [5.33]. Figure
5.23 Delivery with secondary air injection and increase in turbulence according to [5.33]

141

The process is a further development of the LIPPERT, MUSCHELKNAUTZ / Bühler process. It has been
proven in the promotion of alumina and other abrasive goods due to low air velocities. Starting with full
delivery line is possible. Therefore, it is also possible to dispense with diverter valves or shut-off valves in
the case of several receiving containers [5..34]. i) SPRING / SMALL In order to dissolve plugs, which are
preferably formed at critical points of the delivery line, B. FEDERHENN [5.35] proposes a special air
injection valve. According to Figure 5.24, the valve sits between the delivery line and the secondary
line. Two pressure measuring lines, which are constantly purged with air, apply a piston to their
differential pressure.

K
,r

jil

^ ^ AAAA'4 '\ • / / VVV Y7' ///////////>

- ^>

5.24 valve to promote with Ncbenluftcinblasung by [5:35]

n,

Such Valves are used in pneumatic conveying of highly abrasive quartz sand. In the case of production
problems, the operational safety of existing systems can be increased by retrofitting with such
valves. 5.6.3 Delivery process

for adhesive bulk materials

Adhesive bulk materials can settle on the wall. This undesirable property increases with the pressure
and thus the momentum when hitting the pipe wall. Strongly adhesive conveyed goods, such as silicon
dioxide, greasy milk powder, some PVC powders or sticky soot, usually do not dissolve due to the impact
of the subsequent conveyed material during pneumatic conveying. With less adhesion, the delivery line
is sometimes laid in polyethylene pipes with a lower wall friction coefficient. If this does not succeed,
attempts are made to break off wall crusts by laying the delivery line in flexible hoses. According to
[5.36], crusts on the hose can be removed by putting the delivery hose in a pipe, between tube and hose
pushes a smaller inflatable tube and inflates it at certain intervals. As a result, the delivery hose is
deformed, and caking crusts of the conveyed break up.

142

The previously described fluid-shear method [5.20] is also used for difficult, adhesive soot. The delivery
line is lined with a rubber hose. Similarly, the pneumosplit method is used to promote strongly adhesive
carbon blacks. In the conveying process used under the name Elastosplit, rubber hoses are clamped
between the flanges of the delivery line, whereby the check valves blow the air from the secondary line
into the interior of the hose [5.37]. The variety of pneumatic conveying methods presented have been
developed from the requirements of the practice. The methods indicate that the use for the transport of
a particular bulk material must be well considered.

143

Air supply

Many of the many compressor principles have been preserved for use in pneumatic conveying
systems. First, the basics for these compressors and then the individual versions will be discussed. Less
emphasis is placed on the design details than on the interaction with the pneumatic conveyor system.

6.1

Thermodynamic basics

6.1.1 Flow rate

and pressure increase

The compressor has the task to bring a volume flow to a higher pressure. Most of the time air is
compressed from the atmospheric state p0 = p \ to a higher pressure p2. With the fan, this is done
continuously; with the rotary blower or the screw compressor, individual volumes are compressed. The
specific volume DI = VL lm \, ie the volume of air referred to l kg, is polytropically compressed according
to the following equation: p •!) ['. = constant

(equation 6.1)

In Eq. 6.1 is p the pressure and n the polytropic exponent. The polytropic exponent can take values
between 0 and = c. Depending on the size of n, different types of compaction are distinguished. In Figure
6. l is an example of the compression of the specific volume D! i = lm 'from the atmospheric pressure p0
= p, = l bar recorded to the final pressure p, = 4 bar. This results in two limit curves: D Along the isobars n
= 0 there is no compression because the pressure remains constant. D The space remains constant along
the isochores n = = °. A compression can only be achieved by increasing the temperature. In between
are the compression processes carried out by the compressors. If no heat is added or removed during
compaction, the result is a compaction with the isentropic exponent n = K = 1.4 (for air).

(Equation 6.2)

At H = K, the air heats up during compression. This not only has the disadvantage that the heating
requires additional energy. The energy must be dissipated by heat exchangers. Finally, the temperature
changes the column at

145

n = 1 n = 1.3 n - 1.4 n = 2

P2 = 4

Figure 6. l Polytropic compaction p • u "= const., From the pressure pi = \ bar to p2 = 4 bar with:; / = 0
isobars n = = o isochores n = l isotherms n = 1.4 isentropes (in air)

bar

n=0

0.2

0.4

m3 / kg

0.6

specific volume VL

1 , 0 »•

non-contact compressor piston. Therefore, the column must be made larger, which increases the
leakage air flow and thus the Polytropenexponent compared to the isotherms n = l again. Ideal with
regard to energy requirement, heat dissipation and design of the seal would be a compression along the
isotherms n = 1. This is achieved, for example, approximately at the screw compressor by oil
injection. The oil seals between the gaps of the pistons and dissipates the heat. However, it must be
separated from the air stream after cooling and cooled. In Figure 6.1, the area between the polytropes
and the p-axis describes the energy to be applied per kg of air for compaction. It can be seen that the
specific energy increases with increasing polytropic exponent. In figure 6.2 this is

vv

P2 - '1 bar

o5o

'

Fig. 6.2 Hoisting Compressor,

L / eir common, without oil Barking

) Rehabilitative blower \ \ / entilator

^ 7 TN * ^

0,2

0,4

0,6

specific volume VL 146

rrvVkg 1,0 * -

Pressure ranges of fan,

Energy at n = K for the usual pressure increases of the single-stage fan, the rotary blower and the single-
stage, oil-free screw compressor drawn. With the fan, the size of the polytropic exponent has little effect
on the specific energy. In the positive displacement blower, the heat development limits the sealing gap
and thus the pressure ratio pi / p \. This eventually led to the development of the screw compressor for
higher pressures. This has a smaller Polytropenexponenten due to compulsory compaction. To compress
the air volume flow V from the pressure pt to the pressure p2, the following theoretical power is
required:

(equation 6.3) The drive power must be set higher by the efficiency // = 0.6 to 0.8:

(Eq.

ö = --P., / '

With Ap = p2 - pi, according to Eq. 6.3: *

'

(GI.6.5)

For small increases in pressure, eg if a fan increases the pressure from 1 to 1.1 bar, Eq. 6.5 by
approximation into a binomial series:

~ V | -Ap

(Eq.6.7)

These already as Eq. 2.10 for incompressible flow performance justifies neglecting the compressibility of
the air at small pressure differences. This is reflected in different standards for the compressor and the
fan. 6.1.2

Temperature increase

With the pressure increase according to Eq. 6.3, the temperature rises from T to T2 according to the
following relationship: (6.8) For a given intake temperature T, the final temperature Ti is a function of
the pressure ratio pi / Pi and the polytropic exponent n. Figure 6.3 shows the temperature increase over
the polytropic exponent with the pressure ratio as Parameter applied. All curves originate at the
isotherms («=!). The Endtempera-

147

500
Figure 6.3 increase in temperature AT as a function of Polytropcnexponenten H with the pressure ratio
PJP \ as a parameter, K = 1.4 isentropic exponent A operating point of a manufacturer of
Sehraubenverdichtern [6.1] operating point of a manufacturer of rotary blowers [6.1]

K, ° C

400

h. ™

300

200

100

Polytropic exponent n - Figure 6.4 Radial fan

148

for isochores (n = = °) is equal to the absolute initial temperature T}, multiplied by the pressure ratio pi /
p \. The temperature of isentropes n = K = 1.4 (in air) is limited. However, any leakage flows in the
sealing gaps from the pressure side to the suction side have a temperature-increasing effect. Figure 6.3
shows two operating points for oil-free screw compressors (point A) and positive displacement blower
(point B) of a manufacturer [6.1]. It can be seen that the positive displacement blower with «= 1.9 is less
favorable than the screw compressor with n = 1.5. The latter almost reaches the isentropic exponent n =
1.4.

6.2

Fan

6.2.1

Function
The fan (Figure 6.4) is a flow compressor. Due to Euler's flow machine main equation, the centrifugal fan
generates the following pressure difference: A

P = '/ h' Q \. '(' 2 'cui - MI • cui)

(Equation 6.9)

where A / H is an efficiency, MI and M2 are the impeller peripheral speeds, cu] and c "2 are the
peripheral velocities of the flow. The index l refers to the entry, the index 2 refers to the exit. Neglecting
the conditions at the entrance and setting M2 = cui in the first approximation, then Eq. 6.9 with the
efficiency HI, approximate description: Ap = A / I, • £> L • «i

(Eq.6.10)

where the efficiency A / I is approximately:

A / ,, = 0.6 to 0.8 A more accurate detection can be found in [6.2]. Turns the impeller with 800 mm
diameter of a fan z. Eg with a speed of 3000 min "1 = 50 s" 1, then the peripheral speed is: "2 = ri •" J =
0.4 m • 2 n • 50 s ~ '= 125.7 m / s

With an efficiency A / I, = 0.7, this fan at Qi = 1.2 kg / m 'will reach the following pressure increase
according to Eq. 6.10:

Ap-0.7-U-5 to 125.7 »- = $ 13272-, 2 = 0.133 bar m The peripheral speed can not loading for strength of
the impeller

149

can be increased arbitrarily. For this reason, single-stage centrifugal fans in pneumatic conveying
systems are limited to pressure increases up to approximately 0.16 bar. For larger pressure increases
usually use rotary blower. The DIN standard 24 163 [6.

p ± _ <1.3 Pl p ± _> 1.3 Pl

for fans for compressors

The density QI of the fluid in Eq. 6.9 is SO times as great as air in the case of water. That is why
centrifugal pumps have a much higher pressure increase than fans. On the other hand, the pressure
increase of a fan decreases linearly with the air density at the suction nozzle, when the fan operates in
the suction mode. The high flow velocities of the fan lead to noise, which can be calculated according to
approximate equations [6.2]. This often gives rise to soundproofing measures.
6.2.2

Types and characteristics

6.2.2.1

Fan characteristic

If one compares the state diagram with the achievable pressures of the single-stage fan (according to
equation 6.10) as shown in Fig. 2.13, then it can be seen that the fan covers only the lowest range of the
pressures required for the pneumatic delivery. The centrifugal fan in Figure 6.4 is already the single-
stage flow compressor with the largest pressure increase. Figure 6.5 shows the design of other fan
designs according to [6.2]. According to DIN 24 163 [6.3], standard characteristics of fans are included on
a standard test bench. These describe the characteristic diagram of the fan with the diagrams: D total
pressure increase A / ?, (V,); D Power consumption relative to impeller input: PL (V,); D Efficiency,
relative to Ap, at the impeller inlet ijü (V,) = l \ ll \. Picture 6.

axial

design semi-axial

radial

pressure increase - »- 200 mbar

10-

150

Fig. 6.6 Complete characteristic diagram of a centrifugal fan in pressure mode according to [6.2] with the
values: air pressure: p ,, = 10S Pa air density: QIH = 1,2 kg / m- ', Speed: n = 20 l / s

IUUU

Pa

Q_ <01 C

r 0>

U
800

^N\

finn

\ 400

rj Q

CD

c 2 To

1200

^^^

S1 "B

^g

^^^

g '<d

f=

r^-

AHO
onn

_d EJ 'O) MC 3 1

1, 0 nß

n4 0

^ x; • / • ^

' l! HM *

X^

0.4 0.8 1.2 Air flow rate l /,

1.6m3 / s2.0 * •

At the same time, Ap and P also detect the dynamic pressure increase. The air volume flow V {is
determined at the inlet to the fan. Figure 6.6 shows a complete map of a centrifugal fan according to
[6.2J. It shows the relatively flat characteristic Ap, (V |). This was already indicated in section 2.5. The
optimal efficiency // t [. is just over 80%. If one did not consider the dynamic pressure increase, the
maximum efficiency would be 72%. Near the optimal efficiency is the optimal operating point. In this
area, the absorbed power PI increases with the air volume flow V \. If you now throttle the fan as shown
in Figure 6.6 by moving to the left on the curves, the volume flow decreases more than the pressure
increase increases. Despite falling efficiency> / rl the recorded power goes to Eq. 6.4 and 6.7
back. Therefore, you drive a high-performance fan throttled and opens the throttle only when it has
reached its operating speed.

151

6.2.2.2
Impeller

The curvature of the blades of the impeller goes beyond the peripheral velocity c "2 of the flow
according to Eq. 6.9 in the pressure increase of the fan. In addition, the curvature affects the fan
characteristic. Figure 6.7 shows the three possible blade shapes: D backward curved, ø radially ending, D
forward curved. According to Figure 6.7, certain blade profiles are assigned to these blade shapes [6.2].

Figure 6.7 Influence of the blade curvature on the fan characteristic according to [6.2] and [6.4]

Ap

,, operating point with highest efficiency

152

6.2.2.3

Similarity laws

If you change the fan speed from n \ to «), the impeller diameter from DI to D ,, or the air density from Q
{, to g12, then the volume flow, the pressure increase and the power consumption change with the
similarity laws according to the following equations [ 6.4]:

DI D,

v, "

(Eq.6.11)

Api

^ p7

(Eq. 6.12)

» l «2_U" l

(Eq. 6.13) D,

Taking these relationships into account, fans can be adapted to changing tasks
Fig . 6.8 Operating point of a fan

Fan characteristic Characteristic curve

Operating point

V-

6.2.3

Control of fans

As described in section 2.5, the operating point of a fan system is the same as the intersection of fan and
system characteristics (see Fig. 6.8). In the case of pure air flows, the system characteristic is usually
determined by the following equation: = constant V1

(equation 6.14)

The constant results from the pressure losses. The operator of a system is particularly interested in the
position of the operating point, less the fan or the system characteristic itself. The following maize
recordings can be used to influence the operating point of the system directly at the fan:

153 System characteristic

Ap ~ V2

Fig. 6.9 Characteristic diagram of a drchy-controlled centrifugal fan according to [6.2]

Guide vane adjustment, run schaufei adjustment, bypass control, speed control, throttle control, swirl
control.

12

16rrvVs20

Volume flow V ~

These measures are described in more detail in [6.2]. Guide and blade adjustment are not used in
pneumatic conveying systems for cost reasons. The bypass control reduces the economy by the return
flow parallel to the fan and leads to temperature increase in the intake air. In terms of operating costs,
the most economical fan control is speed control (Figure 6.9). It is not yet significant for pneumatic
conveying today. This may change if the frequency converters for three-phase motors are further
developed. For motor powers up to 7.5 kW, the voltage regulation is also used for the speed setting. The
simple throttle control of the fan, which is usually done on the suction side, is still the most
popular. Because of the small amounts of air for fans, in most cases a swiveling and lockable butterfly
valve on the intake manifold is sufficient as shown in Figure 6.10. According to Fig. 6.11, the suction
throttling does not change the fan characteristic, but rather the system characteristic curve, because the
suction choke counts for the system and not for the fan. When the throttle is open, the system curve is
flat. You get a large air flow, and the recorded engine power is high. With increasing throttling the air
volume flow and the absorbed power decreases. The steeper system characteristic curve with throttled
fan brings in accordance with section 2.5 a better operating behavior in pneumatic conveying. In
contrast to the throttle control, the pre-swirl control changes the fan characteristic. The intake side
mounted twist regulator (Fig. 6. 12) increases the swirl of the flow at the suction with increasing
inclination of the radial blades. That can be done in the

154

Figure 6.10

Suction choke on the fan

Air flow rate V Figure 6.12 Radial fan with pre-swirl control

Figure 6.11 Characteristic curves of the fan with suction throttling B ,, B2, B; , B4, operating points

or against the direction of rotation of the impeller. Figure 6.1.3 shows a map of a fan with pre-swirl
control according to [6.2]. The steeper characteristic with increasing pre-twist and the safe intersection
with the system characteristic point to a safe operating point. Nevertheless, according to [6.2], the
power requirement for pre-swirl control is greater than for fan speed control. 6.2.4

The fan in the system

The fan characteristic curve may change compared to the measurements on the test bench, in particular
if the air must flow through resistances in the form of bends or cross-sectional changes immediately
before the suction-side inlet [6.2. Therefore, the installation instructions of the fan manufacturer must
be observed. Both the fan characteristic curve and the system characteristic curve have a tolerance
range (see also DIN 24166). This can in the worst case to an air flow V min or V m. lx (Fig. 6.14). This
Toleranzfcld is not desirable for the pneumatic conveying. It leads in addition to the flat fan
characteristic that one operates a pneumatic conveyor with fan usually with excessive air velocity.
155

System characteristic curve Apt ~ l / 2 Figure 6.13 Characteristic diagram of a centrifugal fan with pre-
swirl control according to [6.2] at speed n = 1450 min- 1

Position of pre-swirl controller

12

m3 / s

Volume flow V

6.2.4.1

oD

Volume flow V

20

*•

Fig. 6.14 Tolerance field for the operating point of a fan system Series

connection of resistors

The resistances that influence the system characteristic are the pressure losses described in section
4.2.3. Usually, these resistances occur in series (Figure 6.15a). However, you can also, such. In the case
of chip evacuation or in aspiration systems, for example, they occur in parallel (Figure 6.15b). With the
law of quadratic resistance:

Ap ~ V2 = WV ^

(Eq. 6.14)
Let wine be a proportionality factor. Figure 6.15 Resistors in the system a) one behind the other b) next
to each other

a)

156

Figure 6.16 System characteristic with series-connected resistors

Air flow V

»•

Similar to the electric current, the series-connected resistors add up according to Fig. 6.15a, and we
obtain: Ap = A / ;, + A / 72 + A /?., = W} • V1 + W, • V2 + W, • V2 = (W, + W2 + W.,) • V2

(equation 6.15)

This is shown in the system characteristic curve. There, the characteristic curves of the individual
resistors in the ordinate direction add up to the system characteristic (Figure 6.16). 6.2.4.2

Parallel Connection of Resistors

If one switches resistors in parallel, the same pressure loss occurs in the single strands. The following
applies: Ap = W i- Vf = W, • V2 = W, • V2

(Eq 6.16.)

The individual air flows add up to the volume flow V:

V = V, + y, + v,

(. Eq 6.17)

From the Eq. 6.16 and 6.17 one obtains: * L

W,

(Eq. 6.18)

l^
VW,

l: Thus, there is valid between the total resistance and the individual resistors

(Eq 6.19.)

This relationship is shown in Figure 6.17. Here, the values of the characteristic curves of the individual
resistors add up to the system characteristic in the abscissa direction. If one compares the system
characteristics of Fig. 6.16 and Fig. 6.17, then it is noticeable that the characteristic becomes steeper
with resistors connected in series, whereas at

157

v = v, + v, + v. Figure 6.17 System characteristic with parallel-connected resistors

Volume flow V

parallel flattened. This is particularly unfavorable in the air-bulk flow in a pneumatic conveyor
system. This complicates the fact that the distribution of the conveyed on the individual strands can not
be made as accurate as the division in pure air flow. According to Figure 6.14, this results in a relatively
wide tolerance field between V max and V mm. This means that pneumatic conveying with quantity
distribution in parallel flows is particularly prone to clogging and should be avoided.

Figure 6.18 Fan characteristic of two radial fans connected in series

-1

volumetric flow V

158

6.2.4.3 Series
connection of fans

Since, according to section 6.2.2.1, the pressure increase of the single-stage fan is limited to small
pressure differences, similar to turbo-compressors, fans are also multi-stage. Multi-stage fans behave
almost the same as series-connected fans. According to Figure 6.18, the values of the characteristic
curves are added in the direction of the ordinate for series-connected fans. The fan characteristic curve
becomes steeper, which has a favorable effect according to Section 2.5 on the operation of a pneumatic
conveyor system. 6.2.4.4

Parallel connection of fans

It is also possible to connect two fans in parallel (Figure 6.19). In this case, the volume flows Vj and V'1
add up to V, that is, the values of the fan characteristics add up in the abscissa direction. The blower
characteristic curve becomes flatter, which is undesirable according to Section 2.5. The limit shown in
Figure 6.19 for infinitely many fans connected in parallel also shows that such a procedure does not
justify the investment in a pneumatic conveying system. The problem with the use of a fan is not too low
air volume flow, but too small a pressure increase in conjunction with a relatively flat fan
characteristic. Limit

for oc fans

/ CL OD) C

Volume flow V

6.2.5

Transport fan

6.2.5.1

Dust in the airstream

**

, 9 Blower characteristic of two parallel connected radial fans

RM 6

Since air can be conveyed without difficulty through a fan with pressure increase, it is obvious to also
convey the bulk material through the fan and thus save a lock. This is still done in some industries. In the
household dust and grainy dirt is sucked by the fan from some vacuum cleaners. The chips produced
during processing in the wood industry become

159

sucked by the fan from parallel suction lines. In contrast, z. B. the extraction of pre-expanded
polystyrene beads by a fan not proven because the surface of the beads deformed and the bulk density
increased. When conveying bulk material by a fan, the following problems may arise: D The bulk
material may change due to broken grains and abrasion. D The impeller and the housing of the fan wear
with hard material. D Adhesive bulk tends to caking on the inside of the curved fan blade. D The risk of a
dust explosion in combustible dusts increases with the increase in dust load and the fineness of the
dusts. D Dust embedded on the impeller increases the imbalance and thus the bearing load on the
impeller shaft. The impeller is stressed more dynamically. The statement of a fan manufacturer that the
biggest improvements in the operation of a fan not in pure air operation, but by the dust in the air,
confirms the timeliness of these problems. 6.2.5.2

Fan as a lock during chip extraction

Despite the aforementioned problems, the transport fan is still used in chip evacuation for functional
and price reasons. In order to keep the disadvantages small, the pressure increase is generally limited to
40 mbar. In addition, developments up to pressure increases of 80 mbar are known. The flow cross
sections in the impeller are kept large, and the impeller is carried out as possible with radial blades. The
special advantage of the fan with high volume flow is used for chip extraction. In woodworking, there is
an empirically determined air volume flow for each type of machine, which is required to detect all
chips. Thus, at a conveying speed of about 20 m / s, the diameter of the delivery pipes is fixed. Since in
these systems usually several machines are extracted in parallel and the individual air flow rates are
already relatively large, resulting in large pipe diameters in the manifold. According to Chapter 4, the
pressure loss is low when the conveying paths are not too large. Both points to the sensible use of a
fan. In the case of a longer conveying path, the author once used a medium-pressure conveyor system
with a 150 mm delivery pipe diameter and positive displacement blower, where the transport fan would
have required a pipe diameter of 700 mm to transport 12 t / h sawdust. If the product flows through the
fan with the air, the characteristic with regard to pressure increase and volume flow drops as shown in
Figure 6.20. This waste increases with the goods loading //.

160

Fig. A.20

Change of the fan

characteristic due to load loading /;

O)

c _ o .c

Air volume flow V

>•

Good mass flow as well as the change of the fan characteristic with the good mass flow. It should be
noted that the calculation method according to Chapter 4 has also been proven for the design of fan
systems with only a few millibar pressure loss.

6.3

Side channel blower

The maximum airflow rates available from the ventilator according to section 6.2 are considerably larger
than those required for pneumatic conveying systems. In contrast, the pressure increase is often not
sufficient. The task of delivering higher pressures at a smaller air flow rate is fulfilled by the side channel
blower. However, the efficiency is only 30 to 50% [6.4]. 6.3.1

Function and execution

In the case of the side channel blower (Figures 6.21 and 6.22), a runner a that is open on one side
rotates at speeds of about 3000 min -1. Opposite the half-closed impeller with radial webs is a fixed to
the webs of the impeller open semi-annular side channel b. This has a radial separating web c between
the outlet and the inlet of the air to be compressed. The entrained by the impeller webs air is due to the
centrifugal force outside under higher pressure than inside the impeller and flows through the side
channel radially inward. This flow is superimposed on the circumferential flow due to the rotation of the
impeller. So the air moves in a spiral through the impeller and side channel. The air flows through the
inlet nozzle d and is compressed over the circumference to the outlet nozzle e to the final pressure. The
divider c largely prevents overflow from the pressure side to the suction side. For reasons of cost, the
impeller is often mounted directly on the motor shaft and rotates at 2800 to 3000 min -1. In Fig. 6.21,
webs for dissipating the heat are mounted on the housing.The noise development with 70 to 80 dB (A)
disturbs in most cases not, so that can be dispensed with damping measures.

161

Fig. 6.21 Side channel blower with impeller mounted on the motor shaft (factory

picture Elcktror) Figure 6.22 Principle of the side channel blower a Impeller b Fixed side channel
c Divider d Air inlet stub e Air outlet stubs
350

Fig. 6.23 Characteristic of a side channel

blower mbar 300 A

CL

250

200

, pressure mode

O)

c. • \ ->

l 100

Suction operation

50

Air flow rate V

m3 / min »•

6.3.2
Characteristic curves

Side channel blowers are used as fans for smaller air flow rates. These amount to about 1 to 10
mVmin. They compress in one stage to pressures of up to 300 or 400 mbar. An example of a
characteristic of a side channel blower is shown in Fig. 6.23. The characteristic is much steeper than that
of a fan, but not as steep as that of a rotary blower. As with the fan, the suction curve is flatter than the
pressure curve. Both have a common origin at Ap = 0. The maximum pressure increase is achieved when
the heating is too high due to low air flow. The air volume flow has dropped to a fraction of that without
back pressure. 6.3.3

Use

The low air flow rate, the relatively high pressures and the steep blower characteristic facilitate the use
of the side channel blower for pneumatic conveying systems with pipe diameters of up to 50 mm. Due
to the low price, the side channel blower is used in suction conveyors for machine feeding. With a slight
switch from suction to pressure operation, it is also used for filter cleaning. In addition, one encounters
the side channel blower in pneumatic tube systems, vacuum cleaners and many other applications,
where air medium pressures and small amounts is needed. Occasionally, for large volumes and higher
pressures, side channel blowers are connected side by side and in series. Here, however, you soon reach
the border, where the rotary blower is more economical to use.

6.4

Positive

Displacement Blower The positive displacement blower is the most important blower for the pneumatic
transport of air. It operates in the overpressure range of 1 to 2 bar absolute in pressure conveying
systems and in the negative pressure range of 1 to 0.5 bar absolute in suction conveyor systems. 6.4.1

Function and execution

The positive displacement blower (Figure 6.24) operates on the displacement principle, much like a gear
pump in which the gears only have two teeth. So that the two rotary pistons roll off each other, a gear
transmission is installed in the blower. During one revolution of both pistons, the volume between the
rotary piston and the housing half-cylinder is conveyed four times from the suction side to the pressure
side. As soon as the piston has turned so far that the volume gets in communication with the pressure
side, it is pressurized by the air on the pressure side. This sudden compression is less economical than
the compressor principle of the piston or screw compressor and results in a larger polytropic exponent.

163
Fig. 6.24 Blown

operation of the rotary lobe

Figure 6.25 Polytropic exponent as a function of the fan speed according to characteristics of Aerzener
Maschinenfabrik GmbH for fan type GMb 15.10 at the pressures p \ = lbar, pi = 2 bar cd)

500

1000

1500min Fan

speed

2000

»n =

n = 1.4

- 2, 0 bar 1.8

isochore compaction work per stroke isentropic compaction work per stroke

1.6 JC Ü

"go

Fig. 6.26 Theoretical representation of the isentropic and isochoric compaction work of the rotary lobe
blower according to Fig. 6.25

1.4 1.2

0
0.2

0.4

0,6

specific volume VL

164

m 3 / kg

1,0 ^

In Figure 6.25 the manufacturer's information according to Eq. 6.8 recalculated polytropic exponent
applied above the fan speed. The steep increase at low speeds finally ends in the Isochoren (/ = »). The
compaction work along an isochore is much larger according to Fig. 6.26 than along an isotrope. The
additional work to be done is expressed in additional heating of the compressed air. This is undesirable
both in terms of energy consumption and in terms of determining the sealing gap and must be
additionally dissipated in a heat exchanger. The steep increase of the polytropic exponential according
to Fig. 6.25 with decreasing speed is probably due to the fact that the pressure build-up in the inserted
volume, based on the angle of rotation, is faster. As a result, mechanically higher torque is applied to the
shaft. Superimposed on this process is the leakage air flow in the gaps, which also increases with
decreasing speed. The difference between isochronous and isentropic compaction work increases with
increasing final pressure pi. The resulting increased temperatures would require larger gap widths due
to the thermal expansion to avoid tarnishing of the pistons against each other or on the housing. This in
turn would increase the leakage air in the columns. Consequently, one has the pressure ratio of the
rotary blower limited to: '£ Ü The resulting increased temperatures would require larger gap widths due
to the thermal expansion to avoid tarnishing of the pistons against each other or on the housing. This in
turn would increase the leakage air in the columns. Consequently, one has the pressure ratio of the
rotary blower limited to: '£ Ü The resulting increased temperatures would require larger gap widths due
to the thermal expansion to avoid tarnishing of the pistons against each other or on the housing. This in
turn would increase the leakage air in the columns. Consequently, one has the pressure ratio of the
rotary blower limited to: '£ Ü

=2

(equation 6.20)

pl / m «

With larger gap width, this ratio could also be increased. This consideration has led to the use of the
rotary blower for the air supply of tanker cars up to the pressure ratio of 2.3. The pressure ratio
according to Eq. 6.20 means for a suction fan blowing into the atmosphere, an inlet pressure of p, = 0.5
bar absolute. This corresponds to the maximum pressures of the pneumatic suction conveyor according
to section 4.4. A fan according to section 6.2 can be throttled without problems on the suction
side. However, throttling a rotary blower suction side to a higher pressure ratio than Eq. 6.20, for
example, by holding a board in front of the suction flange, this leads to excessive heating to start the
rotary pistons and to the destruction of the blower. That's why positive displacement blowers are
always equipped with safety valves. These have the task to make sure that the above pressure ratio is
not exceeded. 6.4.2

Characteristic curves

For the fan on which the Figure 6.25 is based, Figure 6.27 shows the dependency of the volumetric flow
and the temperature increase on the speed in the pressure mode. The pressure increase is a
parameter. Figure 6.28 shows the values for the suction mode. From both pictures it can be seen that,
depending on the increase in pressure, the fan only starts to deliver at a speed of between 100 and 400
minutes. This is due to the leakage in the columns. However, these speeds must not be driven because
of excessive temperature increase.

165

60 Pressure increase Ap - p2 - p,

m3 / min

200 600 800 1000 mbar

40

o 7o c 0)

20

"5 'S

400

800 Speed

1200

120
min

2000 Pressure

increase Ap = p, - p2 1000

400

800 Speed

Fig. 6.27 Flow rate and temperature increase of rotary lobe blower according to Fig. 6.25 in pressure
mode

166

1600

1200

1600

min

2000

60 Pressure increase Ap = p 2 - p .1 .100 ./200 ^ 300 -400 • 500 mbar

m3 / min

50 40 -

o 30

E g 20

10
400

1200

800

1600

min 1 2000

Speed

120

100

500

Pressure increase

Ap = p2 - p, mbar

80 -C

400 60

nj g 40 Q.

300

200

20

100 400
1200

800

1600

min

2000

Speed Fig. 6.28 Volume flow and temperature increase of the rotary lobe blower according to Fig. 6.25
in suction mode

167

The curves of the temperature increase are approximately horizontal at higher speeds and turn steeply
at decreasing speeds from above. According to Eq. 6.8, the temperature increase increases sharply with
the pressure increase. The underlying positive displacement blower is designed for a maximum
temperature increase of 120 ° C. At higher temperatures, the minimum required gap between the rotary
pistons with each other and the housing is no longer guaranteed, so that the piston start by thermal
expansion.

IUUU

800

o> c

Suction fan, referenced \ to suction state \\

600

D .C

O -E

^\

400
oD

200

Fig. 6.29 Blower line Ap (V) of the blower according to Fig. 6.25 as a pressure and suction fan for the
rotary / number n = 1500mm

L pressure bladder 1 1

mbar

\H\

Suction blower, referenced -X to atmospheric condition ^ 10

20

30

40

m3 / min

60

Air flow V

The volume flow curves at constant pressure increase are close to each other. This indicates a steep fan
characteristic, as shown in Figure 6.29. If the volumetric flow rate is related to the state at the intake
manifold in accordance with the acceptance instructions [6.5], then the intake characteristic is only
slightly below the pressure characteristic and is somewhat flatter. According to Section 4.4, however,
when using a suction fan in a pneumatic conveying system, the air volume flow must be converted to
the atmospheric state. The then relevant suction curve runs much flatter and delivers up to 50% less
air. 6.4.3 Noise
development

Each revolution of the drive shaft is filled four times the space between the piston and housing on the
suction side of the rotary lobe blower and compressed upon entry into the pressure chamber by a
pressure surge. At speeds between 100 and 4000 mirr 1. (depending on the blower size) basic
frequencies in the range f = 4 -! - (l 0 0 to 4000) = 7 to 267 Hz are generated.

168

The sound spectrum of a rotary blower is preferably composed of these fundamental frequencies and
their overtones, ie the respective integer multiples. Without any soundproofing measure the noise
development of the rotary blower is unbearable and harmful to the human ear. The sound-insulating
measures to be performed at least partially on each rotary blower can be subdivided as follows: a)
setting up the blower on rubber-elastic machine feet; b) suction and pressure silencers in the incoming
and outgoing piping; c) Sound hood above the blower unit. The rubber-elastic machine feet a) avoid the
direct transmission of sound to the building. The suction and pressure silencers b) have the task of
reducing the noise level in the air flow. They are arranged as close as possible to the blower and are
sometimes integrated into the blower station. The sound hood c) reduces the sound radiation from the
fan into the atmosphere.

Figure 6.30 Absorption Silencer for Drum Column Blower according to [6.6]

1/\-1

YA jr // i

6.4.3.1

'

r V / Ä i M Sound-

absorbing filler

Absorption silencer
The absorption silencer (Fig. 6.30) operates effectively at frequencies above 300 to 400 Hz. In this case,
the pipeline is made in perforated plate, surrounded by a sheath of larger diameter and filled the space
between the perforated plate and jacket with a sound-absorbing filler. This filler absorbs the sound
energy through internal friction. On the suction side, polyurethane foam (Moltopren) is preferably used
as the insulating material and aluminum wool is used on the pressure side. Mineral fibers (rock wool,
glass wool, etc.) have not been proven, because the fibers disintegrate due to friction and get into the
conveyed material. According to [6.6], the following factors determine the effectiveness of the silencer:
D The insulation material should have a good sound absorption coefficient at the significant frequencies
of interference. D The damper length must not be too small.

169

Fig. 6.31 Resonance silencer for the manual piston blower according to [6.6]

tJ.

1. Chamber

2. chamber

3. Chamber

image 6:32 Soundproof Gcbläsestationen a) for suction fan b) for a pressure blower rotary blower drive
motor b c d absorption silencer tuned pipe (as needed) e Schallhaubc (as needed)

6.4.3.2

Resonanzschalldämpfer

In order to absorb the often very disturbing frequencies below 400 Hz, one uses resonance mufflers
(Figure 6.31). This works on the principle that cancel the sound waves by deliberate overlays. Usually a
resonance muffler [6.6] consists of three chambers. These are designed for the speed of the fan and
thus for the radiated frequency. In addition, the air temperature, the gas constant and the nominal
diameter of the through-pipe have an importance for the execution. Consequently, each resonance
muffler must be designed for the blower and its operating data. 6.4.3.3

acoustic hood

The noise emission increases with the speed and the pressure increase of the blower. In order to meet
the requirements of environmental protection (TA Lärm), it is often necessary to reduce the emission of
sound into the air through a sound hood over the entire blower unit. Figure 6.32 a and b shows the use
of a sound hood for a suction and a pressure blower station. If no parts can be excited to vibrate in the
intake, can be dispensed with the suction fan on a suction side Absorptionsschalldämpfcr. The
resonance muffler is only required for large blowers. Under the sound hood, the resulting heat must be
dissipated. The sound hood is ventilated by soundproofed slots. For ventilation, the axial,

Figure 6.33 Sound level for the positive displacement blower according to Figure 6.25 in the pressure
mode, measured outdoors at a distance of 1 m. Use of an absorption silencer on the suction and
pressure sides with and without sound hood

I^U

dB (A) 100

without acoustic hood / with acoustic hood / / _

80 i

3)

1 60 C) \

l3

40 20

1000 300

1500 1000min '1500 Speed * • 300 800 mbar 800 Pressure increase * -

171

As mentioned above, the operation of a rotary blower is unbearable without any sound-insulating
measure. Usually it has to be decided whether a sound hood is to be used or not. The noise
development with acoustic hood is reduced by about 15 to 20 dB (A) when properly executed
[6.6]. Some noise emission values for the positive displacement blower described in Fig. 6.27 are shown
in Fig. 6.33. This is the main influence of the sound hood, while the sound level increases only slightly
with the pressure increase and the speed.

6.5

screw compressor

The screw compressor is one of several possible air compressors. Compared with other designs
(reciprocating compressors, cell compressors, turbo compressors, etc.), the screw compressor has
proven itself for the pneumatic supply of pneumatic conveying systems for the following reasons: D no
wear due to non-contact rolling of main and secondary pistons, D structurally adjustable internal
compression, D high speeds (to 15,000 min "1, since the piston only carry out a rotational movement
and no lifting movement, D reaches small dimensions due to the high speeds. These advantages are
provided by high precision in the Eertigung and utilization of the material properties. 6.5.1

function

In Section 6.4.1, the positive displacement blower was compared to a gear pump in which the two spur
gears have only two teeth. If one executes the gears with helical toothing, then the positive
displacement blower develops into the screw compressor (Figure 6.34). The counter rotating rotors
enclose between them and the double cylindrical housing a helical air volume. This is completed with
progressive rotation by the intermeshing of the rotor arms to the suction side. It is so far compressed
until the lying on the front side of the piston pressure ports open, so that the precompressed air can
flow out. This precompression differentiates the screw compressor from the positive displacement
blower, where the air is first compressed by the overpressure of the pressure side and then
suddenly. Main and secondary pistons usually have different numbers of teeth and thus inevitably
different speeds (Figure 6.35). Smaller numbers of teeth (3 and 4) produce a larger delivery volume per
revolution than larger ones (4 and 6 or 5 and 7) and are used for lower pressure differences.

172

Figure 6.34 The two rotors of a screw compressor [6.7] (plant image Aerzener Maschinenfabrik)

image 6..55 piston profiles of screw compressors [6.7]

main piston

slave piston

173
6.5.2

pressure increase

6.5.2.1

pressure ratio pi / pt

In order to keep the leakage air from the pressure to the suction side small, the gap lengths in Fig. 6.35
were chosen as large as possible. Certain minimum gap widths are due to the production, if the pistons
are not intended to start against each other and the housing. In addition there are the gap changes due
to temperature differences. In order to make the process of thermal expansion calculable, the final
compression temperature is limited to 250 ° C [6.7]. This final temperature corresponds at 20 ° C initial
temperature according to Eq. 6.8 a pressure ratio pjp \ = 4.5 at isentropic compression. If the intake
pressure p = l = bar, an overpressure of 3.5 bar can be achieved. Usually, an overpressure of 3 bar is
realized. Two-stage with intermediate cooling gives theoretically a pressure ratio of: p1: p] = (4: 1) 2 = 1
6: l

Compressors with two-stage compaction pressures up to l: 11.5 [6.7] are executed. With oil injection
into the compression chamber, whereby even the tightness of the column is improved, it is achieved
with approximately isothermal compression and end temperatures below 90 ° G, a pressure ratio of

Since the oil in the compressed air even after an oil separator is still present in a minimal amount, were
screw compressors with water injection for cooling up to a pressure ratio of 1: 6 [6.7]. 6.5.2.2

The real pressure-volume diagram

As an example in Figure 6.3 (point A) shows, the compression of the screw compressor with a polytropic
exponent "is only slightly higher than the adiabatic exponent n = K = 1.4 for air (see also Section
6.5.3). Along this exponent, the compressed volume decreases with increasing pressure until the frontal
pressure slots open at the built-in compression ratio. Is now the back pressure in the system a little
higher, z. B. instead of 2 bar 3 bar pressure, then the remaining pressure increase as the rotary blower,
that is approximately isochoric achieved. This example is shown in Fig. 6.36: The adiabatic compression
from G to B to 4 bar absolute requires only marginally less mechanical work than the adiabatic
compression from G to A and the subsequent isochoric compression from G to C, namely area ABC. If
isochor would be compressed by the pressure l to the pressure of 4 bar, additional work would have to
be performed in comparison to the adiabatic compression corresponding to the area GFB. This converts
to heat. It is a multiple of the area ABC.

174

Fig. 6.36 Pressure increase of a compressor as a function of the specific volume at different back
pressure

bar

p, = 4

p -v * = const.

0,2

0,4

0,6

rrvVkg

specific volume VL

1,0 * •

If this is the case, the pressure stage of the compressor is set to 4 bar absolute and the system pressure
to which the compressor supplies the compressed air is 3 bar absolute. Then additional work would be
done according to the area ABDE during compaction. This is larger than the area ABC but smaller than
the area GFB. It follows that in uncertain conditions a compression with built-in pressure stage at the
lower limit of the expected back pressure is most appropriate.

6.5.3

Characteristics

Figure 6.37 shows the volume flow and the temperature increase of a screw compressor as a function of
the speed in pressure mode and Figure 6.38 for suction mode. The closely spaced curves of constant
pressure increase point to a steep compressor characteristic Ap (V) (see Fig. 6.39). As with the positive
displacement blower, the increase in temperature increases with decreasing speed and increasing
pressure. This means that the high speed for the screw compressor functionally required. Since the
temperature increase according to equation (6.8) is a function of the pressure ratio pi / p] and not the
pressure difference p 2 - p \, the screw compressor as a suction compressor achieves only insignificantly
higher negative pressures than the positive displacement blower. This is shown in Fig. 6.38. In addition,
the compressor characteristic in the suction operation is very flat, if the volume flow is related to the
atmospheric pressure (Figure 6.39). Both leads to the simpler positive displacement blower has
prevailed over the screw compressor in the pneumatic suction.

175

20

booster \ p = p2 - p,

pressure increase Ap

m3 / min _t OI

p,

0.2

p2

^^^ 00,6 0 4!

16 - 0 ^

_i PO

l ^ £ i.

0.7

gg§: 5> ^ ^^^ P ^

•2
m ED 0

"5

0 10

11

12

13

15 103

min

rotational speed of the main piston -

10

11

12

13

min '15103

rotational speed of the main piston

*-

°C=K

-•

1
pressure elevation Ap = -__ 1 - 0.7

h^~

-_~

K ^ CT

-•

,1

0,6

o .c

100

-^

0,5

0) D

RE

nA

50

0,2

10

11
12

13

15-10 3

min Main piston

speed

09

*•

10

11

12

13

Speed of the main

piston Fig. 6.37 Volume flow and temperature increase of a screw compressor type VM 125 L-2/3 from
the company Aerzener Maschinenfabrik, Aerzen, in the printing operation

min '15 103

»•

Figure 6.38 Volume flow and temperature increase of the compressor from Figure 6.37 in suction mode

Figure 6.39

Compressor characteristic Ap (V) of the screw compressor as per Figure 6.37 Suction

mode, based on intake condition

8
10

Air volume flow V

12

16

m3 / min

Figure 6.40 Polytropic exponent as a function of the speed for the screw compressor according to Fig.
6.37 at p, = 1 bar, f> 2 = 3.5 bar c

0.5

Q.

10

11

^2

13 min- 1 15-10 3 Rotational

speed of the main piston

Fig. 6.40 shows the polytropic n associated with the previous images as a function of the rotational
speed. At high speeds, it is only slightly above K and, compared with the positive displacement blower
(Figure 6.25), increases less with decreasing operating speed. However, the smallest speed of the
compressor described here is still 5 times as large as the highest speed of the rotary lobe blower
according to Figure 6.25. 6.5.4 Noise

development
Similar to the positive displacement blower, soundproofing measures are also required in screw
compressors. Here, especially the high frequencies are disturbing due to the high speeds. This leads to
the use of absorption silencers (see section 6.4.3.1) and a sound hood (see section 6.4.3.3)

6.6

Air supply for pneumatic conveying systems

6.6.1

Decentralized and central air supply

In a pneumatic suction or pressure conveying system according to Fig. 2.30, a fan supplies air to the
conveyor system. This fan may be after the previous sections preferably a fan, a side channel blower, a
rotary blower or a screw compressor. The blower must be capable of delivering the differential pressure
calculated in Chapter 4 as pressure increase and air flow. In addition, in section 2.5 a number of criteria
have been cited which favor the operation of the pneumatic conveyor system. Fig. 6.41 shows the
working ranges of the blowers in the pressure / flow diagram for delivery pipe diameters up to 800 mm
for aircraft conveying. In this case, the volume flow is assigned a pipe diameter for the air velocity of 30
m / s at the delivery line end, which is common in flight production.

177

Fig. 6.41 Working areas of the blower for pneumatic conveying systems in the pressure / flow diagram,
neglecting the compressibility of the air

bar

screw compressor CO

2 side channel blower

Q.

rotary piston blower

//

7 fan
j/

'

ISffiBSS! ; ; i

1 .itsi; - "''

Hiil

3C) 0

6 () 0

5 10 Air volume flow VL

m3 / min m3 / s

0 200 400 600 mm Pipe diameter d for aircraft conveying -

9C

15

800

large amount of air with small pressure increase is the screw compressor with large pressure increase
with relatively small amounts of air. The rotary blower lies in its values in between. The side channel
blower, which is sometimes used for price reasons in certain systems, supplies a small area. If there are
several pneumatic conveying systems in an overall system which are to be ready for operation at the
same time or one after the other, the question arises as to whether each system should be operated
with its own fan or whether a central air supply is to be used. In the case of extraction with air from the
atmosphere, individual blowers are often used. Each blower can be designed for the required
differential pressure, which reduces the total power requirement. Is pumped under inert gas (see
section 3.4.2), or if a central air supply with the required reserve is already installed in a production
plant, then this can also be used for the operation of the individual production lines. The following
sections should be considered.

178
In a central air supply, one or more blowers operate on pressurized storage, often called a "wind
boiler". At a minimum pressure, the fans switch on in a certain order. When the maximum pressure is
reached, they are switched off again in a similar sequence. The size of the air chamber depends on the
switching frequency of the valves. Because of the stress on the valves, a cycle time of about 30 s should
not be exceeded. At maximum air flow, the minimum pressure must not be undershot. 6.6.2

Compressed air preparation

With regard to the quality of the conveyed goods and the assured function of the conveyor system,
general demands are placed on the quality of the compressed air. Under certain conditions of use, these
can be substantiated and tightened considerably. General conditions are: H clean air at the suction
nozzle of the blower; D maximum temperature of the compressed air (eg 60 ° C for pneumatic conveying
of plastics); D maximum residual moisture of compressed air; ü no water condensate in the pressure
line; D no or minimal residual oil in the compressed air (eg in the food industry). To protect the blower,
there is usually a filter on the intake manifold. The filter medium must either be cleaned more often or
be transported continuously automatically. In section 3.4.4 the water loss in humid air was
determined. The lower the air temperature and the higher the pressure, the sooner the dew point of the
humid air is reached. Since the loss of water is undesirable in many ways, it is the aim of the air
treatment to dry the operating air to such an extent that the dew point no longer falls below in the
further course of the plant. Various methods are used for this purpose. Refrigeration dryer With the aid
of an aftercooler, the air is cooled to 2 to 4 ° C. As a result, a large part of the water precipitates
especially in compressed air. According to Figure 3.17, for example, the dew point of compressed air at 6
bar and 100% humidity can be reduced to - 20 ° C. The above temperature must not be fallen below,
because otherwise the precipitated water iced. Adsorption Dryer In the adsorption dryer, the moist air
flows through a hygroscopic bulk material, such. B. silica gel. This medium binds the water physically by
attachment. When heated, the water is released again. If the adsorber alternately flows through the air
to be dried and warm air, then the moisture goes

179

continuously from the conveying air to the regeneration air. This can be done by two mutually charged
container. Other methods use an adsorbent-filled ring container, make it spin slowly and apply
operating air to one side and regeneration air on the other. Absorption dryer In the absorption dryer,
the humidity is chemically bound. The absorbent may be a bulk material (eg dehydrated chalk) or a
liquid (eg sulfuric acid). The liquid absorbents are technically best handled. Operating costs for air drying
are about 10% for cold-drying, about 15% for hot-regenerated adsorption dryers, and 25 to 35% for
absorption dryers for generating compressed air. 6.6.3

Air volume control

If you want to extract air from a central air supply, it is usually not enough to open all or part of a valve
such as a faucet. For a pneumatic conveying system, according to section 2.5, the characteristic of the
air supply should be as steep as possible. It should flow at higher, lower or fluctuating back pressure in
the delivery line, a constant amount of air in the conveyor system. This can be

Fördergut-

image as a Einheitssignalrcgelung Mefsblende b transducer 6:42 air flow control

introduction

t regulator StcuersignalumFormer d e actuator

through air flow control [6.8J. Figure 6.42 shows an orifice plate whose differential pressure is a
measure of the air flow. The measuring signal is transformed, processed by the controller and via a
control signal converter to an actuator, for. As a valve in the air line, given. So a certain amount of air
can be adjusted and kept independent of any back pressure. Important is a fast control behavior with
fluctuating pressures. The disadvantage of increased investment costs (eg 30000 DM) is offset by the
advantage of a low energy loss, which has sometimes led to lower costs for the compressor [6.8].

180

6.6.4 Air

volume control with Laval nozzle

In recent years, the Laval nozzle has proven particularly useful because of its simple construction, with
which a vertical characteristic is achieved in the state diagram. Figure 6.43 Flow of air from a pressure
vessel

6.6.4.1

Theoretical principles

Air mass flow If air flows out of a container into the open air (Fig. 6.43), then with the relationships
compiled by W. BOHL [6.9] the following applies: l- 6.21}

m \ _ = u • A • The function K

(Eq. 6.22)
K- \

with:

Adiabatic exponent

A = -r dl [i

Exit cross-section equal narrowest cross-section Outflow number as product of a velocity coefficient and
the jet constriction

It has been shown that the ideal value // = 1 can be approximately achieved by favorable design of the
inlet into the Laval nozzle [6.10]. The critical pressure ratio The dependence of the air mass flow mL
according to Eq. 6.21 of the pressure ratio pjp \ is shown in Fig. 6.44. If there is no overpressure in the
boiler (p, = p [), the air mass flow is equal to 0. Also, if p \ = 0. In between, m \ runs as a bell curve. At pi
= l bar, OT L increases with increasing pressure pt up to a maximum: m L = wLmax

181

physical function

Fig. 6.44 Dependence of the air mass flow m \ on the pressure ratio pilp \ during the outflow of air from
a pressure vessel

i, m ,,

Eo

/ Theoretical / "" Functior

WrEE

P2

, Pl, / K r "

Pressure ratio p2 / p. Where: = Vmax = 0.484 for air

(equation 6.23)
At this value, the speed of sound is reached in the narrowest cross-section. This corresponds to a critical
pressure ratio

(Eq 6.24)

- ^ = 0.528 Pi If p2 = l bar, then the internal pressure follows:

Pi = 0.528 = 1.894 bar abs. If one adds small pressure losses through the flow, an overpressure of about
1 bar is required to reach the speed of sound when air is released into the atmosphere. If the pressure p
\ in the container continues to increase, ie, becomes, then according to Eq. 6.21 and 6.22 a decreasing
material mass flow. However, this is not possible since the external velocity (pi) can no longer affect the
conditions inwardly with the occurrence of the speed of sound in the Laval nozzle cross section; because
this transmission can indeed only be done with the speed of sound. Therefore, in the range of the
pressure ratio C 0 <- \ PH

the air mass flow WL = m \

182

max

= const.

The Laval nozzles for pneumatic conveying systems work in this area. This has the advantage that then
the air mass flow and thus the air velocity (based on atmospheric pressure) no longer depend on the
fluctuating pressure in the delivery line. The «fan characteristic» runs absolutely perpendicular to the
abscissa. The high air velocity in the Laval nozzle cross section (sound velocity) is converted back into
pressure by a diffuser of about 10 ° Zentriwinkel. This pressure is available for pumping at constant air
velocity (in terms of atmospheric pressure). Laval nozzle diameter The following conditions apply for the
Laval nozzle in a pneumatic pressure conveyor: ml => «Lmax Jl ~ l

and: ¥ = Vau * = In order to obtain the air volume flow at atmospheric state, the state l becomes
isothermal to the state 0 according to Eq. 4.5 converted: P \ Qu

Po QLO

> «Lm., X = 6> LO 'Vo

With these relationships one obtains for the Laval nozzle diameter from Eq. 6.21:

you, = ^ l - ^ * -x / l •, o • P, n - y / n "x - pi V 2 'e

« a- 6 - 25>

From Eq. 6.25 it follows that the required diameter of the Laval nozzle is proportional to the root of the
air flow V (), if the pre-pressure p \ remains constant in front of the Laval nozzle. If the diameter c (r.lv of
a Laval nozzle is fixed, then the air volume flow VQ increases in proportion to the form pressure pt.
However, this only applies as long as the pressure ratio

6.6.4.2

Measurements on Laval nozzles

The theory of Section 6.6.4.1 was confirmed by measurements in [6.10], among other things. It can be
assumed that Laval nozzles for any air volume flows V u according to Eq. 6.25 can be interpreted.

183

Fig. 6.45 Air volume flow of a Lavaldüsc with 3.5 mm nozzle diameter as shown in Fig. 6.46 m
Dependence on the pressure ratio p ± lp \ at pi = pa = \ bar and different nozzle velocities after 6.10

.6 bar

40

mf h

5 bar

30

4 bar

E o 20

3 bar

p, = 2 bar 10
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Pressure ratio p ^ p, -

Fig. 6.46 Fig. 6.45

Execution of an I.aval nozzle

Fig. 6.45 shows measurement results from [6.10] for Laval nozzles according to Fig. 6.46. The horizontal
curve of the air volume flow related to the atmospheric pressure up to the pressure ratio /; h: p \ = 0.85
shows that pressure fluctuations from pi up to this pressure ratio do not influence the air volume
flow. That is, until then, the «fan characteristic» in section 2.5 is absolutely vertical. The increase of the
air volume flow with the Laval nozzle pressure p \ is used via a pressure regulator, the /? | regulates,
adjust the air flow and thus the air velocity in the delivery line within certain limits. 6.6.4.3

Execution

The Laval nozzle according to Fig. 6.46 with Eq. 6.25 is easy to execute and manufacture. Depending on
the air volume flow and nozzle pressure for pneumatic conveying systems, the Laval nozzle diameter
ranges between Ji.lv = 3 mm and dL.M. = 25 mm

184

Pay attention to conical inlet and to a smooth surface of the extension cone. To avoid unnecessary
pressure losses, the flow velocities in the incoming and outgoing lines should not be lower than 30 m / s
in unpressurised flow and correspondingly lower in compressed air. Since, according to Fig. 6.45, the
nozzle pressure p \ is taken into the air volume flow Vlt, a pressure regulator must always be installed in
front of the Laval nozzle. This pressure control, which leads to a vertical characteristic, is shown in Fig.
6.47a. Here, the control valve regulates the nozzle pressure and thus the air velocity to a constant
value. If, as in Fig. 6.47b, the pressure downstream of the Laval nozzle, ie at the beginning of the
pumping, is applied to the controller as the actuating pressure, the nozzle admission pressure and thus
the air volume flow increase with increasing delivery line pressure. The "fan characteristic" is "more
than vertical" (Fig. 6.48). Thus, even with the blockage vertically rising pressure in the system can still be
eliminated by a real intersection between fan and system characteristics. Thus, the Laval nozzle for air
flow control on pneumatic conveyors is a simple, inexpensive and reliable device for adjusting the air
velocity. It provides the optimum «fan characteristic». Thus, at low air speeds, the air consumption
when using a Laval nozzle could be reduced by up to 60% compared to the fan mode. Fig. 6.47 a) and b):
Two types of air volume regulation with lavaline bushes Compressed air network Pressure regulator
Laval nozzle Injection a) Thus, even with the blockage vertically rising pressure in the system can still be
eliminated by a real intersection between fan and system characteristics. Thus, the Laval nozzle for air
flow control on pneumatic conveyors is a simple, inexpensive and reliable device for adjusting the air
velocity. It provides the optimum «fan characteristic». Thus, at low air speeds, the air consumption
when using a Laval nozzle could be reduced by up to 60% compared to the fan mode. Fig. 6.47 a) and b):
Two types of air volume regulation with lavaline bushes Compressed air network Pressure regulator
Laval nozzle Injection a) Thus, even with the blockage vertically rising pressure in the system can still be
eliminated by a real intersection between fan and system characteristics. Thus, the Laval nozzle for air
flow control on pneumatic conveyors is a simple, inexpensive and reliable device for adjusting the air
velocity. It provides the optimum «fan characteristic». Thus, at low air speeds, the air consumption
when using a Laval nozzle could be reduced by up to 60% compared to the fan mode. Fig. 6.47 a) and b):
Two types of air volume regulation with lavaline bushes Compressed air network Pressure regulator
Laval nozzle Injection a) cheap and reliable device for adjusting the air speed. It provides the optimum
«fan characteristic». Thus, at low air speeds, the air consumption when using a Laval nozzle could be
reduced by up to 60% compared to the fan mode. Fig. 6.47 a) and b): Two types of air volume regulation
with lavaline bushes Compressed air network Pressure regulator Laval nozzle Injection a) cheap and
reliable device for adjusting the air speed. It provides the optimum «fan characteristic». Thus, at low air
speeds, the air consumption when using a Laval nozzle could be reduced by up to 60% compared to the
fan mode. Fig. 6.47 a) and b): Two types of air volume regulation with lavaline bushes Compressed air
network Pressure regulator Laval nozzle Injection a)

b)

Fig. 6.48 Characteristics? .u Fig. 6.47 a) and b)

Air flow control according to Fig. 6.47a

Operating point

air flow control according to Fig. 6.47b

Air flow rate (air velocity)

185

7 Transfer
to pneumatic conveying systems

Usually, the product is at atmospheric pressure before and after production in the atmosphere. In the
conveyor system, there are different pressures according to section 2.4. They can be both higher than
the atmospheric pressure (in the pressure system) and lower (in the suction system) Without specific
measures, it is not possible to introduce the material into the pressure system or to discharge it from
the suction system The discharge can be carried out analogously with the knowledge of the sluices.The
developments of the sluices have been carried out in the last 50 years in the industry.This task is one of
the most demanding in the field of pneumatic conveying.Separated in sections 7.2 to 7.8 is trying

7.1

Task of the infiltration

7.1.1

Lock function

The word lock comes from the millennia-old technique of navigation. The ship in Figure 7.1 can only
swim upstream on its own if its speed is significantly higher than the flow velocity of the water (Figure 7.
la). Otherwise it has to be brought to a higher energy level through a sluice (Fig. 7. I b).

Figure 7.1 Navigation upstream a) without lock b) with lock

Forward movement of the ship when v - c> 0 a)

187

The higher water level in the river corresponds to the overpressure in a pneumatic pressure conveyor at
the point of infiltration. However, it is not possible according to Figure 7.2 to inject a bulk material
without any lock into the delivery line. The air would escape through the lock shaft and prevent the bulk
material from entering. Without conveying air then no promotion is possible. The author once had the
task to investigate why a pneumatic suction conveyor for sawdust did not work after a quarter of a
year's operation. The sawdust was no longer discharged by the rotary valve after the promotion of coal
coke. The cause could be found in the fact that the weary coal mine had enlarged the lock plays so that
the lock leak air flowed counter to the conveyed material at a speed of lm / s. As a result, the incident
strand accumulated and did not reach the lock anymore. Figure 7.2 Impossibility of introduction into a
pneumatic pressure conveyor without a lock

Thus, the lock function depends essentially on the counterflow of the conveyed lock air. The leakage air
flow is in turn very different in the sluice principles according to sections 7.2 to 7.8. 7.1.2
Dosing function

When planning a pneumatic conveying system must be clarified whether the lock set the good mass
flow, ie meter, should, or whether the conveyed already arrives metered. It is not allowed to dispense a
second dose of the already metered mass flow. Otherwise there is a risk of backwater. The plant
manufacturer knows that in the case of several process and delivery systems connected in series, the
dosage must be at the beginning. All subsequent systems must be able to allow the originally set
material flow (or more) conveyor technology. However, there are also applications where the lock of the
pneumatic conveyor system sets the good mass flow, ie metered. Not every lock principle is suitable for
dosing. For metering purposes, the rotary feeder and the screw conveyor can be used. With free-flowing
bulk material, a metering slide or a vibrating trough is often installed. These metering devices are
connected upstream of the locks. How to split z. B. the bunker discharge from a silo sometimes the lock
function of the metering function. A few examples of where the lock and dosing functions are or are
missing in pneumatic conveying are shown in Fig. 7.3. It can be seen that the lock function is missing in
each case at the introduction into pneumatic suction conveyor systems (a, b and c). As described in
section 2.4, in the intake system the lock function shifts to the separation because the pressure
difference to the atmosphere occurs there. For the recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b), it would be possible
to move the rotary feeder from the These metering devices are connected upstream of the locks. How
to split z. B. the bunker discharge from a silo sometimes the lock function of the metering function. A
few examples of where the lock and dosing functions are or are missing in pneumatic conveying are
shown in Fig. 7.3. It can be seen that the lock function is missing in each case at the introduction into
pneumatic suction conveyor systems (a, b and c). As described in section 2.4, in the intake system the
lock function shifts to the separation because the pressure difference to the atmosphere occurs
there. For the recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b), it would be possible to move the rotary feeder from
the These metering devices are connected upstream of the locks. How to split z. B. the bunker discharge
from a silo sometimes the lock function of the metering function. A few examples of where the lock and
dosing functions are or are missing in pneumatic conveying are shown in Fig. 7.3. It can be seen that the
lock function is missing in each case at the introduction into pneumatic suction conveyor systems (a, b
and c). As described in section 2.4, in the intake system the lock function shifts to the separation
because the pressure difference to the atmosphere occurs there. For the recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b),
it would be possible to move the rotary feeder from the Fig. 7.3 shows where the lock and dosing
functions are or are missing in pneumatic conveying. It can be seen that the lock function is missing in
each case at the introduction into pneumatic suction conveyor systems (a, b and c). As described in
section 2.4, in the intake system the lock function shifts to the separation because the pressure
difference to the atmosphere occurs there. For the recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b), it would be possible
to move the rotary feeder from the Fig. 7.3 shows where the lock and dosing functions are or are
missing in pneumatic conveying. It can be seen that the lock function is missing in each case at the
introduction into pneumatic suction conveyor systems (a, b and c). As described in section 2.4, in the
intake system the lock function shifts to the separation because the pressure difference to the
atmosphere occurs there. For the recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b), it would be possible to move the
rotary feeder from the because there the pressure difference to the atmosphere occurs. For the
recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b), it would be possible to move the rotary feeder from the because there
the pressure difference to the atmosphere occurs. For the recirculation system (Fig. 7.3b), it would be
possible to move the rotary feeder from the

188

plant

Einsch eusung

scheme

metering

lock function

no

no

no

no

yes

no

- © j-i Central vacuum system

UV

J & JJ / \ = S j = S \

a)

,,. Grist mill i Recirculation system for malt meal

'
1

j-

^ \ y tjt H

ii

b)

- * Ship unloading plantfor cereals

c)

© -n

JL> Polymerisation

^ 0 ° c OÖ ^) .-

Pressure conveyor for PE powder

, §§ * | 00

^ .Dcssp

iX^

d)

yes (pressure-controlled)

yes

Homogen nisiers ilo

ifi "" "/ yN \ G '

W-*-

yes

-»>

W- ».

0 Pressure conveying system

for soot

no

P« v

- »•

| | C ^ -: \ AAJ-

e) Figure 7.3 Examples of pneumatic conveying systems with and without lock and dosing function, from
[7.1]

189

Outlet for injection from the suction system make a pressure system. The author was able to make this
system functional only by having the originally existing additional rotary feeder removed at the
infeed. The pressure conveyor (7.3e) tends to clog by accumulating the difficult to be promoted soot on
the walls of the delivery line. The material flow is controlled so that the rotary valve shuts off when the
pressure in the delivery line reaches a maximum. At an adjustable minimum pressure, it switches on
again. This minimum occurs when the delivery line is blown out again. However, one should not make
the mistake here of making the lock too large; because the Leerblasvorgang the delivery line is always at
a lower Good mass flow than the steady promotion.

7.2

Suction
nozzle 7.2.1

Function and operation

According to Figure 7.3c, the suction nozzle does not have a lock function, but only a metering
function. However, this dosing function is particularly important for suction systems, as a suction system
is more likely to become blocked than a pressure system (see Chapters 2, 4 and 6). The suction nozzle is
particularly suitable for receiving bulk material from the heap, from the wagon or from the ship. The
task of the operator is to set the good mass flow. This is done using the example of Figure 7.4 on the
additional air. If the rotatable slot sleeve is adjusted (Fig. 7.4a) so that the slots in the tube are
concealed, this results in the maximum material mass flow. The entire conveying air is sucked through
the bulk material. If all slots in the tube are released through the cuff (7.4b), The maximum possible
additional air is sucked through the slots and the minimum possible air through the bulk material. This
gives the minimum possible good mass flow. The operator of such a suction conveyor system now has to
adjust the opening slots so that the suction nozzle doses the projected material mass flow.

tl

b)

a)

190

Fig. 7.4 Dosing of a vertical suction nozzle with adjustment of the material mass flow through a rotatable
slit sleeve (Schlit / .saugdüse) a) hei maximum material mass flow b) with a minimum material mass flow

The suction nozzles are designed so that the material flow remains constant without constant
readjustment by the operator. Only then is the function of the conveyor system reliable. The
experienced operator knows, however, that a targeted guidance of the suction nozzle by the operator
still allows a greater good mass flow. For example, the author has always worked without a suction
nozzle for proof of performance, for example, for the removal of wagons from maize or for the
exhaustive disposal of grapes. If one ensures that sufficient additional air flows in directly at the start of
the pipe, then the maximum possible material mass flow can be driven in this way by continuous
tightening of the suction nozzle. Cohesive bulk material according to Figure 3.6b sometimes requires
great breaking-open forces during suction. These are especially high, when the bulk material has been
stored under pressure in the ship and has been compressed by the sea. When unloading the ship, this is
expressed by the fact that the bulk material does not trickle, but stops in vertical, meter-high walls. To
suck this bulk material, an additional pressure difference for the tearing is required. This leads to a
reduction of the good mass flow according to section 4.4. Now, if a ship unloaded only with a fraction of
the maximum possible mass flow, the waiting times and thus the transport costs increase. Therefore,
numerous mechanical loosening devices have been devised to make the bulk material free flowing
before entering the suction conveyor and to achieve the theoretically possible good mass flow. The
development in the unloading of vessels with cohesive bulk material is progressing, that brings the
above-mentioned vertical walls by pivoting a rigid, horizontal suction nozzle to collapse. The collapsing
bulk material is quite free-flowing and can be absorbed by the suction nozzle. Today, hardly any
operator is used to move the heavy suction nozzles for sucking wagons. There, emptying is easier and
faster with wagon tipping systems or by rail transport in self-unloading wagons. Finally, the transport of
bulk material in tank trucks with compressed air discharge is now state of the art. 7.2.2 to move the
heavy suction nozzles for sucking wagons. There, emptying is easier and faster with wagon tipping
systems or by rail transport in self-unloading wagons. Finally, the transport of bulk material in tank
trucks with compressed air discharge is now state of the art. 7.2.2 to move the heavy suction nozzles for
sucking wagons. There, emptying is easier and faster with wagon tipping systems or by rail transport in
self-unloading wagons. Finally, the transport of bulk material in tank trucks with compressed air
discharge is now state of the art. 7.2.2

Types of suction nozzles

The slot suction nozzle in Figure 7.4 is used to extract free-flowing bulk solids, eg. As cereals used from
ships. It hangs vertically on hoses or extension tubes with a diameter of 150 to 600 mm. The diameter is
usually graduated from inch to inch and adjusted to the diameter of the delivery line calculated in
accordance with section 4.4. For the slot suction nozzle during ship unloading, a ratio of the slot area to
the pipe cross-section of about 1: 4 suffices. Here, fine metering up to small mass flow rates is not
required. The slots have a distance of 3/4 to 1 m from the entry of the product into the nozzle. This
allows the suction nozzle immersed deep enough in the bulk material without the bulk material gets into
the slots. This would lead to an increase in the good mass flow and thus to constipation.

191

Figure 7.5 Hood suction nozzle a) at maximum mass flow rate b) at minimum mass flow rate

b)

At the disadvantage of the slot suction nozzle is the lower air velocity in the nozzle below the slots. This
lack is not the jacket suction nozzle (Figure 7.5). If the jacket surrounding the tube is pulled upwards (Fig.
7.5a), the greatest mass flow is obtained with minimal additional air. If it projects far beyond the pipe
(Fig. 7.5b), no air is sucked through the bulk material, and the material mass flow is equal to zero. The
suction nozzles according to Figures 7.4 and 7.5 are often operated with vertical extraction with a
telescopic tube for adjustment. When sucking in the horizontal, the suction nozzle is connected to the
fixed delivery line by a rubber spiral hose. If you put the straight slot suction nozzle as a hand nozzle into
a pile of bulk material, it sucks shortly. The unilaterally heavy hose makes them tipping. As a result, the
opening is no longer in the bulk material, so that the material mass flow is zero. This finding led to the
development of the bent suction nozzle according to Fig. 7.6. This suction nozzle remains in the bulk
material until the required residual suction, which has to be done anyway with manual nozzle
guide. Figure 7.6 Curved slot suction nozzle a I.uftschlit / cb slide

192

Figure 7.7 Split suction nozzle a split pipe b metering slide c dust rags d delivery line

For fine dosages of small good mass flows, the suction nozzles according to Figures 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6 have
not been proven. Here, the split suction nozzle according to Figure 7.7 advantages. By halving the pipe
cross-section in the intake can be metered finer. The dust flaps on the intake slots prevent dust from
escaping at the suction slots when the delivery is switched off, for example with suction
scales. Considering these basic processes at the suction nozzles, many other dosing and conveying
problems can be solved. So z. B. realized the optional and simultaneous promotion of eight different
sugar granules with a Ventilationsaugförderung to six tablet presses. However, the function of the
suction nozzles is dependent on the flow behavior of the conveyed material.

7.3

Transport

fan 7.3.1

Function

A lot has already been reported in Section 6.2.5 using the transport fan (Figure 7.8). It connects the lock
function with the function of the air supplier (pressure increase and volume flow). However, the dosing
function is missing, ie the transport fan always has the task of receiving and conveying all doses of
conveyed goods. The development of the transport fan was originally based on a homogeneous mixture
of good and air, without first considering the principles of pneumatic conveying according to Chapter
2. The fact that the material to be conveyed is not evenly distributed in the air stream and that
numerous good properties according to Chapter 3 limit the use of the transport fan.

193

Figure 7.8 Transport Fan

7.3.2

application criteria
advantages: easy introduction into a large air flow leads to the promotion also of cohesive bulk
materials. Even highly adhesive goods, such as silage in agriculture, can be conveyed by specially
designed impeller shapes. The fan takes over the acceleration of the conveyed material as a so-called
"throwing blower". Particularly advantageous is the large air flow in many conveying
tasks. Disadvantages: Due to the design, the transport fan has the following disadvantages: DDDD

low pressure increase low material loading low material mass flow low delivery path

up to

about up to about about

ap

= Ap / Qs A / = = = =

40 mbar l 20 t / h 100 m (200 m)

These disadvantages follow from the characteristics of the fan. When deciding on a transport

fan for the injection and conveyance of a bulk material, however, one must also consider the following
additional disadvantages: DDDDD large energy requirement, large dedusting filter, conveying
problems with heavy goods, wear of the fan in hard material, danger of dust explosion in the promotion
of fine, combustible dusts ,

The listed advantages and disadvantages have led to the fact that the transport fan especially in the
wood industry (chip extraction) in non /.u long conveyor routes and in agriculture (promotion of chaff
and silage) has proven.

194

7.4

The injector lock

Injectors for introducing the conveyed material convert the pressure energy of the air at the point of
introduction into speed energy. Thus, the conveyed material can be absorbed by the air flow at
atmospheric pressure. After the infiltration, the energy is transformed back again. The overpressure
thus obtained is equal to the pressure loss in the subsequent delivery line. This turns the lock problem
into a flow problem. Although there are no moving parts in the air flow, but still receives high air
velocities in the injector with relatively small pressure differences. The flow and bulk material basics of
the bulk material injector have been investigated theoretically and experimentally by several authors
[7.2 to 7.7].

7.4.1

Function

The injector sluice (Figure 7.9) consists of four parts: In the motive nozzle, the overpressure is converted
into air velocities between about 100 m / s and the speed of sound. This jet sucks in air and material
before it enters the mixing tube (l to 2). There, the recorded material is accelerated. In the subsequent
diffuser (2 to 3), the conical expansion of 8 to 10 ° center angle converts the kinetic energy of the air
back into pressure

Fig . 7.9 Injector hose T Driving nozzle T- l Mixing chamber l -2 Mixing pipe 2-3 Diffuser 3 -R conveying
pipe

The air velocity in the motive nozzle follows from equation (6.21) for isentropic outflow. Figure 7.10
shows that it barely deviates from the air velocity calculated according to Bernoulli (equation 2.1) with
small pressure differences Ap1R to about 0.1 bar. After all, the pressure difference of ApTR = 0.1 bar
already corresponds to an airspeed of about 125 m / s. With appropriate design of the motive nozzle,
the Ausströmverluste can be kept equal to zero. It is thus possible to convert approximately the full
pressure into speed energy in the subcritical range. In the mixing chamber T- I according to Figure 7.9,
the propellant jet widens conically before it flows into the mixing tube 1 to 2. He absorbs air and
conveyed material, which flows from the environment into the hopper. If the back pressure in the
subsequent delivery line R is low, the injector sluice can act as a suction-pressure injector (see Fig.
7.18). In this case, a suction conveyor line opens into the then closed mixing

195

400

Fig. 7.10 Air velocity at the nozzle of an injector sluice as a function of the pressure ratio a at an
iscntropcr flow, Eq. 6.21, b after Bcrnoulli, Eq. 2.1

m/s

300

t CD

•D
7

200

100

1.5

2.5

Pressure ratio p- = 1 +

chamber. The author has built on this principle, several suction-pressure conveyor systems for foam
polystyrene beads and Styrofill. If the backpressure in the delivery line R is greater than the pressure
that can be converted by the injector sluice, the amount of air in the propulsion jet flows only partially
into the delivery line. The rest escapes in the hopper against the incoming bulk material. It results in a
backwater of the conveyed material, and the system takes only as much conveyed on, as they can
promote according to the pressure conversion in the injector. Thus, the injector sluice regulates the
good mass flow itself. However, this can lead to blockage of the conveyor system with the explanations
given in section 2.5. In the mixing tube l to 2, the recorded material is accelerated and distributed in the
air stream. Picture 7. 11 shows calculated speed curves according to W. HUTT [7.7] for two conveyed
goods with different hovering speed D Sch. It can be seen that conveyed goods are accelerated to a
much higher velocities in the mixing tube with a small floating speed. In the subsequent conveyor tube,
the good speed of both items equalizes again. In the meantime, however, the conveyed material has a
higher acceleration

196

loss caused. This is only partly converted back into pressure according to section 2.3.1 in the
diffuser. According to Fig. 7.11, the single grain is accelerated more than the good flow, because in the
flow of material one behind the other grains offer the air flow less attack surface ("slipstream
effect"). The diameter and length of the mixing tube (l to 2 in Fig. 7.9) depend on the material to be
conveyed for an injector in accordance with [7.7J in optimum condition. It must be ensured that the
propulsion jet expands to the diameter of the mixing tube. On the other hand, the good speed should be
kept as small as possible. This is especially important for fine-grained goods.

7.4.2

Pressure conversion

In numerous measurements, U. WAGKNKNECHT [7.6] and W. HUTT [7.7] measured the pressure curve in
injector locks. An example is shown in Fig. 7.12 for conveying polystyrene granules with a load loading of
// = 1. The high air velocity in the jet of 125 m / s is reduced by half in the mixing tube and drops to the
required conveying speed of 26 m / s in the diffuser. Conversely, the pressure rises after the jet entry
into the mixing tube, then falls as a result of

Fig. 7.11 Calculated velocity profile of two conveyed goods according to [7.7] in the [injector sluice with
the following data: motive jet velocity: 125 m / s, motive jet diameter: 69.8 mm, mixing tube diameter:
100 mm, feed tube diameter: 15.5 mm al polystyrene granules, grain diameter 2.7 mm, Floating speed
6.7 m / s, good load l a2 single grain to al hl fine glass balls, grain diameter 0.068 mm, floating speed
0.34 m / s, good loading l b2 single grain to bl

500

1000

mm

blowing nozzle distance

197

1500

Fig. 7.12 Speed and pressure curve according to [ 7.7] when conveying polystyrene granulate with data
according to Fig. 7.11, curve al

500 1000 nozzle spacing

1500

Good acceleration and increases again by the pressure recovery in the diffuser. Figure 7.12 also shows
the pressure in front of the jet nozzle. Of this pressure, 42 mbar are available for delivery in the delivery
line. That's 45%. Of the remaining 55%, one part was used for acceleration. Nevertheless, the loss is
significantly greater than the acceleration pressure loss according to Section 4.2.3.5. This is calculated
according to Eq. 4.14 to 6.5 mbar. This gives an injector efficiency of 42 + 6.5 = 0.52 for this case. 94

W. HUTT has measured with the injector sluice according to Figure 7.11 several pressure curves for
different loadings of six conveyed goods. If one counts the acceleration pressure loss according to
Eq. 4.14 to the pressure converted to this and sets the overpressure thus obtained to promote Ap in
relation to the overpressure A /? TR in front of the motive nozzle, then an efficiency of the injector sluice
for the respective operating case can be defined as follows: 1/1

"-
(equation 7.1)

Figure 7.13 shows the efficiencies r \\ thus determined for fine and for coarse glass spheres in

198

Fig. 7.13 Efficiency of the injector sluice according to Fig. 7.11 as a function of load loading / <for fine
and coarse glass spheres a fine glass balls, particle diameter 0.068 mm, floating speed 0.34 m / s, b
coarse glass spheres, particle diameter 3.73 mm, hover velocity 15, 8 m / s

70

60 CD

i»

<n

.co cn in co

50

40

20

10

material charge //

4
5

"-

Dependence on the load. It can be seen that this injector without Guteinschleusung has an efficiency of
67%. It falls off with increasing load, and especially strong at low Schwebegeschwindigkeit. This is due to
the fact that the material to be conveyed is accelerated to a high material speed in the mixing tube at a
low levitation speed, as shown in Fig. 7.11, and then decelerated again. Since both are associated with
losses, falls in fine-grained and lightweight conveyed the efficiency with increasing load loading
particularly strong. This behavior also shows the limits of the injector sluice; because good loads of 2
and 5 are not high for flight promotion. Similar to Figure 7.13, the efficiency of the injector lock is shown
in Figure 7.14 after measurements of [7. 7] above the levitation speed. This again shows that the
efficiency of the injector decreases with decreasing Schwebegeschwindigkeit. The fact that the
individual points of the different conveyed goods lie on a curve indicates that the material properties of
the conveyed goods have no significant influence on the injector injection. The values reported here
show the qualitative properties of low-pressure injectors. However, they apply quantitatively only to the
injector according to Fig. 7.11. M. BOHNET and U. WAGENKNF.CHT [7.5] introduce single efficiencies for
the individual parts that make up an injector sluice according to Fig. 7.9. Although this would allow the
overall efficiency of any low-pressure injectors to be calculated more precisely,

199

70

Fig. 7.14 Efficiency; / i of the injector lock according to Fig. 7.11 as a function of the levitation speed
during load loading /; = fine glass balls b quartz sand c polystyrene granules d wheat e corn f rough glass
balls

60 Z! 0)

CO

* -D 03

50 40 30 20 10

8
10

12

14 m / s 16 Sliding speed

Figure 7.15 Horizontal injector with inlet funnel

Figure 7.16 Horizontal injector with loosening

bottom Figure 7.17 Vcturi injector according to [7.8]

200

The injector to the pictures 7.11 to 7.14 has a pressure in front of the propulsion jet of 94 mbar. This
results in a propulsion jet speed of 125 m / s. At higher jet velocities the injector efficiency becomes
even worse. For example, W. HUTT [7.7] has recorded characteristics at motive jet velocities up to the
speed of sound for fine glass spheres. From this, an injector efficiency of only 26% can be calculated for
a load of // = l. Accordingly, the injector efficiency decreases with increasing load, decreasing grain
diameter or decreasing levitation velocity and increasing jet velocity. It follows that the injector sluice is
preferred to use at low pressure promotion with small loadings.

7.4.3

types

Figures 7.16 to 7.20 show different types of injector locks. In the feed hopper of Fig. 7.15, the material
to be conveyed may accumulate if the injector is to be dosed and the counterpressure rises due to
excessive material mass flow. Then the injector just gets the amount of produce per time, which he can
promote without blowing back. Sometimes, according to Figure 7.16 fluidizable powder is loosened to
improve the inlet to the injector. G. SEGLER [7.8] proposed the execution of grain blowers without
mixing tube and Venturi nozzle (Fig. 7.17). With proper construction, this can avoid an increased
acceleration of the conveyed. This leads to a better efficiency according to section 7.4.2. According to
Figure 7.18, suction-pressure injectors were built 7.9]. This can be light conveyed, such as foam
polystyrene or styrofill, and convey to containers via foaming machines. The plant did not need to be
shut down. If the pressure-side machine funnels were full, the system blew the conveying air through
the suction hose until the pressure line was free again. Vertical injectors according to Fig. 7.19 are used
in pressure vessels for material acceleration of fluidizable goods. However, the vessel is under pressure
during the delivery process; because according to section 7.4.2, the injector would not be able to
convert air with several bar overpressure into speed and then again economically into pressure. Figure
7.18 Suction pressure injector according to [7.9] the system blew the conveying air back through the
suction hose until the pressure line was free again. Vertical injectors according to Fig. 7.19 are used in
pressure vessels for material acceleration of fluidizable goods. However, the vessel is under pressure
during the delivery process; because according to section 7.4.2, the injector would not be able to
convert air with several bar overpressure into speed and then again economically into pressure. Figure
7.18 Suction pressure injector according to [7.9] the system blew the conveying air back through the
suction hose until the pressure line was free again. Vertical injectors according to Fig. 7.19 are used in
pressure vessels for material acceleration of fluidizable goods. However, the vessel is under pressure
during the delivery process; because according to section 7.4.2, the injector would not be able to
convert air with several bar overpressure into speed and then again economically into pressure. Figure
7.18 Suction pressure injector according to [7.9] because according to section 7.4.2, the injector would
not be able to convert air with several bar overpressure into speed and then again economically into
pressure. Figure 7.18 Suction pressure injector according to [7.9] because according to section 7.4.2, the
injector would not be able to convert air with several bar overpressure into speed and then again
economically into pressure. Figure 7.18 Suction pressure injector according to [7.9]

201

Figure 7.19 the vertical injector in a pressure vessel

Figure 7.20

Annular gap

, the annular gap injector according to Figure 7.20 is plumb and level used [20.7]. The annular gap
between shell and conveyor pipe is often adjustable. The air flow in the form of a cylinder shell at high
speed has a good intake behavior. Such injectors are inserted into granules casks for machine feed. If
the energy of the compressed air were not required, this cost-effectiveness could hardly be
undercut. 7.4.4

Application criteria

The Venturi has the following advantages: DDDD

There are no moving parts in the airflow. The promotion of bulky goods is possible. The manufacturing
costs, often pure sheet metal work, are low. The injector can dose via the back pressure.

This is offset by the disadvantages: D The efficiency is poor, especially with larger pressure differences,
as explained in section 7.4.2. D Higher velocities increase wear on the conveyed material and on the
injector. D The good mass flow and the delivery length is small because of the low pressure
applied. Thus, the use of injectors is often limited to special solutions.
202

7.5

Rotary valve

The rotary valve and the pressure vessel described in section 7.6 are the most important locks for
pneumatic conveying systems. Almost all lock problems can be solved with these two locks. The rotary
valve operates continuously, while the pressure vessel is usually operated discontinuously.

7.5.1

Function and designs

Although the principle of the rotary valve is simple, the bulk material properties according to Table 3.2
and the influence of the conveyor system have led to a wealth of design variants. In order to keep track,
this chapter should always assume the normal version, even if special versions deviate from it to the
contrary. 7.5.1.1

discharge lock

In the rotary valve, a cellular wheel with radial webs in the cylindrical housing (Figure 7.21) usually
rotates about a horizontal axis. The transported material falls into the chambers of the rotating cellular
wheel and stores there during half a revolution. Thereafter, it flows in the discharge lock down, usually
in a space of higher pressure. Due to the clearance between the bucket and the housing and the
pressure difference pi -p () flows in the circumferential direction and radially the lock leak air from
bottom to top.

Fig. 7.21 Rotary valve as discharge lock a Cell wheel, laterally closed, b Housing, c Side flange, d Shaft, e
Bearing, f Seal

The cell wheel in Fig. 7.21 is a closed cell wheel, in which the webs welded onto the Welkradial were
additionally welded onto two circular disks on the front side. As a result, a disk-shaped air space is
formed between the cellular wheel and side flange on both end faces. This must be open to the lock
outlet, so that the dust entrained by the leakage air can fail. This results in lengthwise

203

the streamline of the through this room from bottom to top flowing lock air leakage only a sealing gap at
the top of the inlet shaft. In contrast, in the circumferential direction, depending on the number of webs
constantly from 2 to 4 gaps between web and housing from. This seal is non-contact and a labyrinth seal
comparable. Such a seal can also be achieved on the front side of the cell wheel, if one uses a front open
cell wheel and precisely adjusts the gap between the feeder and the side flanges. 7.5.1.2 Blow-

through lock

In Fig. 7.21 the conveyed material leaves the rotary valve in free fall. It is also possible to blow the
conveyed material from a frontally open cellular wheel with the conveying air horizontally. The blow-
through lock used for this purpose then has a flange connection on the side flanges for the delivery line
(Fig. 7.22).

Figure 7.22 Blow-through lock

In order for the blow-through lock empties, the diameter of the pipe socket, which connects the lock
with the conveyor, should be equal to 0.7 to l times the delivery line diameter. If it is bigger, the lock will
not be blown out. The cellular wheel takes back part of the conveyed material back to the lock inlet. Too
small a diameter causes too high air velocity, associated with lock and Gutverschleiß, and increased
pressure drop. In this case, one can manage by passing a portion of the conveying air in a bypass with
throttle valve for adjusting the air flow parallel to the lock. 7.5.1.3

Sluice standards

Although the rotary valves are offered in a variety of variants on the market, since 1978 with the
standard ISO 3922 1978 (E) there is an International Standard [7.11]. This standard is limited to the size
scale, the main dimensions and the connection dimensions (Table 7.1). Reference dimension is the
diameter of the cell wheel. The gradation after the geometric standard series RIO with the increment
1.25 results in that the volume of

204

Table 7.1

Main dimensions of the rotary valves by [7.11

D'

160

200
250

315

400

500

630

800

1000

125

160

200

250

315

400

500

630

800

125 160

160 200

200 250
250 315

315 400

400 500

500 630

630 800

800 1 000

125 160 200

160

200 250

200 250 315

250 315 400

315 400 500

400 500 630

500 630 800

630 800 1 000

800 1 000 1 250

250

315

400
500

630

800

1 000

1 250

1 600

25

32

32

40

45

50

60

80

100

60

80

80

110
110

110

140

170

210

Inlet round square rectangular

Outlet

A,

AA x B

A, A, x K

205

The cylinder enclosing the cell wheel approximately doubles from size to size if the width and diameter
of the cylinder are equal. Of the nine standardized sizes, the size 200, 250, 315 and 400 are most
frequently used. In order not to restrict the manufacturer too much, round, square and rectangular
inlets are standardized. In the choice of materials, the manufacturer and the user is free. 7.5.1.4

lock materials

The large number of bulk goods or goods with the most varied properties according to Table 3.2 has led
to the use of many materials for housing, star feeder and side flange. When selecting the material,
particular attention must be paid to the wear in the air gap (see Section 7.5.3). D. HEEP [7.12] has
compiled the material combinations as proven in industrial applications (Table 7.2). A wealth of
recommendations for each case of application and for the numerous good properties according to Table
3.2 are given by A. WESSELS [7.13]. In addition to the surface treatments listed in Table 7.2, further
coatings with substances such as chromium oxide or metal carbide are applied by flame or plasma
spraying. However, the relatively thin layers all have the disadvantage that they are removed quite
quickly in beam fissure in the gap flows. Rotary valves with the use of ceramic shells in the housing is
being worked in Japan.

Table 7.2 combinations of materials for rotary valves of the firm Waeschle, Ravensburg execution

casing

feeder

side flange

gray cast aluminum

GG G Al Si 10 Mg

GG GAlSilOMg

nickel-chromium cast steel

1.4312

St 37 1.4301 1.4541 1.4301 1.4541

1.4312

Additional compensation options: GG + C wear protection of the housing bore through hard chromium
plating GG + N Corrosion protection by chemical nickel plating AI + HC Surface and wear slot by chemical
hard coating of a layer thickness of 0.05 mm

206

7.5.2

Cell

wheel

designs and material flow 7.5.2.1 Good mass flow and degree of filling

The good mass flow, which passes through a rotary valve, can be calculated according to the following
equation: Qs = Vz • «z • pss • <p7_
(Eq.

Where Vz is the volume of the cellular wheel cylinder minus the lands and the shaft. «/ Is the speed in
revolutions per second. The degree of filling (p- / indicates the volume fraction in the bucket wheel that
is effectively filled with bulk material) TH FINKBEINER [7.14] has varied all inlet parameters on a size 200
plexiglass rotary valve and with several cell wheel shapes and solids the flow rate Qs / gss and the
degree of filling It can be seen that the flow rate is proportional to the speed n ° only up to about 15
minutes '' according to equation 7.2, and at higher speeds the bucket wheel no longer becomes active
full, ie the degree of filling becomes less than 1. as if the conveyed goods of the lock in free fall. This
phenomenon is exacerbated when there is a pressure difference at the lock due to subsequent
pneumatic delivery. Then the lock leak air flows against the bulk material, and the pressure difference
acts against the weight of the bulk material column. When planning the use of a rotary valve, one often
assumes a filling level of 70 to 75%. Thus, with rotary valves of 1250 min diameter good mass flows up
to 800 t / h were achieved in the discharge from pneumatic conveyors. 7.5.2.2 and the pressure
difference acts against the weight of the bulk material column. When planning the use of a rotary valve,
one often assumes a filling level of 70 to 75%. Thus, with rotary valves of 1250 min diameter good mass
flows up to 800 t / h were achieved in the discharge from pneumatic conveyors. 7.5.2.2 and the pressure
difference acts against the weight of the bulk material column. When planning the use of a rotary valve,
one often assumes a filling level of 70 to 75%. Thus, with rotary valves of 1250 min diameter good mass
flows up to 800 t / h were achieved in the discharge from pneumatic conveyors. 7.5.2.2

Sluice

inlet The rotary valve is a popular dosing device. It is also often used in mechanical conveyor systems as
a «feeder cell». With regard to a good filling, one chooses a rectangular sluice gate with an edge which
extends over the entire cellular wheel width. The other edge of the rectangular cross section has a
length of 0.5 to 0, puncturing the cell wheel diameter.

207

Figure 7.23 Flow rate and degree of filling as a function of the Schleuscndrchzahl according to [7.14] for
a Trial rotary valve with 200 mm cell diameter for three different materials

dm-Vs

0)

-go L ^

40

80
120

min '160

sluice speed nz

Material a Rape b Potash 40 c Fodder meal Bowl diameter a 2 mm b 0.25 mm c 0.2 mm Bulk density a
675 kg / m ', h 1081 kg / m', c 338 kg / m '.

"D

ffl CD CD

40

80

120 min

160

Sluice speed n,

The plant designer who uses a rotary feeder must be aware of three metering options: a) The bulk
material flow was metered elsewhere. The conveyed material flows metered to the rotary valve. b) The
rotary valve doses the good mass flow according to Eq. 7.2. c) The rotary valve has an inlet dosing. The
case a) is the least problematic since according to Section 7.5.2. l the degree of filling is improved in this
case. Case b) is the normal case, since the rotary valve is the most popular metering device after the
metering screw. In the case of adhesive products that attach themselves to the cells, however, the
dosing function no longer exists. Grainy

208

Goods to be conveyed are usually metered via an adjustable metering gap in the lock inlet (see Figure
7.32 below). Characterized (See Section 7.5.4.2 s.) Can be largely avoided that the single grain between
cellular wheel and the housing is sheared 7.5.2.3

Zellenradform
Already in section 7.5.1.1 attention was drawn to the possibility of making the bucket wheel open
laterally or laterally closed. This design has influence on the lock leak air. On the lock air leakage also
affects the number of Zellenradstege. With 8 to 16 cellular wheel webs, make sure that at least two to
three webs are constantly sealed. These webs have a width between 4 and about 10 (20) mm. The wider
the lands, the better the seal. On the other hand, cohesive and sticky goods tend to caking on the
housing wall, and more with a larger web width. Therefore, for certain items, such as powdered sugar,
the webs bevelled to 1 to 2 mm wide. Occasionally, a knife is also screwed to the cellular wheel web to
scrape loose material coverings on the housing shell [7.13]. Most cell wheels have radial webs. These are
either welded onto the shaft or the cellular wheel was cast as a whole. TH. FINKBEINER [7.14]
investigated the effect of five cell wheel shapes (Figure 7.24) on the flow rate and degree of filling
(Figure 7.25). From this, the following conclusions can be drawn: D Compared to the radial webs a), the
forwardly curved webs b) have advantages in terms of flow rate and degree of filling. Nevertheless, this
design is not used for manufacturing reasons. D Compared to the radial webs a) the forwardly curved
webs b) have advantages in terms of flow rate and degree of filling. Nevertheless, this design is not used
for manufacturing reasons. D Compared to the radial webs a) the forwardly curved webs b) have
advantages in terms of flow rate and degree of filling. Nevertheless, this design is not used for
manufacturing reasons.

Figure 7.24 Cell wheel designs according to [7.14J

e)

209

Figure 7.25 Flow rate and degree of filling of rotary valves with cell wheels according to Figure 7.24 as a
function of sluice speed according to measurements of [7.14] with the product rapeseed (see Figure
7.23)

40 80 Sluice speed n

120 min '160

40

120

1.0

0.6

if
0.2

80

min

160

Sluice speed nr -

D The largest flow is delivered by the bucket wheel d) with four bars pointing tangentially
forward. However, the four webs are not sufficient to seal the leakage air flow. D The best degree of
filling is provided by the cell wheels c) and e). The degree of filling is better with the semi-circular
pockets, the smaller the pockets are. However, this is associated with the lowest flow rate due to a
smaller cellular wheel volume. In practice, cohesive bulk goods are introduced with such cell
wheels. Most rotary valves used today are larger than those of TH. FINKBEINER and run at speeds below
n / = 50 min ~ '. In this area, the degree of filling in the sluice-in of summer rape is still almost
100%. That may be the reason why the practice of the findings of TH.

210

7.5.3

Column, pressure differences and lock leak air

The leakage air is undoubtedly the biggest problem with rotary valves in pneumatic conveyors and has
caused ignorance of the problem already many manufacturers and operators high costs. The lock leak
air is the price for the benefit of continuous introduction at higher pressures. The occurrence of the lock
leak air has the following disadvantages: D The air volume flow delivered by the blower is reduced. D
The fan characteristic becomes flatter (Section 2.5). D The lock leakage obstructs the conveyed material
when it enters the lock and when it leaves the lock into the delivery line. D Due to the dust load, the
high air velocity in the gaps leads to actual wear of the rotary valve (Section 7.5.4.1). 7.5.3.1

Column of the rotary valve

The leakage air flow is shown in Figure 7.21 for the laterally closed and in Figure 7.22 for the laterally
open cell wheel. It is obvious to make the entirety of the gap cross-sectional areas as small as possible in
order to keep the lock leak air small. For this purpose, one manufacturer selects high manufacturing
tolerances on housing, cell wheel and side flange. The others set the minimum lock clearance required
when installing with the feeler gauge. Without temperature differences between the bucket and the
housing, it is today largely agreed [7.13 and 7.15] that in Zellenraddurchmessern up to 400 mm, the
games of 0.1 to 0.2 mm can not be exceeded without the risk that the bucket starts at the housing or on
the side flange. When the material is hot, the cell wheel heats up faster than the housing at first. It
initially expands stronger. Therefore, the lock game must be greater, z. B. 0.3 mm for
Zellenraddurchmessern up to 400 mm. If the lock clearance due to the manufacturing tolerance or wear
0.4 to 0.5 mm, the operation of a system may not be possible because of excessive leakage air
flow. 7.5.3.2

Leakage air flow

In the theoretical calculation of the lock leakage air, a distinction is made between gap losses and loss of
discharge [7.14]. The Schöpfverluste arise during the relaxation of the pressurized chambers, when the
chambers come into contact with the lock inlet during rotation of the cell wheel. The gap losses capture
all leakage air flows through 2 to 4 sealing webs on the circumference of the downward and upward
rotating chambers of the cell wheel. During the rotation, the pressures in the chambers change both
steadily (through the leakage air flow from chamber to chamber) as well as discontinuously (by rotation
of the chamber in the inlet

211

200th

Fig. 7.26 Leakage air volume flow of a rotary valve as a function of the pressure difference in granulate
and powder conveying according to [7.15]. Lock size 250 mm, cell wheel volume 8 dm 1, speed 30 min- '

Eo

100

0.5 Pressure difference

1.0

bar

1.5

and the spout). Nevertheless, it is possible to theoretically determine the lock leak air, which, for
example, G. MILLER carried out without conveyed material [7.16]. Each lock manufacturer has measured
curves for the lock leak air as a planning document for the use of the rotary valve in a pneumatic
conveyor system. It is noticeable that the lock leak air in the case of powder (with a particle size smaller
than the gap width between cell wheel and housing) is only about half as large as with granules (Figure
7.26), whose particle size is significantly larger than the gap width [7.15]. The reason for this can be
found in the fact that in powder locks the gap flow is dust-laden, while it is clean air flow in clean
granules. Accepted, in the last chamber of a rotary valve before relaxing to the lock inlet prevail an
absolute pressure of 1.3 bar. Then, regardless of the profile of the slit flow, the air velocity in the gap
would be as shown in Fig. 7.10, neglecting the friction

v = 200 m / s. With this air speed, a grain is accelerated in the gap. The speed course over the gap length
(which corresponds to the conveying path) according to Eq. 2.11 shows Figure 7.27 for a plastic grain
with a diameter of 0.1 mm and a levitation velocity of 1.8 m / s. Thereafter, the material velocity is only
20 m / s for the web tapered to 2 mm, while for the normal web of 8 mm width it is still a multiple (40 m
/ s) of the material velocity in the delivery line. The smaller the speed of levitation of the grain, the
greater the good speed and thus the impact wear at schleißendem conveyed. If not only air flows in the
gap, but also powder is accelerated, then an increased pressure loss occurs. If there is a pressure
difference, the air velocity will become smaller.

212

sawed bridge normal width 50 mi

40

unwanted l |

30

20) 10

zl

8 mm 1 0
gap length equal ridge width

"•

Figure 7.27 Gutgeschwindigkeit in the gap between cellular wheel and the housing as a function of the
web width in a plastic particle of 0.1 mm grain diameter and 1.8 m / s Schwebegeschwindigkcit Figure
7.28 Removing the lock leak air at the lock inlet a) less favorable due to deflector b) more favorable due
to premature expansion 7.5.3.3

Leakage air discharge

The leakage air of the rotary valve should be removed as possible before it flows counter to the
Hördergut and hindered the same when entering the bucket. Particularly unfavorable affects the
conveyed countercurrent lock air leakage then when there is a bulk material column on the rotary
valve. Then the leakage air builds up an overpressure if it can not escape. Difficult is the discharge of the
lock leak air on the downwardly rotating side of the cell wheel, since here the chambers are filled with
material to be conveyed. Since no scoop losses occur on this side, because the chambers counter-rotate
the leakage air flow, here the lock leak air is also lower. In addition, in the case of powder conveying, the
material to be conveyed additionally seals on this side in accordance with section 7.5.3.2. That's why at
the lock side, where the cell wheel rotates downwards, often dispensed with a Leckluftabfuhr. Most
Schleuseleckluft arises in the rotary valve with frontally open cell wheel on the upward-rotating
chambers. According to [7.15J, an inlet plate protruding into the lock inlet just up to the cell wheel (Fig.
7.28a) is less

213

suitable for discharging the lock air leakage, as a lower-lying vent pipe drilled on the housing jacket (Fig.
7.28b). This takes the air so that the relaxation takes place in the leakage air discharge and not in the
filled with bulk sluice inlet. In addition, an overflow of material to be conveyed into the leakage air line is
avoided. Since more or less dust is contained in the lock leak air flow, one must also design the leak air
duct as a pneumatic conveying. For example, the author of a DN100 lock air leakage control system
remembers a silo for venting a 400 size rotary valve, which injects PE powder into a DN125 delivery
line. In this case, a small top filter over the rotary feeder for dedusting the lock leak air is preferable for
the design. 7.5.3.4

Sealed cell wheel

According to Figure 7.26, the lock leak air described in Section 7.5.3.2 increases approximately with the
pressure difference high 0.5 due to the quadratic resistance law. The disadvantages of the lock leak air,
as described in Section 7.5.3, can no longer be mastered by the skilled person from certain pressure
differences. With the classical rotary valves the rule was that sliding seals should be avoided in the bulk
material [7.17] and many others. The cell wheel turned without contact in the housing, because each
contact seal is under the influence of bulk material particularly stressed. This principle has been deviated
in the past decade and sometimes earlier. In the first step, the gap on the laterally closed cell wheel was
sealed as shown in Figure 7.21 by pressing on a seal [7.12 and 7.15]. In the second step, the radial gap
between the cellular wheel and the housing was sealed by radially adjusting seals on individual
webs. However, these seals are wearing parts and must be serviced. The success of these two sealing
measures is shown in Fig. 7.29. With axial seal, the lock leak air drops to about half. If additionally sealed
radially, the leakage air reduces to about a quarter. By sealing the cellular wheel in the housing, the
rotary valves which were originally usable up to 1 bar pressure difference can be operated up to Ap = 3
bar. The lower airlock leakage allows the use m the plug conveying. Thus, according to [7.12], a plug
conveying with injection through two superimposed, sealed rotary valves was operated with the
following data: Material:

PE granules, 660 m, 3.5 t / h, 5.4 bar.

Such promotion was previously possible only with infiltration through a pressure vessel. However, the
price for the continuous introduction is an increased expenditure for production and maintenance.

214

7.5.4

Influence of the conveyed material

In the rotary feeder, rotating parts such as the cellular wheel move in the bulk material. There are air
currents at very high speeds in the crevices. Therefore, many properties of the conveyed material
according to Table 3.2 have a significant influence on the function of the rotary valve. 7.5.4.1

Sluice wear

It is often assumed that the cause of wear on the cellular wheel and housing is in the columns "rubbing"
conveyed. To counter this, the cellular wheel and housing were slightly conical. The extended gaps
should be reduced again by axial adjustment. However, this measure does not cover the actual
phenomenon of lock wear. The wear in the gaps is not frictional wear at low relative speeds, but jet
wear at high air velocities (Section 7.5.3.2).

Fig. 7.29 Leakage air flow V / according to [7.12] with different possibilities of sealing on the cellular
wheel

400

• / m3 / h
without sealing, -

300

% 200 tz o E

Axial seal

with axial and radial pressure

100

bar

pressure difference Ap -

215

If the grain diameter in Figure 7.24 were reduced from 0.1 to 0.01 mm with otherwise identical values,
the result would be Eq. 2.12 at the end of the gap with 8 mm length a good speed of approximate

c = 125 m / s. This high material velocity inevitably leads to wear with appropriate grain hardness, z. For
example, if slag dust contains silicon carbide with a Mohs hardness of 9.4 according to Table 3.4. If the
wear has started at one point, for example in the housing of the rotary valve, it will progressively occur
there as time progresses, because the larger gap absorbs more air and dust. This explains local leaching
in gray cast iron housings down to millimeter and centimeter depth. Therefore, the conical bucket
mentioned above does not solve the problem of lock leak air. TH. FINKBEINER [7.14] described wear
measurements on a rotary valve lined with a manganese steel sheath without explaining the causes. The
wear in the manganese steel sheath at the gap to the cell wall widened the gap from 0.2 to 3 mm. Coal-
fired coke had been pumped for 3 months in the pneumatic conveyor. The fact that the wear preferably
occurs on the housing and not on the cell wheel can be explained by the fact that the dust entrained in
the gap flow does not enter the gap symmetrically. He is always directed to the cylindrical housing shell
out. Therefore occurs on the housing even more wear when the same of a harder material, eg. B.
manganese steel, is made. 7.5.4.2 that the dust entrained in the slit flow does not enter the gap
symmetrically. He is always directed to the cylindrical housing shell out. Therefore occurs on the housing
even more wear when the same of a harder material, eg. B. manganese steel, is made. 7.5.4.2 that the
dust entrained in the slit flow does not enter the gap symmetrically. He is always directed to the
cylindrical housing shell out. Therefore occurs on the housing even more wear when the same of a
harder material, eg. B. manganese steel, is made. 7.5.4.2
Granulatabscherung

If, during the rotation of the cellular wheel, the edge of a web moves towards the edge of the housing
inlet and hits a granular grain there, the same is sheared off as shown in Fig. 7.30a, or the cellular wheel
stops. If the lock inlet edge and the web edge are parallel (Figure 7.30b), several grains can be sheared
off simultaneously. The lock then needs a large drive torque and is heavily stressed. When injecting
plastic granulate, the leading edge on the housing is therefore inclined (Fig. 7.30c). Locks for wood
shavings are often equipped with knives on the bar and counterblades on the housing with a pulling cut
(Figure 7.31). In order to avoid undesired granule shearing for several reasons, many developments have
been carried out [7.15, 7.18]: As a first step, according to Fig. 7. 32 the dosage of the good mass flow
through a metering flap and not made via the sluice speed. A displacer in the lock inlet places the
granule inlet as far away as possible from the cutting edge. If no spray grain would occur, the granule
shearing would be eliminated. In Figure 7.33, the housing wall and thus the shearing edge is designed to
be flexible and resilient. It dodges before a granule is sheared off. Since these locks have increased
leakage air flows, they are usually connected upstream as a pure metering locks a sealing lock. In Figure
7.33, the housing wall and thus the shearing edge is designed to be flexible and resilient. It dodges
before a granule is sheared off. Since these locks have increased leakage air flows, they are usually
connected upstream as a pure metering locks a sealing lock. In Figure 7.33, the housing wall and thus
the shearing edge is designed to be flexible and resilient. It dodges before a granule is sheared off. Since
these locks have increased leakage air flows, they are usually connected upstream as a pure metering
locks a sealing lock.

216

Figure 7.31 Shearing a wood chip with a knife and counterknife

Figure 7.30 Shearing a granule c at the lock entrance between the wheel path b and housing aa) Single
grain (side view) b) parallel shearing edges (top view) c) non-parallel shearing edges (top view)

Figure 7.32 Cell wheel slug for transporting granules with Pre-metering and leakage air discharge

Fig. 7.33 Rotary valve housing with spring-loaded housing wall

217

Fig. 7.34 Rotary valve with belt seal according to [7.18]

Fig. 7.35 Rotary valve with tangential positive feed

Due to two moving conveyor belts driven by the friction wheel (Fig. 7.34), the gap between the feeder
and the housing can be completely avoided according to [7.18]. In further developments, the originally
radial inlet of the conveyed material was displaced counter to the direction of rotation. This [tangential
sluice] according to Fig. 7.35 was systematically examined by K. FAß [7.19] on a Plexiglas model with a
diameter of 2.50 mm. He has the number of webs of the feeder and the width, the position and the
angle of the inlet varied so that no shearing of the conveyed oilseed rape occurred. At sluice speeds up
to 40 min ~ 'Füllungsgradc were achievable, which are quite comparable to those of a rotary valve with
radial inlet.

ZZZ7,

218

rzz

Fig. 7.36 Granule lock with bulk material displacer in the lock inlet

In recent years, the principle for avoiding granule shearing according to Fig. 7.36 has proven itself
[7.20J. In this case, the oblique edge on the housing inlet according to Figure 7.30c so far employed that
the granules between the star feeder and the housing is not sheared off, but pushed away. The required
angle a has been measured by R. ECK [7.211 for many bulk materials. In order to avoid that the last grain
is sheared in the angle tip, put in the middle of Schlcuseneinlaufs a roof-shaped displacer. As a result of
the slope angle, a ditch free of bulk material forms beneath it. This must be so large that the rejected at
the shear edge granules no longer reaches the angled top. Thus granules can be metered without
shearing from the standing column of bulk material. 7.5.5

Application criteria

The advantages of the rotary valve are, above all, the possibility of continuously feeding or discharging
bulk materials in pneumatic medium-pressure conveyor systems. The pressure difference of the
conventional rotary valves corresponds to that of the rotary piston blower. This combination has led to
the largest mass flow rates (800 t / h) in pneumatic conveying. The disadvantages of the rotary valve
have been described in detail in sections 7.5.3 and 7.5.4. It follows that the use of a rotary valve
depends in a special way from the conveyed. So it is understandable that the rotary valve is mainly
found in the pneumatic conveying in the plastics and grain industry.

7.6 Pressure

vessel

The pressure vessel is most similar to the ship lock according to Figure 7.1. While the ship's lock injects
the ship against the higher energy of the situation, the pressure vessel works against a higher pressure
energy. In addition, after the introduction of a good mass flow in the conveying line to the pressure
vessel, which must be continuous at least in certain time intervals, must be achieved. This is the
requirement that the project engineer can design a reliable working pressure vessel conveyor according
to Chapter 4. 7.6.1

Function

Like all pneumatic conveying systems, the pressure vessel conveyor was invented not by science but by
the practice. A pipeline was connected to a container, bulk material was filled in and pressurized with
compressed air until the bulk material began to move. If one introduces the findings from Chapters 2 to
5 into this procedure, one can measure how far the path from this procedure to a modern pressure
vessel conveyor system was.

219

Fig. 7.37 Pressure vessel for transporting the material to be conveyed a Pressure vessel b Inlet valve c
Level indicator d Ventilation valve e Contact pressure gauge f Delivery valve g Manual dosing valve h
Shut-off valve i Manual dosing valve k Discharge valve l Delivery line m

Venting valve 7.6.1.1

Function sequence

There are a variety of ways that pressure vessels can promote. Therefore, each pressure vessel is
designed individually. Hardly any pressure vessel is like the other. A standard version, if one can define
it, is shown in Figure 7.37. The conveyed material flows through an inlet valve b until a level indicator c
"fully" reports and closes the valve b. Then the pressure vessel filled with material to be conveyed is
pressurized by the air supply via the valve d. If the required delivery pressure is present at the contact
pressure gauge or pressure switch e, the valve d closes. At the same time open the valves f and h and
the outlet valve k, so that the conveyed material flows into the delivery line l. The product is metered via
the adjustable hand valves g and i. The more air that flows through g, the greater the mass flow. Once all
conveyed material has flowed from the pressure vessel into the delivery line, the pressure in the
delivery line drops. The contact manometer e addresses and reports "end of conveyor". Then the valves
f, h and k close. The vent valve m opens, so that the compressed air is released through the vent line and
not through the delivery line. After a certain time, the pressure vessel is depressurized, the valve m
closes, and the next delivery cycle begins. The control version described here is often simplified and
modified depending on the conveyed material and the conveying path. Thus, sometimes the valves f, g,
i, h, k and m are omitted in whole or in part. Or one can save the level indicator or the contact
manometer e and control the entire function sequence via time switches. However, this has already led
to malfunctions and rework,

220

7.6.1.2
Operating pressures

The pressure vessel is able to infiltrate the conveyed material against almost any pressure. If the
function of the inlet valve b is mastered in Fig. 7.37, then the pressure vessel is absolutely tight during
the conveying process. There is also no lock leak air, as at the rotary feeder (see Section 7.5.3), which
could obstruct the infiltration. By contrast, the functional sequence described in the previous section is
discontinuous. The numerous tax organs are being charged more heavily. Depending on the application,
difficulties arise in the start-up phase until the material mass flow has stopped, and in the final phase
until the pressure vessel is relaxed again. For pneumatic conveying with pressure vessel infeed, the
project engineer makes sensible use of the pressure of the air supply. This pressure is according to
sections 6. 5 and 6.6 of the one-stage oil-free compressor (3 bar overpressure) or the compressed air
network (eg 6 bar overpressure). The pressure drop in the air flow control according to sections 6.6.3
and 6.6.4 shall be taken into account. However, pressure vessels were also built for 25 bar operating
pressure (eg for injection into coal gasification plants). Here it must be distinguished between the
operating pressure and the pressure drop in the delivery, which usually does not exceed 6 bar.

Picture 7:38 pressure curve of a controlled by image 7:37

clock time

pressure vessel

purging of the material line conveying time filling the conveying line filling of the pressure vessel 7.6.1.3

Time pressure curve

In the functional sequence described in Section 7.6.1.1, a pressure curve over time is obtained in the
pressure vessel according to Figure 7.38. After filling the pressure vessel at atmospheric pressure, it is
brought to the discharge pressure. This drops slightly during the delivery time, as the column of bulk
material decreases and thus the outflow becomes smaller. If the pressure vessel is empty, the pressure
drops steeply while the delivery line empties. The ratios of the individual times depend on the incoming
and outgoing material flow and on the switching times of the valves. In addition, take the

221

Fig. 7.39 Pressure curve for the pressure vessel inlet with pressure control between the overpressures p
max = 4.4 bar and pm, "= 4 bar according to measurements of [7.22] with the data: Material: alumina,
bulk material flow: Qs = 21.3 t / h, Delivery path: A / = 530 m
bar

4 Pmin

cn D

• p 0) _Q

6 8 Delivery time -

10

^2

16

Diameter and the length of the delivery line and the good properties and the delivery state in the
subsequent delivery line influence on the cycle time. The number of cycles of the pressure vessel is
about 5 to 10 per hour for larger systems. Small pressure vessels work with cycle numbers up to about
30 per hour. The ratio of all non-productive times to the total cycle time is about 0.1 to 0.3. In order to
achieve a mean good mass flow Qs, in the calculation according to Chapter 4, the material mass flow
during the delivery time must be increased in the ratio of the cycle time to the pure delivery time. In the
case of cohesive goods, the pressure during the delivery time can vary considerably more than in Figure
7.38 [7.22]. So that the good mass flow, as it was set with the valves g and i in Figure 7.37, does not drop
too much, it is regulated by targeted opening and closing of the valves f and h. If the valve f is open and
the valve h closed, the good mass flow increases. And vice versa, he falls off. The set point for the
control can be either the pressure in the pressure vessel or the time weight loss if the pressure vessel is
placed on an electronic balance [7.23]. The temporal pressure curve for a pressure-controlled pressure
vessel conveyor system according to measurements of [7.22] is shown in Fig. 7.39. Here, the pressure
vessel has switched from the maximum to the minimum mass flow approximately every 30
seconds. Thus, the delivery pressure between 4 and 4.4 bar overpressure was utilized during the entire
delivery time. The ratio of non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in this case. 7.6.2 If the valve f is
open and the valve h closed, the good mass flow increases. And vice versa, he falls off. The set point for
the control can be either the pressure in the pressure vessel or the time weight loss if the pressure
vessel is placed on an electronic balance [7.23]. The temporal pressure curve for a pressure-controlled
pressure vessel conveyor system according to measurements of [7.22] is shown in Fig. 7.39. Here, the
pressure vessel has switched from the maximum to the minimum mass flow approximately every 30
seconds. Thus, the delivery pressure between 4 and 4.4 bar overpressure was utilized during the entire
delivery time. The ratio of non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in this case. 7.6.2 If the valve f is
open and the valve h closed, the good mass flow increases. And vice versa, he falls off. The set point for
the control can be either the pressure in the pressure vessel or the time weight loss if the pressure
vessel is placed on an electronic balance [7.23]. The temporal pressure curve for a pressure-controlled
pressure vessel conveyor system according to measurements of [7.22] is shown in Fig. 7.39. Here, the
pressure vessel has switched from the maximum to the minimum mass flow approximately every 30
seconds. Thus, the delivery pressure between 4 and 4.4 bar overpressure was utilized during the entire
delivery time. The ratio of non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in this case. 7.6.2 when placing
the pressure vessel on an electronic balance [7.23]. The temporal pressure curve for a pressure-
controlled pressure vessel conveyor system according to measurements of [7.22] is shown in Fig.
7.39. Here, the pressure vessel has switched from the maximum to the minimum mass flow
approximately every 30 seconds. Thus, the delivery pressure between 4 and 4.4 bar overpressure was
utilized during the entire delivery time. The ratio of non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in this
case. 7.6.2 when placing the pressure vessel on an electronic balance [7.23]. The temporal pressure
curve for a pressure-controlled pressure vessel conveyor system according to measurements of [7.22] is
shown in Fig. 7.39. Here, the pressure vessel has switched from the maximum to the minimum mass
flow approximately every 30 seconds. Thus, the delivery pressure between 4 and 4.4 bar overpressure
was utilized during the entire delivery time. The ratio of non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in
this case. 7.6.2 The ratio of non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in this case. 7.6.2 The ratio of
non-productive times to cycle time was 30% in this case. 7.6.2

Influence of the conveyed on the design

The size of the pressure vessel follows from the requirement that the non-productive times, such as the
opening and closing of the valves are partially fixed, do not exceed a proportion of about 30% of the
cycle time, otherwise the material mass flow during the delivery time Too much to be raised. In addition,
the valves are more stressed by frequent switching

222

. It follows that a large good mass flow requires a larger pressure vessel. In addition to the pressure
vessel size and the design is matched to the conveyed. If a pressure vessel safety work is to be carried
out, the relevant characteristics of goodness described in Section 3.3.3 must be taken into account in
the design. 7.6.2.1 Pressure vessel

for bulkable granules

Free-flowing granules have a behavior as shown in Figure 3.6a. They are not adhesive and not
cohesive. Through a bottom opening, they flow freely when the outflow diameter is greater than about
three times the grain diameter (Figure 7.40). If the delivery path is not large and there is enough
pressure available, then the simplest type of pressure vessel can be used for this case. Figure 7.41 shows
the principle of this pressure vessel without dosage. The conveying air introduced into the outlet cone
takes the material to be conveyed through the outlet manifold into the delivery line. The condition for a
safe delivery is that the blower pressure is at least as high as the pressure loss in the delivery line at
maximum material mass flow. This depends on the delivery condition and can not be calculated exactly.

Diameter

Ratio 77 u

free discharge Figure 7.40

no

no

yes

discharge criterion home pressure

vessel Figure 7.41 Discharge for granules without dosage

223

Figure 7.42 Pressure vessel for free-flowing granules with metering

In order to remedy this deficiency, a dosing option for the material mass flow can be achieved without
much effort. Figure 7.42 shows the dosage by dividing the air flow. The more air flows through the
pressure vessel and the less through the bypass, the greater is the good mass flow. With a view to good
metering, it is important to ensure that the bypass air is introduced outside the cone at the angle of
repose. Only then can you set the good mass flow to zero. Sometimes a flow divider is used instead of
the two valves. This works the better, the less he reacts to pressure fluctuations. Sometimes, the setting
of the good mass flow by changing an outlet cross-section, for example via a slide made. However, this
type of dosage is highly dependent on the air flow, which in turn reacts to pressure fluctuations. This
reduces the reliability of the conveyor system. 7.6.2.2

Pressure vessel for fluidisable powders

A fluidisable powder according to Figure 3.6c (curve l) has a behavior similar to water. The slope angle is
approximately 0 °. In the case of an infiltration in the pressure vessel according to Fig. 7.42, the material
to be conveyed would fluidize and flow beyond the point of introduction of the additional air. The good
mass flow would not or only slightly dosed, and the reliability would be low. For this reason, a pressure
vessel according to Fig. 7.43 with a discharge upwards is suitable for such conveyed material (as 7 .. B.
Zement). This pressure vessel has a fluidizable bottom. Through him the conveying air is introduced. This
fluidizes the conveyed material. The good-air mixture is forced by the flow in the upward conveying
line. The bypass for metering the good mass flow opens above the pressure vessel in the delivery
line. Thus, even the good mass flow 0 can be set even if the vessel contents behave like a liquid
according to the principle of communicating tubes. Usually, a tissue supported by a support grid is used
as fluidizable soil in Figure 7.43. This has the advantage that it can be increased by bulging after

224

Fig. 7.43 Powder Pressure vessel

for

fluidizable image 7.44 Powder Pressure vessel

for non- fluidizable vessels of

the vessel is better cleaned of dirt than porous plates made of sintered plastic or sintered metal. If the
pressure loss when passing through the entire conveying air through the tissue is too great, a part of the
conveying air is led to the vessel ceiling in a further air line with metering valve. 7.6.2.3 Pressure vessel

for cohesive bulk solids

With the pressure vessels according to Fig. 7.41 to 7.43, not all bulk materials can be reliably
entrained. Non-fluidizable, cohesive materials as shown in Figure 3.6b often have the characteristic that
the air rises in channels during aeration. Through these channels escapes the air, while the bulk material
is not put into a flowable state. One way to make such bulk materials flow is to bring the pressure vessel
into horizontal vibration [7.24]. If, however, the success does not exist here, the cohesion of the bulk
material according to Figure 3.6b is even greater. The pressure vessel according to Fig. 7.44 has proven
itself for the introduction of such conveyed goods. Here, the outlet cone is covered inside with a porous
cloth. If this cloth is ventilated and channels form in the bulk material during ventilation, then the cloth
bulges due to its flow resistance. The channels are pressed in, and the air flowing through conveys the
bulk material into the outlet manifold. The dead weight of the conveyed material, the air flow and the
pressure of the cloths promote the leakage. Following the procedures described in Section 7.6.2, most
bulk materials can be introduced with the pressure vessel. Borders are mainly given in fibrous, platy and
bulky bulk materials. 2 treated processes can be slipped most bulk materials with the pressure
vessel. Borders are mainly given in fibrous, platy and bulky bulk materials. 2 treated processes can be
slipped most bulk materials with the pressure vessel. Borders are mainly given in fibrous, platy and bulky
bulk materials.
225

7.6.3

Flow of air and material

In the individual types of pressure vessels according to section 7.6.2, the conveying air and the material
to be conveyed flow through the pressure vessel lock in temporal and spatial alternation until both
arrive in the delivery line. It is important to control this targeted process. 7.6.3.1 Air

flow control

The pressure vessel is preferably used for pneumatic conveying at high pressures. This is why the screw
compressors described in Section 6.5 and the air volume control according to Section 6.6.4 are
particularly suitable for supplying air to a pressure vessel conveyor system. With regard to a vertical
blower characteristic according to section 2.5, you should not divert any air between the blower and the
Laval nozzle. Thus, a largely independent of pressure fluctuations air flow to the piping of the pressure
vessel. The distribution of the air mass flow according to Figures 7.41 to 7.44 should also be largely
independent of pressure fluctuations. Thus, the good mass flow can best keep constant. The greater the
pressure loss in the adjustable valves, the less fluctuates the air mass flow and thus the Good mass flow
in case of pressure fluctuations. The pressure losses in the vessel piping can be calculated according to
W. BOHL [7.25 | calculate relatively accurately, although the effort is usually not operated. The designer
should be aware that the pressure drop in the straight pipe increases inversely proportional to the pipe
diameter high 5 and in the single resistor high 4. In the design of a pressure vessel, the pressure loss in
the casing of about 0.2 to 0.3 bar at air velocities up to 30 m / s and atmospheric pressure and about 10
to 20 m / s at delivery pressure is a realistic value. 7.6.3.2 The designer should be aware that the
pressure drop in the straight pipe increases inversely proportional to the pipe diameter high 5 and in the
single resistor high 4. In the design of a pressure vessel, the pressure loss in the casing of about 0.2 to
0.3 bar at air velocities up to 30 m / s and atmospheric pressure and about 10 to 20 m / s at delivery
pressure is a realistic value. 7.6.3.2 The designer should be aware that the pressure drop in the straight
pipe increases inversely proportional to the pipe diameter high 5 and in the single resistor high 4. In the
design of a pressure vessel, the pressure loss in the casing of about 0.2 to 0.3 bar at air velocities up to
30 m / s and atmospheric pressure and about 10 to 20 m / s at delivery pressure is a realistic
value. 7.6.3.2

material inlet

The obturator above the pressure vessel is like the flap on the ship's lock the most important organ of
the pressure vessel lock. Since bulk material must be shut off at this point in a continuous sequence and
sealed against overpressure, technically stringent requirements are placed on this obturator. R.
REIMERT 7.26] has put together such shut-off devices for pressure reactors. In addition, there are a
variety of developments in the industry for this requirement, of which, however, none solves this task
universally. In the following, some proven versions are presented schematically. More detailed
information about the design and application can be found by the manufacturers: Since it is difficult to
shut off and simultaneously seal the product flow, these functions were originally separated. In picture
7.

226

In the case of powder feed, the conical valve has proven itself according to Fig. 7.46. This has the
advantage that the sealing pressure is greater with higher back pressure. In order to operate it directly,
however, the product flow must be diverted, as shown in Figure 7.46. In the case of a vertical flow of
conveyed material, the actuation is led out of the crop inlet via a linkage. The pipe slide according to
Figure 7.47 has the advantage that the granules to be shut off normally do not come into contact with
the sealing surface. The sealing surface lies above the granulate filling when the pipe slide is pushed
upwards by an internal compressed air cylinder. The pipe slide is pressed with increasing pressure
stronger. However, it is located entirely inside the pressure vessel, where the compressed air must be
led to the control.

Fig. 7.45 Combination damper flap at the inlet into a pressure

vessel a Slide b Damper c Seal Fig. 7.47 Fig. 7.46 Poppet valve with side inlet and direct pneumatic
actuation

Pipe

slide for granulate In addition to these shut-off valves, the shut-off flap , the flat slide, the swivel slide,
the ball valve are sometimes used or the dome valve used for simultaneous shut-off and sealing. In
particular, in the case of wear-prone bulk materials, however, the service life is limited in these shut-off
devices. The service engineer knows that due to the jet wear described in section 7.5.3.2, a small leak
can quickly disable a bulkhead-operated shut-off device.

227

7.6.3.3

Material outlet

At Gutauslauf the good mass flow can be adjusted, which was explained with reference to Figure 7.42 to
7.44. By choosing the control to achieve that the outlet valve is indeed traversed by bulk material, but
does not have to close in the standing bulk column. The designer of a pressure vessel has the choice to
provide a shut-off valve on the Gutauslauf or renounce it. If, as in Figure 7.41, no outlet valve is
provided, then towards the end of the delivery time, the pressure vessel will relax into the delivery
line. The airspeed increases to two to three times the speed of flight promotion. This can be avoided
only partially, if a vascular venting is provided, which was not shown in the pictures 7.41 to 7.44. In
order not to lose the benefits of a gentle plug conveying in particular, one builds in most pressure vessel
conveyance an outlet valve. Protection of the outlet valve can be achieved by a downstream level
indicator (Figure 7.48). Only when the level indicator indicates empty, the outlet valve is closed. Figure
7.48 Pressure pump with outlet valve and underfilled level indicator

7.6.4 Pressure vessel arrangement

for continuous operation

In contrast to the rotary valve, the pressure vessel works discontinuously due to the constant filling and
emptying. However, it is possible to achieve a continuous good mass flow despite discontinuous
Guteinlauf. Would you z. B. lead in the arrangement of Figure 7.48 during the filling of the pressure
vessel, the air flow in the underlying container, then could be further promoted from this container, as
long as the pressure vessel fills at atmospheric pressure again with conveyed. 228

, enstrom

Fig. 7.49 Discontinuous and continuous injection f) (0 a) with single pressure vessel E b) with 0: a) filling
Filling Filling Conveying pressure vessels c) with superimposed pressure vessels

u O L-

b)

c)

Conveying vessel 1

Conveying vessel 2

Time

Promote time vessel 1

time

In Fig. 7.49, the material mass flow over time is plotted schematically for three pressure vessel
arrangements according to [7.23]. When individual pressure vessel a) the delivery process is interrupted
at regular intervals by the filling process. In two adjacent pressure vessels b) can promote the one, while
the other is filled. This creates a short interruption during switching. If one sets two pressure vessels on
top of each other c), then you can always leave the delivery pressure in the lower, while the upper is
filled at atmospheric pressure, is brought to delivery pressure, the conveyed emptied into the lower and
relaxed again. Thus, the promotion in a) is discontinuous, in b) almost continuously and in c)
continuously. 7.6.5

application criteria

The pressure vessel has the great advantage that large mass flow rates (up to 300 t / h) can be
introduced with it against large pressures. The high pressures, in combination with avoidable lock leak
air, make them particularly suitable for gentle pumping at low air velocities (eg for plug conveying or

229

during flow promotion). Since there are no moving plant parts in the conveyed material during the
conveyance, the pressure vessel is less susceptible to wear. So it is also used for schleißende
goods. These advantages are as a major disadvantage of the large equipment expense and the cost of
the electrical control compared. The normal pressure vessel is operated discontinuously. The possibility
of operating a double pressure vessel with a continuous material mass flow exists. But that requires
further effort and greater height. Basically, the pressure vessel builds higher than other locks because of
the storage volume. These heights are not available in every facility.

7.7

Fluid-bed lock

The previously treated locks for higher pressures (Section 7.5 and 7.6) have the disadvantage that move
at some point in the infiltration parts of the lock in the bulk material. Wear-friendly materials such as
alumina with a Mohs hardness of 9 (Table 3.4) significantly reduce the service life of these parts. This is
even more the case when bulk-laden gap flows of high velocity are formed (Section 7.5.3.2). For a long
time was looking for a bulk sluice, in which no lock part moves in the bulk material. 7.7.1

Function

Such a lock is the fluid-bed lock (designation by the author) according to Figure 7.50. At first glance, this
lock is similar to the pressure vessel for introducing fluidizable powders according to Fig. 7.43. However,
the fluidized bed lock does not require a bulk material valve at the inlet and therefore works
continuously. The sealing takes place in a fluidized bed with the height A /. According to Fig. 2.12, the
following pressure can be built up under the fluidized bed: Ap =

ÖSS
•g•A/

(Eq.7.3)

If, according to Table 4.3, the bulk density of cement (oss = 1420 kg / m ') is taken as the basis for Ap = l
bar pressure difference, the following minimum required bed height:

= 7.18 m

This high level makes it understandable that the fluidized-bed lock is used in spite of low wear
sensitivity, especially in medium-pressure systems up to pressure differences of about 0.5 bar.

230

Fig. 7.50 Sewer bed sluice for the introduction of fluidisable, extremely heavy powder

tl tl

The dosage of the fluid-bed lock according to Fig. 7.50 is similar to that of the pressure vessel according
to Fig. 7.43, namely by dividing the air volumes via throttle valves. The influx of the conveyed material is
regulated so that the required bed height A / varies within certain limits. With an air volume distribution
only via throttle valves, the air consumption increases with decreasing bed height A /. Here, too, the use
of an air flow control according to section 6.6.4 is recommended. The amount of air must be adjusted so
that the conveyed material is always at an air velocity above the Auflockerungspunkt DAF flowed to
Figure 2.12, otherwise it does not flow into the bottom open Förderlei tungsroh r. 7.7.2

Examples

The fluidized bed lock has long been used as a so-called "pneumatic elevator" in contrast to the
mechanical bucket elevator or "elevator". Here it overcomes the function-related loss of height of flow
channels, which must be inclined. Care is taken to ensure that the promotion is exclusively vertical. The
conveyed material hits the highest point of the system against an inclined plate and flows diagonally
into the silo. The only vertical promotion has the advantage that the air velocity can be kept smaller to
promote, without the conveyor clogged (eg 10 to 15 m / s). The search for a suitable discharge at the
end of pneumatic suction conveyors for ship unloading of alumina has also led to the use of the fluidised
bed lock [7.18]. Plan the bed height of a few meters to Eq. 7.3, then the fluid-bed lock of the rotary valve
is far superior in terms of wear here.

231

7.8
Snail

sluice The snail sluice is often referred to as a pump (fuller pump or coin pump), which is not entirely
correct. As with any pneumatic conveying, the compressed air from the air supply also brings the
delivery energy, while the sluice gate has the task to inject the conveyed material and to prevent the
compressed air from escaping. 7.8.1

Function

The screw or screw principle underlying the screw lock is a basic function of the technique and is used in
many fields of process engineering, e.g. B. in the extruder. According to [7.26], extruders are used for
introduction against pressures of up to 50 and 100 bar. Figure 7.51 shows the principle of a sluice sluice
with vertical discharge of the conveyed material. Depending on the design, the conveyed material can
also be introduced horizontally. The bulk material flowing into the screw is taken along by the screw
flight axially and not in the circumferential direction due to gravity and centrifugal force. Under this
condition, the helix, with its shallow pitch angle, transmits pressure to the bulk material during
rotation. This is proportional to the absorbed motor torque. With this pressure also increases the wall
friction and prevents co-rotation of the bulk material cylinder. So z. B. a meat grinder with great
pressure to crush the chopped pieces of meat through a perforated disc. Or a worm conveyor hindered
at the good outlet destroys itself if the drive motor does not stop first. In this way, the screw lock is able
to press the conveyed material against high pressures in the delivery line. Transport screws for the
mechanical transport of bulk material are usually filled to a maximum of half. The author has observed
in the silo discharge of coal dust at them, that the fluidized material also flowed at standstill and without
pressure difference through the screw conveyor. In order to guarantee the lock function of a screw lock,
the following measures are taken:

Fig. 7.51 Snail lock for introducing powders

\ JA A

ü AAA '\ AAAVVV VVV ^' V

ho:

232

a) The screw lock must be filled over the entire cross section. b) The screw pitch is reduced from the
inlet to the outlet. As a result, loose and fluidized bulk material is compacted and wall friction towards
the housing is ensured. c) The screw speed is chosen to be so high (750 to 1800 min "1) that the
centrifugal force causes increased wall friction, so that the material can build up a counter-pressure and
avoid any empty bubbles d) Due to the undesired pore flow, the conveying is restricted For vertical
screw conveyors, A. Vierling [7.27] deduced the necessary speeds so that a vertical conveyance would
be possible at all, which are below the speed of the screw lock indicated in c). With the conditions a) to
d) one can do without an additional rotary valve at the conveying inlet of the screw lock. In addition, the
flap at the lock outlet still shown in Fig. 7.51 is no longer required [7.28]. 7.8.2

Execution

The function of the worm lock, which is somewhat difficult to understand for the non-specialist, has
been proven for more than half a century in completed plants of the cement and mineral industries. In
order not to disturb the material flow in the bulk material compaction by internals, the auger is
mounted in Figure 7.51 only on the motor side. It is then better to replace even when wearing. With
screw diameters between 8 and 34 mm, good volume flows of between 4 and 235 m Vh can be achieved
according to [7.28]. The respective screw lock must be adapted to the diameter of the delivery line
calculated in accordance with Section 4.3.

233

The support line

In a pneumatic conveying system, the actual delivery takes place in the delivery line. The delivery line
consists of simple tubes with flanges at the connection points. Therefore, in the pneumatic conveying
where the promotion is running, much less effort than in the mechanical promotion. This was already
indicated in Table 1.1. An exception is made by certain pneumatic conveying methods according to
Chapter 5.

8.1

Execution

Although the pipeline being conveyed is basically simple, many criteria, such as the bulk material
properties and the high material velocities, have a strong influence on the design compared to
mechanical conveying the support line. 8.1.1 Pipe

diameter

One of the main tasks in the design of a pneumatic conveying system according to Chapter 4 is the
calculation of the pipe diameter. After the theoretical calculation, the project engineer chooses a
commercially available pipe, characterized by pipe diameter and wall thickness. These tubes are usually
made in lengths of about 6 m and welded with flanges to the delivery line. Sometimes the entire
production of the delivery line takes place on the construction site. Then only pipes, flanges and elbows
as well as a welder are delivered, and the installer relocates the pipeline on site according to the piping
plan. However, more common is the laying of prefabricated pipe parts, which are welded only on well-
considered passport site. A delivery line in mild steel St37 is usually equipped with tubes according to
D1N 2448 (Table 8.1) [8. 1] executed. The inner diameters of these tubes are based on inch
dimensions. Important and internationally available pipes are graded from inch to inch. It is
recommended to choose an ISO diameter according to Table 8.1 as the pipe diameter according to
Section 4.2.4.1 and as the extension diameter according to Eq. Select 4.8 or 4.36 intermediate sizes.

235

Table 8.1

Seamless steel tubes according to DIN 2448, (a selection) Outer diameter Normal

diameter

Inner

diameter

mm mm 48.3 51 57 60.3 63.5 70 76.1 82.5 88.9 101.6 108 114.3 121 127 2 , 6 2.6 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.2
3.2 3.6 3.6 3.6 4 4 4 4 4.5 4.5 4.5 4, 5 5 5.4 5.9 6.3 6.3 7.1 7.1 43.1 45.8 51.2 54.5 57.7 64.2 70.3 76.1 82.5
94.4 100.8 133 139.7 152.4 159 165.1 168.3 177.8 193.7 219.1 244.5 273 298.5 323.9 107.1 113 119 125
131.7 143.4 150 156 , 1 159.3 167.8 182.9 207.3 231.9 260.4 284.3 309.7 ISO diameter 8.1.2 pipe
material
In addition to the tubes in normal steel described in Section 8.1.1, longitudinally welded stainless steel
tubes according to DIN 2463 are used [8.2 and 8.3]. The materials of these steels have the following
properties: Material no. according to DIN 17007: Protected name: Short notes according to DIN 17006:
Application:

1.4541 V2A XlOCrNiTi 18 9 Water organic acids up to pH value 4.5

1.4571 V4A X10CrNiMoTM8 10 Chemical apparatus, sewage treatment plants, paper industry

With soft conveyed goods, eg plastic powders , often also become Alloy tubes used in AIMg3.

236

In pneumatic conveying systems, the friction of the material to be conveyed cleans and smooths the
inner wall of the conveying pipe, as well as any rust particles. In addition, the conveyed is mostly
dry. That's why most of the delivery pipes are made of mild steel pipes. Due to the strongly corrosive
atmosphere, stainless steel is often prescribed in chemical plants. Here, rust formation contaminates
the conveyed material and the conveyor system. Aluminum AlMg3 is also used where it is not useful for
the delivery line due to wear and tear, for the installation of the air line between the blower and the
lock. Here aluminum has the advantage that it can be easily machined. Originally, stainless steel and
aluminum tubes were produced in Germany in increments of 25 cm to 25 mm inside
diameter. However, because of its international application, the industry has once again resorted to
using the outside diameter according to Table 8.1. With a wall thickness of 2 mm for stainless steel and
3 or 4 mm for aluminum, the diameter d of the delivery line is then obtained. Special measures are
required in heavily schleißendem conveyed material, such as quartz sand or slag, especially at the
elbow, but also in the delivery line. At room temperature here sometimes a laying of the entire delivery
line has proven to be a rubber spiral hose. In pneumatic ash transport occurs in normal steel tubes high
wear. Here one mainly clothes the elbows, sometimes the whole conveying line with wrought basalt
[8.4. Where a pipeline tends to clog, Preferably, a glass tube is built into a pneumatic conveyor. Thus,
during operation, the conveying state, in particular in the case of plug conveying, can be checked. It is
important to ensure that the inner diameter of the glass tube is equal to the inner diameter of the
delivery line ± 2 mm. When installing, the glass tube should not be under pressure, but be kept
pressure-free by two rubber sleeves. 8.1.3
flange

The delivery line must be as smooth inside as possible. Unclean radial welds as well as off-axis flange
connections increase the wear of conveyed material and delivery line. In order to be able to open a
delivery line in the event of a blockage or for other reasons, the individual tubes are connected with
positive-centering flanges as shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.2. At picture 8.1 a simple flange is welded
on. He thus centered the screwed pipe. The welded-on collar according to Figure 8.2 has the advantage
that you can twist both tubes against each other. For reasons of cost, here the loose flange can also be
made of aluminum. The load of pipe and flange by the internal pressure of maximum 6 bar is small
compared to the stress caused by the bolt force. F's is not hard to get a flange connection tight by
tightening the bolt force. This also applies if the pipes were not welded together to form the fitting
pieces. However, this gives you the highest stress of pipe and flange connection. This is further
increased by additional voltages in

237

L:

Fig. 8.1 Forced-centering flange connection for steel pipes according to DIN 2448

Fig. 8.2 Forced-centering flange connection with collars for stainless steel pipes,

following temperature fluctuations. Due to thermal stresses welds are already cracked on
elbows. Usually, the delivery line is screwed with pipe clamps at a distance of 4 m to a maximum of 6 m
on an elastic base. The bending stress due to the weight of pipe and conveyed material is usually less
disturbing than the purely optically detectable deflection and the vibration with pulsating
promotion. 8.1.4

Hoses

If the delivery line needs to be flexible, you use hoses. High demands are placed on hoses in pneumatic
conveying systems: D Compressive strength against delivery line pressure, also against negative
pressure, D Dimensional stability in cross section, D mobility, D not too small radius of curvature, D
insensitivity to wear, D no too high electrical charge. Steel spiral hose A steel spiral hose is produced by
helical winding of prefolded metal strips. The simplest form according to Figure 8.3 keeps the circular
cross-section quite accurately, but due to its great mobility it has a low restoring moment when
deflected. Therefore, in some applications, too small a radius of curvature results. The sensitivity to
wear is encountered by several layers of sheet metal on the hose inner wall. With electrically conductive
connection of the hose to the flange, a steel spiral hose does not charge electrostatically. Plastic spiral
hose The plastic spiral hose according to Fig. 8.4 is usually made of PVC. The tough-elastic soft PVC hose
performs the sealing function, while the
238

Fig. 8.3 Steel spiral hose a Folded and coiled blask strip h Seal

Fig. 8.5 Rubber spiral hose a Inner rubber cover layer b Steel spiral bonding layer

Fig. 8.4 Plastic spiral hose a Wcich PVC hose h Hard PVC coil

a '• M ff

b'

C '•

d•*••

pv

cast spiral made of rigid PVC guarantees the stability of the circular cross-section. Such hoses are
commercially available inexpensively. However, they are highly charged with electrostatic charging
during pneumatic conveying. Breaking sparks on some hoses have already burned holes. Wrapping a
metal strand solves the problem only partially because PVC is a very good insulator. In addition, the
plastic spiral hose is sensitive to wear. Rubber spiral hose The requirements established at the beginning
of this chapter are best met by the rubber spiral hose (Fig. 8.5). When rubber spiral hose, the steel spiral
stable holding the tube cross-section is embedded in a rubber binder layer as in the conveyor belt. This
goes over to the inside of the hose into a wear-resistant inner rubber cover layer. On the outer jacket of
the tube, a fabric layer is applied for pressure absorption. Thus, the rubber spiral hose meets all
requirements. Due to the special elasticity of the inner cover layer rubber spiral hoses can achieve a
multiple of the service life of steel pipes with abrasive material to be conveyed. Because of the
electrostatic charge of the rubber is made conductive and the steel spiral connected to the flange
conductive. Sometimes additional copper strands are also vulcanized in a spiral shape for better
dissipation of the charge. Because of the electrostatic charge of the rubber is made conductive and the
steel spiral connected to the flange conductive. Sometimes additional copper strands are also vulcanized
in a spiral shape for better dissipation of the charge. Because of the electrostatic charge of the rubber is
made conductive and the steel spiral connected to the flange conductive. Sometimes additional copper
strands are also vulcanized in a spiral shape for better dissipation of the charge.

239

Inlet lining

Fig. 8.6 Principle of the melted basalt pipe elbow according to [8.4]
conveying pipe meltbase loose flange steel jacket

outlet lining

Figure 8.7 1: 2 diverter with swiveling cylindrical guide and two pipe openings

Figure 8.8

240

Rotary diverter (up to 1:12)

8.2

Pipe guide

The delivery line is horizontal and laid in the vertical with straight tubes. These are connected to each
other by elbows. Further information on pipeline construction can be found in [8.5]. 8.2.1

elbow

In Section 2.3.3, the behavior of the conveyed material in the elbow was described in detail. This results
in the manifold geometry. Directly related to the manifold geometry is the pressure loss in the manifold
and the manifold wear. From Section 2.3.3.3 it can be seen that the project engineer is largely free in
choosing the radius of curvature for the elbow when he considers the ratio

R: d = 6 does not fall below. The elbows are usually made to order on a tube bender. In the case of
abrasive conveyed material, the pipe-lined pipe bend according to Fig. 8.6 has proven itself. In contrast
to the so-called baffle or to special manifolds with wear recess, the flow cross-section in the molten
basalt manifold is constant. Therefore, the conveyed material is braked as little as possible here. 8.2.2

diverter

The diverter valve is used for branching in the delivery line. In the pressure conveyor, it allows one point
to be conveyed to optionally one point from multiple points. This task exists z. As in the loading of a silo
with multiple cells. In a pneumatic suction conveyor, there is the opposite task, where it is optional to
move from one point to several points to a collection point. If it is necessary to divide from one to two
(1: 2) or, correspondingly, to merge two into one strand (2: 1), use a 2-way diverter valve. Of the many
possibilities of constructive design, the example according to Figure 8.7 has proven itself in many
applications. Here, the internally arranged pivoting backdrop has two adjacent pipe openings. A
pneumatic cylinder can twist the gate by 35 °. Thus, the incoming pipe string is connected through the
second opening with the branch. A distribution to several outgoing strands can be carried out by
connecting several switches l: 2 in series according to Fig. 8.7. However, it is also possible to use a multi-
tube diverter. Rotary tube turnouts according to Fig. 8.8, where a cranked tube can rotate to several
outlets, are used for up to twelve outgoing tube strands. to use a multiple pipe switch. Rotary tube
turnouts according to Fig. 8.8, where a cranked tube can rotate to several outlets, are used for up to
twelve outgoing tube strands. to use a multiple pipe switch. Rotary tube turnouts according to Fig. 8.8,
where a cranked tube can rotate to several outlets, are used for up to twelve outgoing tube strands.

241

8.2.3

Pipe station

In the production of plastics, such as PE powder or PP powder, several strands often arrive at the so-
called pipe station. The transported goods should be able to be distributed to up to 20 silos. This
distribution is realized with a changeover hose according to Fig. 8.9. Parallel to this, an electrical cable is
laid, the Stekker the operator as well as the Umsetzschlauch must change. This can be checked centrally,
whether in fact the desired silo is connected to the filling. This avoids the undesirable mixture of
varieties.

Fig. 8.9 Pipe station 3:13 a Quick-release coupling b Delivery hose (rubber spiral hose) c Electric control
line

242

The material separation

At the end of a pneumatic conveying system, the conveyed material must be separated from the air, so
that the air can escape into the atmosphere. Apart from a few exceptions, it is no longer possible today
to blow conveying air and conveyed material freely into the atmosphere, since the entrained dust
pollutes the environment. The permissible limit values for the environmental impact are specified in the
TA Luft, Technical Instructions for Air Quality Control 9.1, depending on the bulk material and the air
volume flow. The maximum dust concentration of 150 mg / m 3 air for non-hazardous dusts
corresponds to the load: Qs_ = 0.00015 kg / s QL ~ 1.2 kg / s // = 1.25. l O-4 kg of dust per kg of air. 11

This is about a factor of 105 smaller than the load in pneumatic conveying.

9.1
Pre-separation after pneumatic conveying

It is basically to distinguish whether the conveyed for storage z. B. is conveyed into a silo with a large
cross-section, or whether the promotion is a link in a production process. In the first case, the silo a in
Figure 9.1 has the function of separation and dedusting. The delivery line b enters the silo roof through a
downwardly leading pipe bend. The dusty conveying air rising in the silo is dedusted in a bunker
attachment filter. An exhaust fan d prevents overpressure in the silo, and if the filter clogs, an
overpressure flap e on the silo roof opens. This protects the silo against impermissible overpressure. In
addition, a level indicator f in the silo shaft can give a full silo signal to protect the silo from overfilling. In
this arrangement, the exhaust fan must not produce greater negative pressure, even when intermittent
promotion than the silo can accommodate. Otherwise, for this emergency, the flap on the silo roof as
over-pressure flap to perform. In the continuous production process, the good separation is preferably
carried out according to Figure 9.2. The delivery line a is introduced here tangentially into a filter
separator b. The in a tress wendeiförmig down flowing conveyed carries a rotary valve c, while the air
flows up through a filter d and The delivery line a is introduced here tangentially into a filter separator
b. The in a tress wendeiförmig down flowing conveyed carries a rotary valve c, while the air flows up
through a filter d and The delivery line a is introduced here tangentially into a filter separator b. The in a
tress wendeiförmig down flowing conveyed carries a rotary valve c, while the air flows up through a
filter d and

243 is

cleaned. Here, a rotary valve is required so that the conveying air does not flow down due to the
overpressure, which is about equal to the filter resistance. In contrast, can be dispensed with an exhaust
fan. The material separation according to Figures 9.1 and 9.2 only works if the speed of the falling dust
particles is greater than that of the ascending delivery air. In the other case, such as with light soot, the
falling dust is carried back to the filter medium and clogged the filter over time.

Fig. 9.1 Conveyance material separation in the silo a Silo b Feed line c Bunker top filter d Exhaust fan e
Overpressure flap f Level indicator

Fig. 9.2 Continuous material separation in the filter separator a Feed line b Filter separator c Rotary
valve d Filter

The advantage of the pre- deposits according to Figs. 9. l and 9.2 is that not all conveyed material (eg 10
t / h) reaches the filter medium and clogs or wears it out. However, if only fine dust on the filter medium
and all coarse dust is deposited, then there is a risk that the fine dust clogged the filter. It should
therefore reach as little dust with a broad particle size distribution to the filter medium. This is the case
if the pre-separation is neither too strong nor too weak. This consideration causes some filter
manufacturers, the inlet to the filter for some conveyed or generally not tangentially, but radially
perform.
244

9.2

Precision separation in the cyclone

Cyclones have been built for over 100 years and have been calculated for more than 50 years. Many
recent investigations [9.3 to 9.6] are essentially based on W. Barth [9.2]. After these studies and the
literature listed there, cyclones can be designed for specific applications. Here only the understanding
for the basic behavior and the consequent use in pneumatic conveying systems is to be awakened. 9.2.1

Function and design

In the cyclone, the conveyed material is separated from the air flow by centrifugal force. The centrifugal
force is created by the swirl of the flow. When flowing out of a container, each fluid tends to form a
vertebral depression. In the potential vortex, in contrast to the other flows, the volume elements do not
rotate against each other. Therefore, can be generated by the tangential entry of the fluid or conveyor
into the cyclone a stable swirl flow. The characteristics of this flow as well as the influence of numerous
technical details have been experimentally investigated by W. KRAMBROCK [9.5 and 9.7] on many
cyclones. The function of a cyclone at the end of a pneumatic delivery line is shown in Fig. 9.3. The
round cross-section of the delivery line a is drawn together on a rectangular inlet cross-section b, which
opens tangentially into the cylindrical cyclone upper part c. The incoming material flows essentially in a
helical strand on the wall of the conical cyclone part d down into the outlet pot e. The air flows spirally
inwards and escapes through the dip tube f. The peripheral velocity of the air flow in the cyclone follows
between the radii rd and r, approximately that of the potential vortex: u • r = const.

(9.1)

Since at radius r = 0 the peripheral velocity u can not become infinitely large, a different flow must
prevail in the cyclone axis. Here, up to the dip tube radius r = rt, a peripheral velocity is formed, as arises
during the rotation of a solid: u = const. R

(equation 9.2)

The theory of cyclone separation now assumes that the grain, which flows from the outside coming
from the cylindrical surface under the dip tube, taken in the dip tube flow with upwards and no longer
deposited. Grains of high turbulence and strands are preferably driven to the cyclone wall and move in a
spatial spiral in the spout. Immediately on the wall of the individual cyclone parts, the peripheral speed
of the air approaches zero. This small area, called the boundary layer, has no pressure gradient from
outside to inside between the radii rd and rt due to a lack of centrifugal force. This, however, prevails in
the adjacent rotating flow and
245

Figure 9.3 The flow of air and material in the cyclone a Delivery line b Air inlet c Cylindrical cyclone part d
Conical cyclone part e Outlet pot f Immersion tube g Cyclone roof r, Immersion tube radius r., Cyclone
radius u, Circumferential velocity at dip tube radius H., Peripheral velocity at cyclone radius

- »• U

transfers to the boundary layer. As a result, the boundary layer moves from outside to inside and
generates a secondary flow (Figure 9.3). In the conical part of the cyclone, the secondary flow is
desirable, as it supports the separation of material towards the outlet pot. The secondary flow along the
cyclone surface g is undesirable; because it brings the entrained dust inward to the outer wall of the dip
tube. This dust can get into the dip tube flow and is not separated. According to Helmholtz's vortex laws,
the vortex core of a vortex sink ends at a wall, as W. KRAMBROCK [9.5] shows in the experiment. As a
result of this behavior, dust that has already been separated off in the vortex core is drawn out of the
outlet pot e into the immersion tube flow (Fig. 9.3). To prevent that, If you build a cone-shaped roof in
the spout, when it collects in the spout pot and not discharged immediately. In Saugförderanlagen with
a rotary valve under the cyclone, the opposite of the conveyed Schleusenleckluft worsens the cyclone
separation.

246

9.2.2

Theoretical marginal

grain On a particle of dust located in the direction of the cyclone flow, the centrifugal force F / acts
radially outwards and the drag force fs on the inside due to the radial flow (Fig. 9.4). For a theoretical
boundary

grain that is just being separated, the state of equilibrium prevails on the extended dip tube surface: If
one precedes a spherical grain and neglects the density of air compared to the grain density, then U

(Equ. 9.3)

- and:

(Eq ) Where u is the radial velocity of the air in the extended dip tube surface. Since u, is small, the
resistance coefficient rw in the area of the laminar flow (see Figure 3.12) applies:
24 Re,

24 n

(Equation 9.5)

With F / = Fs, one obtains for the theoretical grain diameter of the marginal grain just left:

d \ = A 18

(equation 9.6). For many dusts and commercially available cyclones, the following values are calculated
for 0.01 mm <dl <0 , 02 mm (Eq. 9.7) Figure 9.4 The boundary grain on the extended
immersion tube surface Immersion tube l 247 9.2.3 Separation efficiency

The according to Eq. 9.6 calculated diameter d of a grain boundary is a theoretical value with low dust
loading. At high loads, such as at the end of a pneumatic conveyor system (eg / <= 10), most of the
conveyed material is already deposited on entry (index e) due to the centrifugal force. A distinction is
made between two degrees of separation, rjf at the inlet and>; at the extended dip tube surface, the
sum of which gives the degree of cyclic separation>; z: '//. = '/ r +> 7i

(equation 9.8)
Each cyclone has a certain limit loading with its operating data and the properties of the conveyed
material, up to which the separation takes place exclusively on the extended immersion tube surface. At
higher loads, the deposition at the entrance outweighs [9.5]. In this case, the conveyed material
deposited at the entry moves spirally downwards in a strand. The load has also a significant influence on
the degree of separation of the cyclone. With increasing load loading, the degree of separation increases
as a proportion of the total mass flow, but in absolute terms, the residual dust content in the exhaust air
increases. This is further enhanced by the fact that the spin important for the deposition, characterized
by "; in Eq. 9.6, is braked with increasing mass flow.

Figure 9.5 Fractional separation r / y as a function of grain diameter d ^ a theoretical curve b measured
curve

13 CD

grain diameter et

The incoming material in the cyclone usually has no uniform grain diameter. It is rather a mixture of fine
and coarse grain (see Fig. 3.4). The individual grain fractions would have to have a high fractional
separation efficiency // F (curve a in Fig. 9.5). This course would result in high selectivity of balls of
constant diameter. However, if one plots the measured fraction separation efficiency // p over the grain
diameter in the cyclone separation (curve b), then one obtains a rather flat course. That is, the
selectivity of a cyclone is not optimal in terms of good deposition. This has the following reasons: D The
pre-separation in the strand at the entrance has no great selectivity.

248

D A so-called sprayed grain can get into the dip tube flow. Spatter grains are preferably obtained with
angular grains or welds in the cyclone interior. D The radial velocity u \ is not constant over the entire
dip tube surface [9.5]. D The peripheral speed u- is decelerated with increasing good heathing. D In the
secondary flow at the cyclone ceiling and in the vortex core dust particles are transported into the
immersion tube flow. All these influences worsen the selectivity of the cyclone and thus the separation
behavior. 9.2.4

Pressure loss in the cyclone

In cyclones for the separation of the conveyed material at the end of pneumatic conveying systems, the
pressure loss is usually insignificant (eg 1000 Pa) compared to the pressure loss in the delivery line. The
pressure drop in the cyclone can be divided into a pressure drop from the inlet (index e) to the flow at
the extended dip tube surface and in a second from there to behind the dip tube inlet (index i). The
following then applies: Ap =

»> •
(equation 9.9)

/ cc oo o

30

0} o

0 t 0)

•&•o

//A

PO o

drag coefficient ^

40

20

c ro

10

CD "D
4

10

Speed Ratio1 Figure 9.6 Resistance coefficient ep; UJV a cyclone as a function of the speed ratio,
according to [9.2]

0.01

0.1 material charge "

10

"•

Figure 9.7 drag coefficients tgc "Cn fca's function of Gutheiadung // by measurements of [9.5]

249

Ap is much larger than Apc. According to fundamental investigations by W. Barth [9.2], the essential
pressure loss coefficient c is, above all, a function of the ratio of the peripheral velocity u to the radial
velocity i> in the dip tube (Figure 9.6). With increasing load loading, the pressure loss of a cyclone is not
greater, but smaller, because the peripheral speed u decreases by ranking the air on the bulk
material. Thus, the resistance coefficient t; smaller. Measurements are shown in Fig. 9.7. 9.2.5

application criteria

The low selectivity of the cyclone explained in Section 9.2.3 is a disadvantage of this separator based on
a natural law. In the case of pneumatic conveying, fine abrasion often occurs due to the friction of the
conveyed material on the pipe wall. In addition, the load is high, which reduces the swirl of the flow due
to increased air friction. Finally, when there is a large load, air volume fluctuations occur, which cause
deviations from the optimal cyclone design. All this meant that the residual dust content after a cyclone
dusting in many pneumatic conveying systems no longer met the requirements of TA Luft. Because of
this, some cyclones were replaced by pneumatic filters at the end. A pre-separation by a cyclone and
subsequent post-deposition in the filter is generally not useful. As shown in Section 9. l, a filter works
better when it does not just have to deposit particulate matter. Nevertheless, the cyclone has proven
itself in numerous process engineering processes. If, for example, the exhaust air is used again for
conveying, which takes place in so-called recirculation systems (see Fig. 7.3b), then a certain residual
dust content does not interfere. Exempted from this, however, are systems that are at risk of dust
explosions. After all, there are many extreme demands on dust collectors, such as high temperatures,
high humidity, sticky goods, etc., which the cyclone fulfills particularly well due to its simple design. if it
does not just have to deposit fine dust. Nevertheless, the cyclone has proven itself in numerous process
engineering processes. If, for example, the exhaust air is used again for conveying, which takes place in
so-called recirculation systems (see Fig. 7.3b), then a certain residual dust content does not
interfere. Exempted from this, however, are systems that are at risk of dust explosions. After all, there
are many extreme demands on dust collectors, such as high temperatures, high humidity, sticky goods,
etc., which the cyclone fulfills particularly well due to its simple design. if it does not just have to deposit
fine dust. Nevertheless, the cyclone has proven itself in numerous process engineering processes. If, for
example, the exhaust air is used again for conveying, which takes place in so-called recirculation systems
(see Fig. 7.3b), then a certain residual dust content does not interfere. Exempted from this, however,
are systems that are at risk of dust explosions. After all, there are many extreme demands on dust
collectors, such as high temperatures, high humidity, sticky goods, etc., which the cyclone fulfills
particularly well due to its simple design. then a certain residual dust content does not
bother. Exempted from this, however, are systems that are at risk of dust explosions. After all, there are
many extreme demands on dust collectors, such as high temperatures, high humidity, sticky goods, etc.,
which the cyclone fulfills particularly well due to its simple design. then a certain residual dust content
does not bother. Exempted from this, however, are systems that are at risk of dust explosions. After all,
there are many extreme demands on dust collectors, such as high temperatures, high humidity, sticky
goods, etc., which the cyclone fulfills particularly well due to its simple design.

9.3

Fine separation in the filter Filter separation

has become increasingly important for keeping the air clean in recent years. This also applies to
pneumatic conveying, where the safest way to comply with TA Lirit [9.1] is with the filter
separator. Nevertheless, the pneumatic air flow dedusting air volume flows are only about one-
thousandth of what the largest filter systems in other processes afford. Here theory and function are
only to be treated as far as they are of importance for pneumatic conveying. More in-depth, in particular
theoretical, fundamentals can be found in the literature [9.8, 9.9, 9.10 with the bibliographical
references listed therein]. Although science is at odds with the separation

250

intensive work, the filter separators are usually designed according to practical findings [9.9]. 9.3.1

Theory of Filter Deposition

The dust-laden air flows into the filter medium, consisting of fabric, fleece or needle felt (Fig. 9.8). If the
filter medium is still clean, individual dust particles penetrate through the fibers of the medium and
reach the clean gas side. Others accumulate on the raw gas side and form the actual filter layer, which
also holds back the finer dust particles. The resulting dust layer is cleaned regularly. While the cyclone
can be used to calculate a theoretical boundary grain that is just being deposited as the smallest grain
(equation 9.6), the filter works fundamentally differently. The dust separation of the filter is composed
of three deposition processes [9.8]: a) Screening: Coarse grains are separated by screening to 100%,
because they are due to the mesh size of the fiber plant (eg 75 to 150 μm). b) Inertia separation: Fine
dust grains follow approximately the streamlines of the pore flow, penetrate through the fiber plant and
are not separated. The larger the diameter of the grain, the sooner they strike a flow-around fiber due
to the inertia and accumulate there.

Figure 9.8 Dust accumulation on a textile filter medium a Filter medium b Damp layer stored c Dust layer
to be cleaned d Raw gas clean gas side

251

»• Ultrafast degree

100 \

°/

22i

50

Fig. 9.9 Separation efficiency of the individual separation processes a Screening b Inertia separation c
Electrostatic precipitation d Sum curve e zone of reduced deposition

grain diameter ds-

c) Electrostatic Deposition: Very fine dust grains are attracted to the fibers during electrostatic charging
and accumulate there. A similar behavior has other attractions. These three deposition processes cause
both coarse and very fine dust grains to be deposited at almost 100%. Figure 9.9 shows a zone of
reduced deposition in between. 9.3.2

Residual dust content

In the TA Luft [9.1] a residual dust content of max. 150 mg per m 'air with harmless dusts and 20 mg per
m! Air prescribed for hazardous dusts. No statement is made about the fineness and the particle size
distribution of the dust. Consequently, the industry (plant builders and plant operators) must ensure
that the incoming dust does not exceed the prescribed values after filter separation. Thus, the filter
manufacturer must be able to make a statement about the deposition behavior of its filter depending on
the particle size distribution of the dust. F. LÖFFLER [9.10] defines the degree of separation or the
degree of extraction? / F (ds) as crucial information about the precipitation behavior of the precipitator:
jr => iv (ds) = E • (Eq. 9.10)

Here, £ is the ratio of deposited to abandoned total dust. <7,, i, and qmh are the proportions in the
deposited and abandoned dust fractions, respectively. A dust fraction may be, for example, the dust
content between 0.001 and 0.005 mm grain diameter. According to Eq. 9.10, the degree of separation is
a function of the grain diameter d $. In addition, it can change over time. As described in Section 9.3.1,
the best degree of separation of a filter is only achieved when a layer of dust has built up below the fiber
surface on the raw gas side. This has a pore size which is smaller than the fiber spacing, so that takes
place on her the actual deposition process.

252

Figure 9.10 Degree of separation ijr as a function of grain size d ^ in the deposition of lime dust of mean
grain size 5 μm on a filter. Polyester

needle

felting , 600 g / m 2, according to measurements of [9.9], with a flow velocity of 150 m / h and cleaning
by compressed air, with the following parameters: curve abcde operating time min

filter resistance Pa

12

260 270
16 32

350 470

1,0

0 , 96 /

0.92 0.88 0.84

2 4 6 grain diameter et

8 by 10 »•

According to measurements by F. LÖFFLER [9.9J, the degree of separation was plotted as a function of
the grain size for the filter deposition of a limestone dust. Parameter is the operating time of the
filter. The curves a to e show that initially with little filter resistance relatively little fine dust was
deposited. As time progresses, particulate matter deposition improves. At the same time, the filter
resistance increases, due to attachment of a dust layer, at which the actual deposition takes
place. Through experience in the many running filter systems, it is known that fiber filters according to
the retraction process described above meet the requirements of TA Luft, if they were designed
correctly. For example, H. MEYER states that RIEMSLOH [9.8] achieves residual dust contents between 5
and 50 mg / m 'air. Such good values may be the reason why in recent years the filter has displaced the
cyclone as a separator at the end of a pneumatic conveyor system in many applications. 9.3.3

Filter load

The required filter area for the dedusting of a given through the promotion air flow depends on the
possible filter load in m Vh per m 2 filter surface. This is the flow velocity of the filter surface, which is
also called filtration speed. The possible flow velocity is an empirically determined value. It follows from
the measurement on experimental filters. In particular, the dust properties (eg particle size and grain
distribution), the filter medium and the type of filter cleaning influence the maximum possible
value. Cleaning filters for large dedusting plants work according to a compilation by F. LÖFFLER [9.9
| with filtration rates in the following range:

UF = 36 m / h to 150 m / h. 253

Other filter manufacturers give the following values: i) f = 30 m / h to 120 m / h. In pneumatic conveying
systems with filters cleaned with compressed air, the following values are used, depending on the type
of dust: ü F = 60 m / h to 240 m / h.
Highest values (up to t> |. = 2000 m / h) are achieved with granulate suction conveyors. These are
possible because here, according to Figure 9.9, the filter separation is based primarily on
screening. During the experimental determination of the required inflow velocity i, F, a filter is exposed
to scrubbing air for a longer period of time. As can be seen from Fig. 9.10, the filter resistance increases
with time. A functional filter has upper and lower limits of filter resistance. This states H. MEYER to
RIEMSI.OH [9.8] with the following range: A /; = 600 to 1500 Pa.

Other filter dividers further extend the range: Ap = 300 to 1900Pa. At the lower limit, the deposition is
insufficient (Figure 9.10). The upper limit is indicative of incipient blockage. When operated with an
exhaust fan, the filter will no longer absorb the amount of air. A rotary lobe suction blower is capable of
increasing the differential pressure on the filter element until the same or the support basket is
destroyed, while the volume of air drawn off is approximately constant. However, the above-mentioned
filter resistance is only about 1% of the resistance of a pneumatic medium-pressure conveyor and can
be applied by the blower without affecting the promotion. It is indicative of the filtration separation at
the end of a pneumatic conveyor system, that the size of the filter surface depends essentially on the air
volume flow and almost not on the Good mass flow. However, it must be ensured for reasons of wear
that the conveyed material does not blow on the filter elements at the conveying speed. 9.3.4

Filter designs Filters have been built for over 100 years and have a long history behind them. 9.3.4.1

Filter medium

The filter medium was originally a woven fabric made of spun natural fibers (wool, cotton, rayon). These
fabrics have a different flow resistance and between the threads.

254

Fig. 9.11 Filter element as bag filter, bag filter and star filter a Filter medium b Support basket

Filtering

Cleaning Bag filter

// \\, Bag filter :

rf 'o \\ ~
8

S9

eB

Star filter:

255

Needle felts have been produced as filter media for about 40 years [9.11]. These have a loose spatial
structure with thicknesses of up to 3 mm and form the prerequisite for filter deposition according to Fig.
9.9. Needle felting media are preferably made of synthetic fibers such as polyester, polyacrylonitrile,
polyamide and polypropylene. This also allows operation at higher temperatures (eg 140 ° C for
polyester). Another development led to the use of nonwovens with higher rigidity, so that it is possible
to dispense with a support basket on the filter element. 9.3.4.2 Filter

element

The original filter element was the hose. In pneumatic conveying, the compressed-air-cleaned filter has
penetrated from outside to inside with a flow through the filter element [9.12]. The filter element used
is the hose, the pocket or the rigid cylinder with a star-shaped cross section (Fig. 9.11). The bag filter
requires more construction volume with the same filter area as the pocket filter. However, the hoses
may be longer (eg, 2.2 m) than the pockets (eg, lm). In addition, the pockets surfaces during cleaning a
slightly larger way than the hose surfaces. Like the pocket filter, the star filter allows a large filter area in
a small space with the same length as the bag filter. Due to the stiffness of the filter fleece, the star filter
does not require a support basket. Thus, the relatively young star filter has proven itself in many
dedusting pneumatic conveying. 9.3.4.3

Filter cleaning The overall function of a filter in a pneumatic conveying system can be subdivided into
the following subfunctions, which repeat periodically: A) B) C) D)

Dust separation from the conveying air; Interrupting the air flow; Mechanical detachment of the filter
cake; Backwashing and cleaning of the filter medium.

The sub-functions B, C and D concern the cleaning. There are many filter types that perform these
functions more or less perfectly manually, semi-automatically, or fully automatically. The compressed air
cleaned filters summarize these sub-functions by applying a compressed-air pulse to a portion of the
built-in filter elements at intervals in time, in contrast to the conveying air flow. This dissolves the
accumulated dust. Such a filter is shown in Fig. 9.12. The tangentially entering through the delivery line a
flow of air and material is deposited for the most part as a lock and flows in a spiral to Fördergutauslauf
i. The dusty air rises and penetrates the filter hoses b, whereby the dust accumulates on the filter
medium. At certain intervals, a hose

256

Fig. 9.12 Pneumatically cleaned hose filter at the end of a pneumatic conveying system a Feed line with
tangential inlet b Filter hose c Injector nozzle d Diaphragm valve e Compressed air reservoir Solenoid
valve Control unit Clean air outlet Conveyor outlet

row, here consisting of five hoses, cleaned after the other. For this purpose, the diaphragm valve d
opens abruptly, so that the amount of air stored in the compressed air reservoir e with 6 bar
overpressure the injector nozzles c is supplied. These inflate the hoses b and trigger the functions B, C
and D described above. The opening of the diaphragm valve d is controlled via a solenoid valve f and the
control unit g. In this case, both the pulse interval and the pulse duration (0, l to ls) of the valve opening
can be controlled. In addition, the filter cleaning can also be regulated by the pressure loss. Usually falls
during the cleaning of the deposited on the filter medium filter cake as a strand against the upwardly
flowing air in the outlet cone. However, if the floating speed of fine dust grains is less than the upward
speed of the conveying air in the filter, then these dusts are constantly blown off the hose surface and
tightened again. For these dusts a continuous filter is not suitable. Here, the just cleaned part of the
filter should not be immediately applied with conveying air.

257

9.3.5

use criteria

In contrast to the filter separator cyclone separator at the end of a pneumatic conveying system for the
vast majority of conveyed goods is so used that, even with fluctuating air and Fördergutströmen
deposition is achieved which meets the legal requirements [9.1].

258

10

Pneumatic conveyor system

Chapters 2 to 5 dealt with the basics of pneumatic conveying and system design. With the knowledge of
the plant and the components according to chapters 6 to 9, the project engineer can design a plant. But
he still has a lot to consider.

10.1

Planning and construction

A conveyor system always connects two process stages, for example the polymerization with the
homogenization, but also with the storage, in the production of plastics. The funding process in industry
is therefore at least as frequent as the individual process processes as a whole. That is why one
encounters numerous conveyor systems in every production process. The project engineer can make
the conveyor system more functional if he knows the special features of upstream and downstream
process stages. Plants are always created on site. That is why there is no pneumatic conveying system
like the other, and for each system a proof of function must be provided individually after assembly. The
function is therefore not proven by the manufacturer, but by the operator of the pneumatic conveyor
system. The project engineer must decide whether to provide the proof of function or whether the
assembly manager will do the same. Sometimes it is acted in ignorance of the plant construction as if
the proof of function on the components (fan, lock, filter) is already sufficient for a safe system
function. The function of the components is necessary, but not sufficient for the function of the
system. The system function is superior to the component function. Thus, the plant function has its own
functional risk, the costs of which are included in the sales price of the plant. In the next two examples, a
pneumatic pressure conveyor and a pneumatic suction conveyor will be described with their
environment important for planning and operation. whether he performs the proof of function himself
or whether the assembly manager carries it out. Sometimes it is acted in ignorance of the plant
construction as if the proof of function on the components (fan, lock, filter) is already sufficient for a
safe system function. The function of the components is necessary, but not sufficient for the function of
the system. The system function is superior to the component function. Thus, the plant function has its
own functional risk, the costs of which are included in the sales price of the plant. In the next two
examples, a pneumatic pressure conveyor and a pneumatic suction conveyor will be described with
their environment important for planning and operation. whether he performs the proof of function
himself or whether the assembly manager carries it out. Sometimes it is acted in ignorance of the plant
construction as if the proof of function on the components (fan, lock, filter) is already sufficient for a
safe system function. The function of the components is necessary, but not sufficient for the function of
the system. The system function is superior to the component function. Thus, the plant function has its
own functional risk, the costs of which are included in the sales price of the plant. In the next two
examples, a pneumatic pressure conveyor and a pneumatic suction conveyor will be described with
their environment important for planning and operation. Sometimes it is acted in ignorance of the plant
construction as if the proof of function on the components (fan, lock, filter) is already sufficient for a
safe system function. The function of the components is necessary, but not sufficient for the function of
the system. The system function is superior to the component function. Thus, the plant function has its
own functional risk, the costs of which are included in the sales price of the plant. In the next two
examples, a pneumatic pressure conveyor and a pneumatic suction conveyor will be described with
their environment important for planning and operation. Sometimes it is acted in ignorance of the plant
construction as if the proof of function on the components (fan, lock, filter) is already sufficient for a
safe system function. The function of the components is necessary, but not sufficient for the function of
the system. The system function is superior to the component function. Thus, the plant function has its
own functional risk, the costs of which are included in the sales price of the plant. In the next two
examples, a pneumatic pressure conveyor and a pneumatic suction conveyor will be described with
their environment important for planning and operation. The function of the components is necessary,
but not sufficient for the function of the system. The system function is superior to the component
function. Thus, the plant function has its own functional risk, the costs of which are included in the sales
price of the plant. In the next two examples, a pneumatic pressure conveyor and a pneumatic suction
conveyor will be described with their environment important for planning and operation. The function
of the components is necessary, but not sufficient for the function of the system. The system function is
superior to the component function. Thus, the plant function has its own functional risk, the costs of
which are included in the sales price of the plant. In the next two examples, a pneumatic pressure
conveyor and a pneumatic suction conveyor will be described with their environment important for
planning and operation.

259

Figure 10.1 R + I diagram of an installation for the transport, storage and tanker emptying of polyester
granules under nitrogen

260

10.2

Example of a pneumatic pressure conveyor

Requirements The polyester granulate (PET granules) produced from the production with a material
mass flow of 2 t / h should be temporarily stored in a day tank (60 m 3) as shown in Fig. 10.1. From the
container outlet, the PET granulate is gently transported with a good mass flow of 6 t / h in a second
container from which it flows for further processing. In the event of production failure, this second
container should also be able to be loaded by a tanker truck. In order to avoid thread breaks in the
subsequent yarn production, all conveyances and storage are carried out under nitrogen (N>). High
demands are placed on the operational safety of this plant for conveying and storing PET
granulate. Conception The layout of the system is shown in the R + I diagram according to Fig. 10.1. To
reuse the nitrogen after pumping, the system is designed according to the recirculation principle in a
closed circuit. Each pneumatic conveyor has a zero point, where about the atmospheric pressure
prevails. This is placed here on the suction side of the blower station. As a result, the system works as a
pneumatic pressure conveyor and is under pressure. This has the advantage that with a leaky flange
connection no oxygen from the atmosphere penetrate into the system, but only nitrogen can flow out of
the system. The slight overpressure in the system is adjusted so that nitrogen is introduced into the
system falls below an excess pressure of 5 mbar and is blown out of the system at an excess of 20 mbar
nitrogen. An oil-free screw compressor (pressure increase 3 bar) with downstream cooler, Safety valve
and fine filter and a bypass line for idling operation supplies the system with pressurized
nitrogen. Parallel to this is a stand-by compressor. At regular intervals (eg weekly), the operation is
switched from one to the other compressor. Thus, when one compressor malfunctions, the other is
always ready for operation. The supplied pressurized nitrogen is temporarily stored in a pressure vessel
with condensate drain. Two pressure switches switch on the currently operated compressor if the
pressure in the air chamber is 3.5 bar absolute. At 4 bar absolute, it is switched off again. This means
there is always a pressure greater than 3.5 bar available for operation. After the wind boiler, the
nitrogen flows at 2.5 bar to 3 bar overpressure through a pressure regulator with a downstream Laval
nozzle to a pressure vessel. In the subsequent slow transport, the PET granulate is gently conveyed into
the second silo at an air pressure of 8 m / s and a good mass flow of 6 t / h with an overpressure of 1.5
bar. The expansion gas from the pressure vessel is led to the ceiling of the first silo. There it can flow via
a roof-shaped inclined vent line into the second silo, where it is combined with the conveying gas and
dedusted in a pressure-gas-cleaned bunker top filter. The residual dust is in the return line where it is
combined with the conveying gas and dedusted in a pressure-gas-cleaned bunker attachment filter. The
residual dust is in the return line where it is combined with the conveying gas and dedusted in a
pressure-gas-cleaned bunker attachment filter. The residual dust is in the return line

261

separated from the gas by one of two filters connected in parallel. If the Hilter resistance has risen due
to accumulated dust, is switched to the parallel filter and the filter element manually replaced in the
first filter. The ring gas line returns the nitrogen to the blower station. Parallel to the pressure vessel
conveying, PET granules can be introduced under nitrogen into the system with a tank truck of 25 m
'loading volume. This is done with two rubber spiral hoses. One establishes the connection to the
pressurized gas supply and the other to the delivery line. The tanker is initially inflated from 1 to 3 bar
and then discharges into the delivery line, the material mass flow is adjusted by dividing the delivery
gas. To pump up the tanker, a maximum of 50 m 'of nitrogen is taken from the system. An additional 15
m 'is required when the system is brought from the pressureless state to the operating state. In order
not to constantly feed and blow off these gas quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m storage volume is
installed in the immediate vicinity of the nitrogen feed into the system. This has a pressure of 12 mbar
imprinted by weight load. It can take up between the inflated and the deflated state a quantity of
nitrogen that could be additionally required in each operating condition. By measuring the oxygen
content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if necessary by blowing fresh
nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant volume must be flushed
through the system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable. are required when the system is
brought from the pressureless state to the operating state. In order not to constantly feed and blow off
these gas quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m storage volume is installed in the immediate vicinity of the
nitrogen feed into the system. This has a pressure of 12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up
between the inflated and the deflated state a quantity of nitrogen that could be additionally required in
each operating condition. By measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined
and reduced if necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5
times the plant volume must be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is
justifiable. are required when the system is brought from the pressureless state to the operating
state. In order not to constantly feed and blow off these gas quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m storage
volume is installed in the immediate vicinity of the nitrogen feed into the system. This has a pressure of
12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up between the inflated and the deflated state a quantity
of nitrogen that could be additionally required in each operating condition. By measuring the oxygen
content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if necessary by blowing fresh
nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant volume must be flushed
through the system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable. when the system is brought from the
depressurized state to the operating state. In order not to constantly feed and blow off these gas
quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m storage volume is installed in the immediate vicinity of the nitrogen
feed into the system. This has a pressure of 12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up between
the inflated and the deflated state a quantity of nitrogen that could be additionally required in each
operating condition. By measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and
reduced if necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5
times the plant volume must be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is
justifiable. when the system is brought from the depressurized state to the operating state. In order not
to constantly feed and blow off these gas quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m storage volume is installed
in the immediate vicinity of the nitrogen feed into the system. This has a pressure of 12 mbar imprinted
by weight load. It can take up between the inflated and the deflated state a quantity of nitrogen that
could be additionally required in each operating condition. By measuring the oxygen content in the
nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When
retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant volume must be flushed through the
system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable. In order not to constantly feed and blow off these
gas quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m storage volume is installed in the immediate vicinity of the
nitrogen feed into the system. This has a pressure of 12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up
between the inflated and the deflated state a quantity of nitrogen that could be additionally required in
each operating condition. By measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined
and reduced if necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5
times the plant volume must be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is
justifiable. In order not to constantly feed and blow off these gas quantities, a gas balloon with 80 m
storage volume is installed in the immediate vicinity of the nitrogen feed into the system. This has a
pressure of 12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up between the inflated and the deflated
state a quantity of nitrogen that could be additionally required in each operating condition. By
measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if necessary by
blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant volume must
be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable. Storage volume
installed. This has a pressure of 12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up between the inflated
and the deflated state a quantity of nitrogen that could be additionally required in each operating
condition. By measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if
necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant
volume must be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable. Storage
volume installed. This has a pressure of 12 mbar imprinted by weight load. It can take up between the
inflated and the deflated state a quantity of nitrogen that could be additionally required in each
operating condition. By measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and
reduced if necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5
times the plant volume must be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is
justifiable. By measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if
necessary by blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant
volume must be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable. By
measuring the oxygen content in the nitrogen of the system is determined and reduced if necessary by
blowing fresh nitrogen. When retracting, a nitrogen amount of about 4 to 5 times the plant volume must
be flushed through the system until the residual oxygen content is justifiable.

10.3

Example of a pneumatic suction conveyor

This example describes a pneumatic ship unloading system. Pneumatic ship unloading systems are
usually designed as suction systems, since the suction system is particularly suitable for receiving free-
flowing bulk material from the ground. Requirements In order to keep the lay times of large overseas
ships with several 100,000 t of cargo small, the bulk material flow during unloading should be as large as
possible. This gives a delivery line with a large pipe diameter, which is not to move by hand to the holds
of the ship. With one-man operation, the bailiff should be able to guide the installation from the point
where he can see the load. In recent years, increasing importance is attached to environmentally
friendly operation during ship unloading. The system and conveyed goods must not develop excessive
noise. In addition, the exhaust air must be dedusted. Data The suction system according to Fig. 10.2 was
built by Bühler, Uzwil, for the company Tagag in Lisbon. It is the right of three ship unloading plants in
Figure 10.3 and has the following data:

262

Fig. L U.2 Pneumatic ship unloading system for 600 t / h soybeans with data according to section 10.3
(factory picture: Bühler company)

263

Location: Conveying material: Bulk density: Bulk mass flow: vertical conveying path: horizontal
conveying path: Pipe diameter: Air supplier: Power: vessel size:

Lisbon Soybeans 750 kg / m 3 60 t / h max. 25 m max. 32 m 600 mm Turbo compressor 800 kW 80 000
DWT

Conception The ship in Figure 10.3 has a payload of about 180 0001 soybeans. If all three unloading
plants are in operation, the following quantities of soybeans can be unloaded per hour: a) 1. Ship
suction system: 600 t / hb) Mechanical ship unloading system: 800 t / hc) 2. Ship suction system (Figure
10.2): 600 t / h Total: 2000 t / h Including residual suction, the ship can be unloaded in about 100
hours. In order to achieve a high material flow, the paths for the pneumatic conveying are kept as short
as possible. For this purpose, a conveyor belt runs parallel to the quay and handles the transport of 2000
t / h of soybeans into the silos. Between the conveyor belt and the ship, three gantries travel on rails. On
each gantry, one of the three unloading systems is rotatably mounted via a ball bearing slewing ring. So
the siphon can picture 10. 2 reach each point of the 200 m long ship without the ship having to move. In
addition, the discharge takes place uniformly over the length of the ship, so that the ship is not unduly
stressed by partial discharge. In view of a short conveying path of the pneumatic conveying system, the
soybeans are transported by the siphon to the conveyor belt with a trough chain conveyor. The shorter
the conveying path, the smaller the pipe diameter and the power requirement are for the same material
flow. The pneumatic suction conveyor is shown in Figure 10.2. The suction conveyor line with vertical
and horizontal telescope can be lifted and lowered on the boom. It ends in a baffle, under which a rotary
valve size 1250 sits and ejects the soybeans. The upward flowing air is dedusted in a pneumatically
cleaned filter, which is housed in the vertical pipe support. The clean air extracted from a filter by a
turbo-compressor then flows through a silencer into the open air. The turbocompressor used here for
the first time can be soundproofed more easily than a large, slow-running positive displacement blower.

264

Fig. 10.3 Ship unloading system with a pneumatic suction system (600 t / h), a mechanical unloading
system (800 t / h) and a pneumatic suction system (600 t / h), the latter according to Fig. 10.2 [10.1 j
(factory image: Bühler company)

The entire pneumatic conveyor system is connected via a turntable to the portal. This allows the boom
to pivot horizontally. In terms of counterbalance, the machines are located on the side opposite the
boom in the rotatable part of the lifter. This allows the suction nozzle to be moved over five degrees of
freedom. This favors the flexible extraction of the load volume, which requires a minimum of three
degrees of freedom. The operation of the siphon is done by only one operator usually via radio
control. This gives the operator the opportunity to view the system with an insight into the location of
the event.

265

Symbols Formula

symbols

Recommended SI unit

Meaning
aA

m; mm m2 m 2; mm 2 m2 1 m / sm / s 1 m / sm / sm / sm / sm; mm m; mm m; mm m; mm m; mm
m; mm 1 NNNNNNNN 1 Hz m / s2 m 1 1 1 1 mm mm

Tube axis Cross-sectional area Cross-sectional area of the grain Bulk material surface Factor Good speed
Good axial velocity Plug velocity Peripheral velocity of the flow in the fan Pipe diameter Hydraulic
diameter Laval diameter Diameter of grain Mean grain diameter theoretical grain diameter Deduced
amount of dust force Lifting force Weight of single grain Normal force Weight of a grain Dragging force
Shearing force Centrifugal force Froude number Frequency Gravitational acceleration Lifting height
Quantity elbow pipe Pressure factor factor Air flow pressure loss factor Good flow pressure loss factor
Constant pressure loss relative sand roughness Pipe length

As

Ass A, c Af C \\ i fr

c. cf c »

ie ^ LAV

<k

cfeso dl E f

FA FS FN FG Fsci, FSK Fz Fr f K Afc

iK

KL Ks Kp * s

267

Symbols

Sl unit recommended
A/

A /, A / "A / p mi m i. '' [. ",., X

nn / P Pd,

PL P"

P Pf PN "PN pTE Ap ApB Apj v" Ape

Apges

Ap (, d, i

Apn Ap, Ap K Ap L ApR Aps Aps Aps,. t

Ap, ApTR

Apw (p2 / Pl) Kril OL = '' L

Qs <7, b

9rok

R, Re Re,

rr; ra; r,

T TN

268

Meaning

a) pipe length as difference b) fluidized bed height m 1 meter pipe length m pipe length of one step m
plug length air mass kg kg / s air mass flow maximum air mass flow kg / s 1 polytropic exponent l / s
speed of rotary feeder W; kW power W; kW theoretical power in the air flow W; kW power
consumption of a fan with respect to the impeller inlet W; kW Power consumption of a fan for the total
pressure increase Ap, pressure Pa; bar pressure in the delivery line Pa; bar Pa; bar pressure in the
secondary line Pa; bar standard pressure Pa; bar pressure in front of the motive nozzle Pa; bar pressure
loss; Pressure drop Pa; bar acceleration pressure loss Pa; bar; mmWS dynamic pressure as pressure
difference Pa; bar pressure drop at the cyclone inlet Pa; bar total pressure Pa; bar pressure difference at
the blower Pa; bar stroke loss Pa; bar pressure loss in the dip tube flow of the cyclone Pa; bar manifold
loss Pa; bar pressure drop at air flow Pa; bar pressure loss due to good material Pa; bar additional
pressure drop at good flow Pa; bar splitting pressure difference at the plug Pa; bar static pressure
difference Pa; bar total pressure increase of the fan Pa; bar pressure difference at the Treihstrahldüse
Pa; bar pressure loss through single resistance Pa; bar critical pressure ratio kg / s air mass flow kg / s; t /
h Good mass flow 1 Relatively separated dust fraction 1 Relative raw dust fraction m; mm radius of the
pipe elbow axis J / (kgK) gas constant 1 Reynolds number of the flow-through pipe 1 Reynolds number of
the impinged grain m; mm tube radius radii at the cyclone separator m; mm K absolute temperature K
standard temperature bar additional pressure drop at good flow Pa; bar splitting pressure difference at
the plug Pa; bar static pressure difference Pa; bar total pressure increase of the fan Pa; bar pressure
difference at the Treihstrahldüse Pa; bar pressure loss through single resistance Pa; bar critical pressure
ratio kg / s air mass flow kg / s; t / h Good mass flow 1 Relatively separated dust fraction 1 Relative raw
dust fraction m; mm radius of the pipe elbow axis J / (kgK) gas constant 1 Reynolds number of the flow-
through pipe 1 Reynolds number of the impinged grain m; mm tube radius radii at the cyclone separator
m; mm K absolute temperature K standard temperature bar additional pressure drop at good flow
Pa; bar splitting pressure difference at the plug Pa; bar static pressure difference Pa; bar total pressure
increase of the fan Pa; bar pressure difference at the Treihstrahldüse Pa; bar pressure loss through
single resistance Pa; bar critical pressure ratio kg / s air mass flow kg / s; t / h Good mass flow 1
Relatively separated dust fraction 1 Relative raw dust fraction m; mm radius of the pipe elbow axis J /
(kgK) gas constant 1 Reynolds number of the flow-through pipe 1 Reynolds number of the impinged
grain m; mm tube radius radii at the cyclone separator m; mm K absolute temperature K standard
temperature bar critical pressure ratio kg / s air mass flow kg / s; t / h Good mass flow 1 Relatively
separated dust fraction 1 Relative raw dust fraction m; mm radius of the pipe elbow axis J / (kgK) gas
constant 1 Reynolds number of the flow-through pipe 1 Reynolds number of the impinged grain m; mm
tube radius radii at the cyclone separator m; mm K absolute temperature K standard temperature bar
critical pressure ratio kg / s air mass flow kg / s; t / h Good mass flow 1 Relatively separated dust fraction
1 Relative raw dust fraction m; mm radius of the pipe elbow axis J / (kgK) gas constant 1 Reynolds
number of the flow-through pipe 1 Reynolds number of the impinged grain m; mm tube radius radii at
the cyclone separator m; mm K absolute temperature K standard temperature

Symbols

AT u M, "j",

"Z

v
VH

v, v /

VL, v

v", "

V mll, Vi V <;, MV / AV f". «AP

v.

Recommended SI unit

Meaning

K; ° C

Temperature difference Circumferential speed Peripheral speed of impeller at inlet Peripheral speed of
impeller at outlet Circumferential velocity at immersion tube Peripheral velocity in cyclone Volume Void
volume Air volume Cell air volume Air flow Maximum air flow Minimum air flow Air flow at inlet Air flow
at suction port of a bucket Leakage airflow of the rotary valve Leakage airflow at the telescopic tube Air
velocity Air velocity at the beginning Air velocity at the airlock point Air velocity at the inlet End of
filtration speed Air velocity inside Specific air volume Maximum air velocity in the tube Radial velocity at
the dip tube Float velocity;free fall velocity relative velocity resistance length change in length absolute
humidity geodetic height

m / sm / sm / sm / sm / s rn3 m 'm3 m 3; dm 3 m Vs m Vs

mVs m '/ s

mVs m' / s; mVh m-Vs; m - '/ hm

/ sm / sm / s; cm / s

Vi

m / sm / h; m / min m / s

v\

m / kg
Vm.a

m / sm / sm / sm / s N s 2 / m 2

Vf

v,

"Sch W

W; W, W2 X

Ax Xf

za

c Ce

Ci Cgcs

n, vi> 7 «TF 7i '/ i P. *, - • £ • 7z 7

m; mm m; mm g / m' m; km

deg; Radians angle resistance value; Single resistance 1 Resistance coefficient at the cyclone inlet 1
Resistance value at the cyclone immersion tube 1 Efficiency factor at the cyclone inlet 1 Fractional
efficiency, degree of separation 1 Efficiency of the injector 1 Efficiency of the fan 1

Cyclone efficiency dynamic viscosity

Isentropic exponent

Pas K

269

Symbols
recommended SI- Unit

Meaning

/.

Pressure loss coefficient Pressure loss coefficient with flow through a bed

1 1 1 1 1 m-Ys kg / m! kg / m 'kg / m' kg / m 'kg / m' N / m1 N / m 2 N / m 2 N / m 2% 1 1 1% 1 1 l / s / s

Pressure loss coefficient with air flow additional pressure loss coefficient with good flow related
additional pressure loss coefficient with good flow

ii Äs Ä • A / i / d

fPv

QL Ql.N

es

Pss

PSR a T

TA rt V PC

p «Pz V

v_ Vmax ß)

f» s

Index 1 ; 2; 3; to n Index 0

270
Good loading Outflow kinematic viscosity Air tight standard density of air Conical density, volume
density Bulk density Rigid density

Normal stress Shear stress; Wall shear stress Adhesion stress Cohesion stress Relative air humidity
Effective angle of internal friction Angle of wall friction Degree of filling of the centrifugal airlock Void
content in a bed

Outflow function Maximum outflow function Angular velocity Rotational velocity of the grain Points
along a flow Atmospheric state

Literature

References to Chapter 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16

1.17 1.18

1.19 1.20

GASTERSTÄDT, J .: The experimental investigation of the pneumatic conveying process. forsch.-work

Ing.-Wesen No. 265. Berlin: VDI-Verlag, 1924. WAGNER, K .: Theoretical investigation of the pneumatic
conveying process. Dissertation Dresden University of Technology, 1925. CRAMP, W; PRIESTLEY, A .:
Pneumatic grain elevators. Engineer 137 (January 1924), pp. 34-36; Pp. 64-65; Pp. 89-90. SEGLER, G .:
Investigations on grain blowers and bases for their calculation. Mannheim: Selbstverlag 1934. BOHNET,
M .: Progress in the design of pneumatic conveying systems. Chemical-Ing.Techn. 55 (1983) No. 7, pp.
524-539. MUSCHELKNAUTZ, E .; NEMECEK, F .; REUTER, R .: Pressure loss of flight promotion. Chem.Ing.-
Techn. 58 (1986) No. 7, pp 1506-1586. SEGLER, G .: Pneumatic grain conveying. Braunschweig: self-
published, 1951. ZENZ, FA; OTHMER, DF: Fluidization and fluid-particle systems. Reinhold Publishing
Corp.: New York, 1960. BRAUER, H .: Fundamentals of Emphasic and Multiphase Flows. Aarau and
Frankfurt: Verlag Sauerländer, 1971. SELIG, H.-J .: Technology of pneumatic conveying and mixing
processes. Main /: KrausskopfVcrlag, 1972. WEHER, M .: Flow Conveyor Technology. Mainz: Krausskopf-
Verlag, 1973. PAJER, G .; KUHNT, H .; KURTH, F .: Continuous conveyor. 4th edition. Berlin: VEB-Vcrlag
Technik, 1982. MOLERUS, O .: Fluid-solid-flows. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1982. GERICKE, W .; WIRTH, K .:
Pneumatic bulk material conveyors. Regensdorf-Zurich: Company Gericke AG, 1984. BUHRKE, H .; KKCKE,
H .; RICHTER, H .: Flow conveyors: Hydraulic and pneumatic transport in pipelines. Braunschweig,
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271

1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24

1.25 1.26 1.27 l .28

1.29

1.30 1.31

1.32 l .33 1.34

1.35 1.36 1.37

1.38

1.39 1.40

1.41 1.42

WAGENKNECHT, U .: Investigation of the flow conditions and the pressure curve in gas-solid
injectors. Dissertation, Technical University of Braunschweig, 1981. WELSCHOF, G .: Pneumatic
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KEUNEKE, K .: Fluidizing and fluidized bed conveying of bulk solids of small particle size. VDI-
Forscbungsbeft 508. Dusseldorf: VDI-Verlag, 1965. SIEGEL, W .: Experimental investigations on the
pneumatic conveyance of granular substances in horizontal pipes and verification of similarity laws. VDI
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Fundamental investigation on the pneumatic conveying process, in particular on the conditions during
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Studies on the pressure losses in pneumatic conveying lines with special consideration of the conveying
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272

1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47

1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52

1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56

1.57 1.58

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Stroking processes in the vertical solids-laden conveyor pipe with exiting free jet. Dissertation, Aachen
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Contribution to the calculation of the pneumatic conveying process in vertical riser pipes. Dissertation,
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2.6

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air

273
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274

2.30

SCHUCHART, F .: Resistance laws for the transport of solids in straight pipes and elbows. Dissertation,
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3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23

3.24 3.25

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276
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5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26

5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37

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with low energy consumption. Aluminum 61 (1985), No. 6, pp. 440-444. DE-PS 3 644 119, Ea. Albert
Klein GmbH, 1986. DE-PS 2,600,546, Ea. Bühlcr-Miag, 1976. DE-OS 3 437 560, Fa. Waeschle GmbH, 1984.

Literature to Chapter 6 6.1 WATZKLIUS, R .: Aerzen informs: Compressor for pneumatic

transport. Company publication Aerzener Maschinenfabrik GmbH. 6.2 BOHL, W .: Fans - Calculation,
design, test Operation. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1983. 6.3 DIN 24 163 Part 1: Fans.- Performance
measurements, standard characteristics 6.4 SCHMIDT, P .: Air supply for two-phase flows. Lecture at the
GVG December Conference «Technology of gas-solid-flow» on 2./3. December 1986 in Cologne. 6.5 VDI
Guideline 2045: Compressor rules. Düsseldorf: VD1- Verlag, 1966. 6.6 Eirmschrift rotary kiln blower of
Aerzener Maschinenfabrik, Aerzen. 6.7 Company publication Screw compressors from Aerzener
Maschinenfabrik, Aerzcn. 6.8 ERNST, R .: Pneumatic conveying at low air speeds. Lecture at the seminar
"Pneumatic conveying and processing in the enterprise" on 7./8. March 1989 at the Berufsakademie
Ravensburg. 6.9 BoHL, W .: Technical Fluid Mechanics, 8th edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989.
6.10 FREE, G .: Air quantity regulation with Laval nozzles. Diploma thesis in mechanical engineering,
University of Applied Sciences Heilbronn, 1985.
278

Literature on chapter 7 7.1

7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12

7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28

SIEGEL, W .: Injection into pneumatic conveying systems. Lecture at the seminar "Pneumatic conveying
and processing technology in operation" on 778 March 1989 at the Berufsakademie
Ravensburg. WEBKR, Mi Injector locks for solids transport. Machine Market 75 (1969), No. 95, pp. 2075-
2077. MUSCHELKNAUTZ, E., GiERSiEPEN, G., HINK, N .: Flow processes during comminution in jet
mills. Chem. Ing. Techn. 42 (1970) No. 1, pp. 6-15. RINK, N .: The acceleration of the material in Laval
lance pipes and their use for jet milling. Dissertation, University of Karlsruhe, 1974. BOHNET, M
.; WAGENKNECHT, U .: Fluid dynamics studies on gas-solid injectors. Chemical-lng.-Techn. 50 (1978) No.
2, MS 564/79, pages 1-20. WAGENKNECHT, U .: Investigation of the flow conditions and the pressure
curve in gas-solid injectors. Dissertation, Technical University of Braunschweig, 1981. HuTT, W .:
Investigation of the flow processes and determination of characteristic curves on material feed injectors
for pneumatic conveying. Dissertation, University of Stuttgart, 1983. SEGLER, G .: Pneumatic grain
conveying. Braunschweig: Selbstverlag, 1951. DBGM 7 605 103 Company C. Seeger, 1976. Company
brochure "Conjektor" of the company DMN Westinghouse, Nordwijkerhout, Holland. ISO 3922 1978 (E):
Continuous mechanical handling equipment - Rotary vane feeder - Dimensional specifications. Heep, D .:
New developments in the cells wheel lock. Presentation at the seminar "Pneumatic conveying and
process technology in operation" on 7./8. March 1989 at the Bakery Academy Ravensburg. WKSSELS, A .:
Basic rules for selecting and designing rotary valves. Chemical plants and processes CAV (1981), No. 2,
pp. 95-100. FINKBEINER, Th .: The mechanism of the rotary valve for bulk material. VDI
ForschwtgSheftS61. Dusseldorf: VDI-Verlag, 1974. HOPPE, H., HEEP, D., STORE, R .: Modern rotary valve
technology for various pneumatic conveying Systems, Bulk solids bandling 5 (1985), No. 4, pp. 161-165
, MILLER, G.: Theoretical and practical investigation of the leakage air at rotary valves. Diploma thesis,
Berufsakademie Ravensburg, 1981. Company brochure: "Rotary valves" of Sceger,
Plüderhausen. Wagner, R .; Block, W .: Material discharge from pneumatic suction conveying
system. Btilk solids handling 4 (1984), No. l, pp. 167-170. FASS, K .: Rotary valve with tangential bulk
material inlet. Diploma thesis, University of Applied Sciences Hcilbronn, 1984. DE-PS 3,445,710
Waeschle, 1984. ECK, R .: Investigation on rotary valves to avoid the shearing off of granular bulk
materials. Diploma thesis, University of Applied Sciences Heilbronn, 1983. MÖLLER, H .: Pneumatic
conveying in smooth pipe. Lecture at the GVC-December-Conference «Technology of gas-solid-flow» on
2./3. December 1986 in Cologne. Company publication: "Regulation of pneumatic conveying systems"
from Möller, Hamburg. DE-PS 2 122858 HJ Linder, 1971. BOHL, W .: Technical fluid mechanics. 8th
edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989. REIMERT, R .: Locks for pressure reactors, concepts and
designs. Chemical-lng.Techn. 53 (1981) No. 5, pp. 335-340. VIERLING, A .; Sinha, G .: Studies on the
conveying process to the vertical screw conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10 (1960) No. 8, pp. 587-
592. Company publication: "Möller pumps, reliable pressure conveying of dust material" from Möller,
Hamburg. The pneumatic conveying in the smooth pipe. Lecture at the GVC-December-Conference
«Technology of gas-solid-flow» on 2./3. December 1986 in Cologne. Company publication: "Regulation
of pneumatic conveying systems" from Möller, Hamburg. DE-PS 2 122858 HJ Linder, 1971. BOHL, W .:
Technical fluid mechanics. 8th edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989. REIMERT, R .: Locks for
pressure reactors, concepts and designs. Chemical-lng.Techn. 53 (1981) No. 5, pp. 335-340. VIERLING, A
.; Sinha, G .: Studies on the conveying process to the vertical screw conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10
(1960) No. 8, pp. 587-592. Company publication: "Möller pumps, reliable pressure conveying of dust
material" from Möller, Hamburg. The pneumatic conveying in the smooth pipe. Lecture at the GVC-
December-Conference «Technology of gas-solid-flow» on 2./3. December 1986 in Cologne. Company
publication: "Regulation of pneumatic conveying systems" from Möller, Hamburg. DE-PS 2 122858 HJ
Linder, 1971. BOHL, W .: Technical fluid mechanics. 8th edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989.
REIMERT, R .: Locks for pressure reactors, concepts and designs. Chemical-lng.Techn. 53 (1981) No. 5,
pp. 335-340. VIERLING, A .; Sinha, G .: Studies on the conveying process to the vertical screw
conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10 (1960) No. 8, pp. 587-592. Company publication: "Möller pumps,
reliable pressure conveying of dust material" from Möller, Hamburg. «Control of pneumatic conveying
systems» from Möller, Hamburg. DE-PS 2 122858 HJ Linder, 1971. BOHL, W .: Technical fluid
mechanics. 8th edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989. REIMERT, R .: Locks for pressure reactors,
concepts and designs. Chemical-lng.Techn. 53 (1981) No. 5, pp. 335-340. VIERLING, A .; Sinha, G .:
Studies on the conveying process to the vertical screw conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10 (1960) No. 8,
pp. 587-592. Company publication: "Möller pumps, reliable pressure conveying of dust material" from
Möller, Hamburg. «Control of pneumatic conveying systems» from Möller, Hamburg. DE-PS 2 122858 HJ
Linder, 1971. BOHL, W .: Technical fluid mechanics. 8th edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989.
REIMERT, R .: Locks for pressure reactors, concepts and designs. Chemical-lng.Techn. 53 (1981) No. 5,
pp. 335-340. VIERLING, A .; Sinha, G .: Studies on the conveying process to the vertical screw
conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10 (1960) No. 8, pp. 587-592. Company publication: "Möller pumps,
reliable pressure conveying of dust material" from Möller, Hamburg. Studies on the conveying process
to the vertical screw conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10 (1960) No. 8, pp. 587-592. Company
publication: "Möller pumps, reliable pressure conveying of dust material" from Möller,
Hamburg. Studies on the conveying process to the vertical screw conveyor. Conveying and Lifting 10
(1960) No. 8, pp. 587-592. Company publication: "Möller pumps, reliable pressure conveying of dust
material" from Möller, Hamburg.

279

Literature to Chapter 8 8.1 8.2

DIN 2448: Seamless steel tubes, dimensions, length-related masses. February, 1981. DIN 2463, Part 1:
Welded tubes made of austenitic stainless steels. March 1981. Stock list Stainless steel pipes from
Butting, Röhren- und Metallwerke, Wittingen / Knesebeck. Manual wear protection of the company
Schmelzbasaltwerk Kalenborn, Vcttclschoß 2. WAGNER, W .: apparatus and piping construction. 3.
Edition. Würzburg: Vogel Buchverlag, 1989.
8.3 8.4 8.5

Literature on Chapter 9 9.1

TA Luft, technical instructions for keeping the air clean. Administrative provision to the Federal
Immission Control Act. Berlin: Carl-Heymanns-Verlag, 1986. 9.2 BARTH, W .: Calculation and design of
cyclone separators based on recent investigations. Fuel-Heat-Power 8 (1956), No. l, p. L -9. 9.3
MUSCHKEKAUTZ, E .; KRAMBROCK, W .: Aerodynamic coefficients of the cyclone separator due to recent
and improved measurements. Chem-Ing.-Techn. 42 (1970) No. 5, pp. 247-255. 9.4 MUSCLES, F
.; BRUNNER, K .: Investigations on cyclones. Chem-Ing.-Techn. 39 (1967), No. 9/10, pp. 531-538. 9.5
KRAMBROCK, W .: Calculation of the Cyclone Separator and Practical Aspects of the Assembly.
Preparation Technique 12 (1971) No. 7, pp. 391-401 and No. 10.5.643-649. 9.6 BOHNET, M .: Cyclone
separator. Lecture at the GVC-December-Conference «Technology of the Gas-Solid-Flow» on
2./3. December 1986 in Cologne. 9.7 KRAMBROCK. W .: Critical note on the investigation on cyclone
separators. Chem.Ing.-Techn. 51 (1979), No. 5, pp. 493-496. 9.8 MEYER to RIEMSLOH, H .; KRAUSE, U .:
Description and evaluation of mechanical and compressed air cleaned bag filter systems. Reprocessing
Technique 16 (1975), No. 5, pp. 245-254. 9.9 LÖFFLER, F .: The separation of particles from gases in fiber
filters. Chem-Ing.-Techn. 52 (1980) No. 4, pp. 312-323. 9.10 LÖFFLER, F .: Fundamentals of particle
separation with fiber filters or drops. Lecture at the GVC December Conference «Technology of gas-
solid-flow» on 2./3. December 1986 in Cologne. 9.11 STEFFENS, W .: Optimally functioning filter
media. Process Engineering 11 (1977) No. 10, pp. 592-600. 9.12 MENDEN, G .: Filtering
separator. Reprocessing Technique 12 (1982), No. 2, pp. 59-71.

Literature to chapter 10 10.1

Ship unloading plants: Document of the company Gebrüder Bühler AG, GH 9240 Uzwil

280

Index

A Separator 34,94,105 Separation behavior 252 Absorbents 180 Absorption silencers 169 Absorption
dryers 179 Acherbohnen 68, 92 Adhesion 56, 57, 63, 64, 135, 142 Similarity relationships 83,86 Similarity
laws 153 Similarity number 27 Activated carbon 92 Generality 27 Aluminum 53, 206, 236 Aluminum
hydroxide 55 Aluminum indust 55 Aluminum oxide 230,231 Plant function 259 Plant characteristic 48,
49, 51, 126 Plant costs 47, 79 Plant wear 14,41,43 Intake temperature 49 Anthracite 65 Apatite 65 Argon
72 Asbestos 65 Ashes 237 Asphalt 65 Atmospheric pressure 45,49 Leakage point 26, 27, 28 Dimension
81 Exclusion 44, 45, 46, 47 Discharge sluice 203 B Bales 30 Barit 65 Barometer level 73 Basalt 65 Bauxite
65 Continuous line 38,43 Steady state 38, 40, 81

Bentonite 92 Calculation 15, 17, 32, 44, 79 -, Examples 115 - Method 75.81 Beryll 65 Acceleration
section 36, 38, 43 Acceleration loss 38.95, 103 Concrete mixture 125 Operating costs 47.49 Operating
criteria 49.50 Operating point 48, 49 50 Reliability 121, 261 Relative pressure coefficient 87, 88, 92, 93,
95 Bitter lupins 39, 68, 92 Lead 65 Slope angle see angle of repose Borax 65 Borkarbide 65 Burnt lime 60
Brewery 55 Flammability 56, 57, 70 Broken grain 56, 57, 65, 70 Büttenabsaugung 191 Bunker top
filter 243 Bypass control 154 C Chemical industry Chromit 65

55

D Diamond 65 Sealing flow promotion 31, 125 Differential speed 35, 131 Dissertation 16 Dolomite 65
Double pressure vessel 229 Dosing 126.188 Swirl control 154 Swirl flow 245 Positive displacement
blower 48,49,91, 163, 178,264

281

Rotary diverter 241 Speed control 154 Throttle 48 Pressure operation 49 Pressure difference 37,46,47
Pressure increase 43, 49, 145, 174 Pressure conveyor 34, 44, 45, 46, 98, 187, 261 Pressure vessel
34,36,219 Compressed air preparation 179,256 Compressed air supply 91 Pressure level 175 Pressure
curve 43, 44 Pressure loss 18, 26, 27, 31, 32, 34, 36, 38, 43, 44, 48, 79, 93, 102, 111 Pressure loss factor
18, 24, 25, 56, 57, 69, 83 Pressure loss minimum 30, 40, 91 Nozzle 94 Blow-through 204 204 Dynamic
pressure 17, 71, 75, 89, 95, 98, 102

Influences 21,53,83 One-man operation 262 Injection 35,46,47,187 Single resistance 44 Iron 65 Iron
dioxide 65 Electric charge 238 Energy consumption 14, 30 Angel hair 43 Dedusting 14, 47 Dedusting line
30 Development goal 121 Inventions height 121 Expcllcr 55 Explosion pressure 56 rise 56 Extruder 232
Eccentric Worm

pump 125 Factor K 98 Falling speed 23 Fiber plant 72 Feldspar 65 FEM 55 Filter 79, 94, 105,250,264 -
cleaning 163,256 -separation 250-element 255, 256

282

Filter medium 254-pushes 251 filtration speed 253 fish meal 55 flat slide 227 flange connection 237
meat grinder 232 fluid bed 26, 28, 30, 33, 69 conveyor 133 -homogenisation 26-lock 230 bottle conveyor
33, 34, 59, 133, 134, 230 flow-conveying method 133 Flow location 60,61,63 Flow channel 133 Flow
behavior 56 Air transport 27, 29, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 48, 66, 123 Fluidizability 56, 57, 63, 69
Fluidization characteristic 26 Fluidization test bench 69 Fluid thrust 138 Fluidstat 137 Fluorspar 65
conveyor belt 98,259 conveyor belt 264 conveyed material 53, 98 conveying height 27, 95 conveying
length 102 conveying line 30, 31, 33, 34, 43, 122, 235 conveying means 53, 71, 98 conveying process
121, 235 conveying test 95 conveying way 14, 38, 47,81 Conveying status 27 Follow-up costs 80 Molding
123 Fillings 25 Level indicator 243 Fuller pump 232 Radio control 265 Functional detection 259
Functional risk 259 Fodder meal 208 Feed 55 G Gas density 72 Gas explosion 72 Gas humidity 72 Gas law
71 Gas constant 71
Blower 33, 34, 44, 45, 46, 47, 105, 122 characteristic 33, 34, 48, 49, 50, 51, 126, 184, 185 power 30, 79
quick lime 65 geodesic high 75 barley 55.92 Odor annoyance 56, 70 Total pressure 17 - Loss 97 History
15 Speed profile 21,23,30 Speed ratio 29, 38, 39, 40, 96 Design zones 122 Grain 26, 55, 62 Toxicity 56, 70
Glass 65 -balls 39, 68, 92 -tube 237 Sliding wear 66 Glacier 135 Mica 65, 92 Garnet 65
Granulatabscherung 216 Graphite 65 Grenzkorn 247 Grenzkurvc 28 Grenzschicht 245 semolina 55
Grünmalz 55, 92 Basic research 79 Gutabscheidung 122, 243 Gutaufgabe 14,43 Gutbeanspruchung 14,41
Gutbeladung 29, 30, 83, 95 Gutbeschlcunigung 35, 36, 37 Good properties 14 Good moisture content 55,
56, 63, 70 Good speed 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 43 Good mass flow 27, 28, 29, 34, 35, 38, 47, 49, 80, 81, 83,122
Good quality 70 Good friction loss 95 Good temperature 55, 56, 63, 70 Good deflection 40,41 Rubber-
elastic machine feet 169 Rubber spiral hose 239,242 H Wood chips Oat 92 Helium 72

55

High pressure 33 - conveying system 46,107,118 - -cell wheel lock 51 Void content 24, 25, 28, 55, 56, 57,
132 Wood industry 55, 194 Wood laths 92 Wood shavings 92 Wood wool 92 Horn cake clover 39, 68, 92
Loss of lift 95 Hydraulic diameter 25 Hydrostatic pressure 26 Hygroscopy 56, 70 I Industrial branches
53,54 Injector sluice 195 incompressible flow 38, 98 Internal friction 56, 60 unstable region 27, 30, 32
Isentropic 145 Isobars 145 Isochors 145 Isotherms 3 2, 7 1, 8 9, 1 0 0, 1 1 4 Iteration 104,107,117

Refrigerated dryers 179 Coffee 55 Cocoa 55 Potash 208 Hydrated lime 65 Calcite 65 Limestone 65
Limestone dust 235 Dome valve 227 Kaolin 55,65 Potato flakes 92 Conical valve 227 Diatomaceous earth
65, 125 Kinetic energy 95 Tackiness 56 Cohesion 56,57,61,62,135,137,210,222,225 Carbon dioxide 72
Coal dust 55,72 - Combustion 26 Coal gasification 221 Piston engine valve 123 Piston compressor 172
Compressibility 98, 100 Compressible flow 32, 91, 102 Condensate 76-failure 76,77,179

283

Continuity of measurement 89 Grain Density 14,23,24,39,93 -diameter 14, 21, 23, 24, 25, 39, 55, 56, 57,
59, 93 -form 21,55,56,57 -speed 66 - size distribution 55, 56, 57, 252-hardness 56, 57, 64, 66 -mass 21 -
rotation 21, 22 -flow 21,22 corundum 65, 66 concentrated feed 92 granulated sugar 135 critical pressure
ratio 181 elbow 27, 33, 36, 40, 41, 42, 43, 94, 237, 239 - Flow 40 - Loss 43, 97 - Wear 41 Radius of
curvature 40, 42, 43 Ball 25 - Bearing slewing ring 264 - Packing 58.59 - Valve 229 Plastic granules 36, 62
Plastics industry 55 Plastic spiral hose 238 copper 65

Noise development 70, 168, 177 Agriculture 194 Slow transport 66 Rotor adjustment 154 Lava 65 Laval
nozzle 5 0, 9 1, 1 4 0, 1 8 1, 2 6 1 Laval nozzle diameter 183 Leakage air 127,213,246 Power requirement
99 Guide vane adjustment 154 Berth time 262 Vertical displacement 40 Air density 18, 23,24,25,33,39 -
properties 72 -injection 136 -single resistance 94 -humidity 73.76 -speed 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28, 30, 31, 32 , 34, 36, 37, 38, 43, 48, 69, 81, 83, 91, 100, 110,

284
air holding capacity 33, 56, 57, 69-line 105 -measuring flow 29 -multipartitioning 158 -measurements 50,
181 - friction loss 94 -temp cratur 73 supply 51, 177 -volume flow 28, 43, 49, 79, 99 -volumetric flow
control 180 M

Magnesium oxide 65 Magnesium powder 72 Corn 55,92,191 -meal 92 Makrolou 92 malt 55, 92 -keime
55 -grot 92 Manganese-high-steel 216 Mantle suction nozzle 192 Flour 55 Multi-stage fan 48,49
Diaphragm pump 125 Brass 65 Methylcellulosc 92 Milk powder 55 Mineral industry 55 Möller pump 232
Mohs hardness 65 Mill industry 55 N Post-processing 122 Post-product 55 Needle felt 256 Food industry
Sodium bicarbonate 92 Natural fiber 254 Nitrate 55

55, 179

O Oil injection 146, 174 Oil industry 55 P Pallring 25 Paper industry 55 Cardboard sleeves 92 Parallel
connection 156, 159 Patent application 122, 132, 137

Plug conveying 25, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 43,47,5, 51,62,125,126,214,228,229 plug frequency 130 plug
speed 32,37,130 plug length 31,32,37 phenolic resin 92 phosphate 55 pneumosplit 139 polyamide
Granules 72 Polyester granules 72, 92, 261 Polyethylene granules 27, 67, 92, 261 Polyethylene powder
50, 72, 92, 242 Polypropylene granules 92 Polypropylene powder 72,242 Polystyrene granules 20, 32,
36, 37, 39 , 68, 69,83, 197 Polytropcnexponcnt 145, 163, 174, 177 Pore flow 31 Impact pot 43,241,264
Impact wear 66 Prandtl tube 18 Project manager 80 Test sieve 61 Powder snow 135 Powdered sugar
209 Pump delivery 125 PVC powder 63, 92 Pycnometer 58 Pyrite 65 Q Quartz 65 Quartz powder 30
quartz sand 237 cross section change

237

R Radialvcntilator 46, 149, 150 Rape 55,210,218 Raschigring 25 Room sealingc 56, 57, 58 Regression
costs 80 Friction wear 215 Series connection 156, 159 Clean air line 34 Rice 55, 92 sleeves 92 relative
sand roughness 18 Resonance silencer 170 Residual oil 264 Residual dust content 250,252 Reynolds
number 18,68 Risk minimization 80

Rye 92 raw meal 55 tube station 242-hügcl 238 -diameter 18, 20, 23, 24, 27, 29, 32, 38, 40, 42, 47, 79,
80, 81, 82, 83, 98, 99, 235 extension 89,108,118 -knie 43 -krümmer see bend length 24,27,36,37,38 -
work plan 235 -post 53,123,163 -stream 21,24,40 -soft 241 -material 236 rotary shear cell 61 shaking
density 58 carbon black 55,65,190,244

Sawdust 55, 92 Sawdust 55, 126, 188 Seeds 36 Salt 65 Suction nozzle 190, 192, 193 conveyor 44, 45, 46,
98, 119, 187, 188, 262 conveyor 29, 49, 110, 262 lift 264 - Pressure conveyor 46, 47 -Injector 201 Sound
attenuation 150 -emission 14 -speed 182 -cap 170, 171-level 171 Foam polystyrene 28,196,201
Apparent density 58 Shear force 61 Shear stress 61 Shear cell 61 Ship unloading system 29, 46, 262 Slag
66,237 Bag filter 255 Peristaltic pump 125 Sluice 46,105,122 Lock function 187 Lock air 35, 49, 50, 51,
211 Lock 215 Slit suction 190, 192

285

Melt basalt 66,237 Screw conveyors 188, 232, 233 Sluice gates 125,232 Gentle conveying 126 Screw
compressors 172, 178 Shot 55 Bulk density 26, 56, 57, 58, 122 Bulk material properties 55-bed 24, 31 -
distribution 62 -labor 55 -technology 53 -slicer 218 Database 58 Batch 25 Angle of repose 56, 64, 122
Inert gas 72.73.178 Pour speed 23, 24, 29, 36, 37, 38,40,56,57,58,67, 196 Hover characteristic 67,69
Exposure 67 Sulfur 65 Pivot valve 227 Gravity 40 Soap noodles 92 Side channel blower 161,178
Secondary flow 246 Sieving characteristic 59,60,61 Silage 194 Silver 65 Silicon dioxide 135 Silicon carbide
65,66,216 Silo plant 46,241 Silo voltage 61 Rate of sinking see Sway speed Soda 65 Soybeans 55, 92, 263
Summer rape 39,68,92,210 Sorption isotherm 56 Variety blending 242 Variety change 14 Chip
conveyance 135, 159, 160, 194 Spcial balloon 73 Grit pressure 31, 139 Thickness 55 Steel 65 -balls
36,39,50,51,211 -tubes 18,236 -spiral hose 238 Stand-by-compactor 261 Service life 43

286

Static pressure 17 Dusting properties 79 Dust formation 47, 56, 70 Dust explosion 14, 70, 72, 194 Dust
fraction 252 Vacuum cleaning system 46 Rock salt 92 Continuous feed 14, 190 Nitrogen 33,72,261 Plug
132, 135 Plug limit 30,31,33,49 Joint 2 1, 2 3, 3 8 -factor 56 strand conveying 27, 30, 32, 33, 38, 40 jet
velocity 66 jet wear 215,227 fluid mechanics 17 flow handling 79 general cargo handling 47,70 Styrofill
196,201 polystyrene balls 93, 160

timing 127 talcum 65 pocket filter 255 dew point 76 telescope tube 110, 192 Increase in temperature
147 Titanium dioxide 65, 136 Titanium carbide 65 Alumina 55,222 Topaz 65 Transporting fans 159, 193
Drying towers 93 Trough chain conveyors 264 Turbo compressors 172,264 Turbulence 21, 141 U

Overpressure damper 243 Overpressure damper 243 Recirculation system 73,188,261 Turnover point 33
Flow resistance 23 Environmental load 70,262 Unstetigförderer 14 U-tube 17 V fan 48, 49, 91, 149, 178
characteristic 49, 150, 151 perishability 56, 70

compressor 4.5,46, 91 , 145 Compressor capacity 146 Compressor temperature 168, 174 Compression
work 165 Seal process 145 Sales interest 80 Displacement pressure 136 Wear recess 4l Blockage 42, 47,
48, 90, 127, 136 Vibro-pulse pump 138 Pre-separation 243 W Horizontal conveying 38.95 Wax 65 Wagon
extraction 191 Wall friction 31, 36, 56, 57, 60, 61 wall joint 23.36 grapes 191 white mustard 93 white 29,
30, 39, 55, 68, 69, 85, 86, 93-bran 93 -mehl 93 -nachmehl 93 weather influence 73 Resistance coefficient
23, 24, 27, 43, 56, 68, 69, 94, 102 Repeatability 121 Windkessel 179

Winterwicken 39, 68, 69, 93 fluidized bed 26,28 vortex 245 tungsten carbide 65 impeller 194

Z coal coke 188 rotary valve 31, 34, 51, 66, 188, 203, 231,264 cell compressor 172 pulp 55 cellulose
powder 93 cement 26, 55, 93, 224 - industry 55 raw meal 93 chicory chips 64, 93 zinc 65 oxide 65, 93 tin
65 zircon 65 distributor housing 123 sugar 55,93,193 additional pressure drop 38, 81 aggregates 55
change of state 71, 89 State diagram 27, 33, 48, 128, 129 Intermediate cooling 174 Cyclone 94,245

287

Vogel Fachbuch Pneumatik Deppert, Werner / Stoll, Kurt

Pneumatic applications Reduce costs with pneumatics 366 pages, 310 images, 2-color ISBN 3-8023-
0434-9 Industrial production uses pneumatic energy for power transmission, motion and control
functions. Practical problems are described here using examples, solutions are offered especially under
the aspect of "low-cost automation." The topic follows the book "Pneumatic Controls" and addresses
practitioners who are involved in the design, the installation and the operation of pneumatic
components and systems are concerned. Beginners are introduced in an easy-to-understand
way. Hoffmann, Ernst / Stein, Richard

Pneumatics in construction 276 pages, 335 images ISBN 3-8023-0172-2 Design requirements, project
planning and dimensioning: Applications of control elements and implements, circuit diagram
development, control technology, accessories, control cabinets, pneumatic cylinders, pneumatic motors,
power valves, maintenance devices. This workbook for designers, engineers, masters and technicians
has been developed from practice. It helps both in solving recurrent conceptual problems as well as
everyday decisions "on site".

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