EXPERIMENT 1: SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Table of Results

Weight of Weight of Specific Specific

Weight of
Pycno Weight of Pycno Weight Gravity Gravity
Sample Pycno
meter and Sample meter and of Water (Experim (Theoretic
meter
Sample Water ental) al)

Ethanol 31.1616 g 39.1358 g 7.9742 g 40.9566 g 9.7950 g 0.8141 0.7900

Ethyl
31.1616 g 40.0420 g 8.8804 g 40.9566 g 9.7950 g 0.9066 0.9070
acetate

Chloro-
31.1616 g 45.4634 g 14.3018 g 40.9566 g 9.7950 g 1.4601 1.4690
form

Mineral
31.1616 g 39.4409 g 8.2793 g 40.9566 g 9.7950 g 0.8453 0.9200
Oil

Coconut
31.1616 g 40.2235 g 9.0619 g 40.9566 g 9.7950 g 0.9252 0.9250
Oil

Calculations

Weight of Sample = Weight of Pycnometer and sample ̶ Weight of Pycnometer

Ethanol Ethyl Acetate Chloroform Mineral Oil Coconut Oil

39.1358 g 40.0420 g 45.4634 g 39.4409 g 40.2235 g

¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g

7.9742 g 8.8804 g 14.3018 g 8.2793 g 9.0619 g

Weight of Water = Weight of Pycnometer and water ̶ Weight of Pycnometer

Ethanol Ethyl Acetate Chloroform Mineral Oil Coconut Oil

40.9566 g 40.9566 g 40.9566 g 40.9566 g 40.9566 g

¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g ¯ 31.1616 g

9.7950 g 9.7950 g 9.7950 g 9.7950 g 9.7950 g

Specifiv Gravity (Experimental)

= Weight of sample

Weight of water

Ethanol Ethyl Acetate Chloroform Mineral Oil Coconut Oil

7.9742 g 8.8804 g 14.3018 g 8.2793 g 9.0619 g

9.7950 g 9.7950 g 9.7950 g 9.7950 g 9.7950 g

= 0.8141 = 0.9066 = 1.4601 = 0.8453 =0.9252 g

% Error

= Theoretical Value – Experimental Value x 100

Theoretical Value

Ethanol Ethyl Acetate

0.7900 – 0.8141 x 100 = 3.0506 % 0.9070-0.9066 x 100 = 0.0441 %

0.7900 0.9070
Chloroform Mineral Oil

1.4690 – 1.4601 x 100 = 0.6058 % 0.9200 – 0.8453 x 100 = 8.1196%

1.4690 0.9200

Coconut Oil

0.9250 – 0.9252 x 100 = 0.0216 %

0.9250

Observation

Based on the experiment, chloroform has the highest specific gravity. Followed by
coconutl oil and ethyl acetate, respectively. Next is mineral oil while ethanol has the
lowest specific gravity. Only chloroform has higher density than water.

Conclusion

The specific gravity of a substance, is defined as the ratio of the density of that
substance to the density of distilled water at a specified temperature. Since it is a ratio,
the value of Gs does not depend on the system of units used and is a numerical value
having no units. When it is calibrated properly, a pycnometer can be used in measuring
specific gravity effectively.

Questions

1.Why is specific gravity an important parameter in the determination of identity and

quality of raw materials for pharmaceuticals?

Because it is used to convert the weight of an ingredient or preparation to volume or

vice versa. It is also used to calculate the equivalent strength of a preparation on the
basis of either weight or volume

2.Can specific gravity be determined at any temperature? Why is temperature important

in the determination of specific gravity?
Yes. It is classified as apparent specific gravity but the temperature must be indicated.

Temperature is important in determination of specific gravity because substances

expand or contract at different rates when their temperature changes.

3.Which will have higher specific gravity, water or 0.9% sodium chloride? Why?

Sodium Chloride has a higher specific gravity.

4.Differentiate specific gravity from density.

Specific Gravity is the ratio of weight of a substance in air to that of an equal volume of
water. Density on the other hand is the mass of a substance per unit volume. It has the
units of mass over volume. In the metric system both density and specific gravity may
be numerically equal, although the density figure has units.

Referene

Troy, D. B., & Beringer, P. (2006). Remington: The Science and Practice of
Pharmacy (p. 110). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Fluids - Specific Gravities. (2003). Retrieved from http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com

 EXPERIMENT 2: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Table of Sample Information

Sample Paraffin Wax Glucose Sucrose NaCl

Chemical
C25C52 C6H12O6 C12H22O11 NaCl
Formula

Bond Type covalent covalent covalent ionic

Polarity non-polar polar polar polar

hydrogen
Intermolecular Hydrogenbonding bonding
London
Forces of Dipole-dipole dipole-dipole ionic dipole
dispersion
Attraction Londondispersion London
dispersion

Observation
Paraffin wax was the first substance to melt. Glucose and sucrose followed respectively.
NaCl took the longest time to melt.

Conclusion

In general, stronger intermolecular forces should result in a higher melting point.

Molecular attractions are not as strong as ionic attractions. Paraffin is a nonpolar
molecule, and the only intermolecular force between its molecules is the London
dispersion force. Sucrose has a higher melting point than glucose since it has more
electrons and will result in stronger intermolecular forces. Sodium chloride has a high
melting point because of the strong electrostatic attraction between its positive and
negative ions; this requires more heat energy to overcome.
Questions
1.An intermolecular force is defined as the force of attraction between neighboring
molecules. Considering this definition and what you know about melting points, what is
the general relationship that exists between the strength of intermolecular forces and
melting point?

The stronger the intermolecular forces the more energy required to overcome
attractions, thus giving the substance a higher the melting point

2.In Table 1, write the names and formulas of the four substance from left to right in
order of increasing strength of intermolecular forces. Identify the bond as either covalent
or ionic.

Of the four compounds, wax (covalent) has the lowest melting point followed by
glucose(covalent) and sucrose(covalent), respectively. Salt (ionic) had the highest
melting point

3. Coulomb’s law describes why oppositely charged particles are attracted to each
other. Using the concept of dipoles, explain why the attractive forces between
neighboring molecules are not as strong as the attractive forces between ions.

Molecular attractions are not as strong as ionic attractions. According to Coulomb’s law,
the magnitude of the charges is directly proportional to the force of attraction. At the
same distance, ions will have stronger attractions because they have absolute charges
whereas the most that a molecule can achieve with a dipole is a partial charge.

4.Considering a variety of polar molecules, not all attractions are created equal. Cite the
key factor that affects the strength of the attractions referred to as dipole-dipole
interactions?

The key factor that affects the strength of attractions is the magnitude of the molecular
dipole as determined by the difference in the electronegativity values between bonded
atoms and the distribution of electron density across the molecule.
5. Compare and contrast the force known as hydrogen bonding to the attractions
referred to as dipole-dipole interactions

Hydrogen bonding is a more extreme version of a dipole-dipole interaction. Both forces

rely on differences in electronegativities between atoms in polar molecules, but
hydrogen bonding is established only when there is a hydrogen bonded to nitrogen,
oxygen, or fluorine on one molecule and a lone pair of electrons on nitrogen, oxygen, or
fluorine of a neighboring molecule. Dipole-dipole interactions will occur any time two
polar molecules are neighboring, whether or not they have hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
or fluorine.

6. From what you know about attractive forces between particles, explain the relative
order of melting points for the four substances investigated.

During melting, particles must overcome attractions to other particles. Because the ions
in salt have absolute charges, the strength of that attraction is very high and requires
the greatest amount of energy to overcome.

Paraffin Wax is a nonpolar molecule. It has more than twice the number of electrons as
dextrose, and therefore more London dispersion forces. However, glucose is a polar
molecule that also experiences hydrogen bonding, which is why the total intermolecular
attractions outweigh the London dispersion forces experienced by the paraffin wax.

Like dextrose, sucrose is polar with hydrogen bonding but sucrose has almost twice as
many electrons as dextrose, which makes it more polarizable. Sucrose also has more
hydroxyl (–OH) sites available for hydrogen bonding. These two factors make the
intermolecular attractions greater than dextrose, causing sucrose to require more
energy to overcome the attractions. The more energy required to overcome attractions,
the higher the melting point.

7.In determining the strength of the intermolecular forces, it is important to consider the
net forces present. Use this argument to defend why water, having hydrogen bonding,
water has a much lower melting point than paraffin.

Wax is a nonpolar molecule, and the only intermolecular force between its molecules is
the London dispersion force. Water is a polar molecule and experiences both London
dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding. Wax has 202 electrons per molecule whereas
water has 10 electrons per molecule. Both molecules have electrons in the fi rst two
energy levels. The strength of the London dispersion forces depends on the number of
electrons. Therefore, the number of electrons in the wax contributes to a magnitude of
force that outweighs the total intermolecular forces in water, even with the presence of
hydrogen bonding.

Reference:

National Math and Science Initiative, Dallas, Texas. (2013). Don’t Flip Your Lid
Comparing Intermolecular Forces. Retrieved from http://www.nms.org
 EXPERIMENT 6: COLLOIDS

Preparation of an Emulsoid (Gelatin)

Results and Observation

When the preparation was boiled, the solution was viscous. When it was cooled under
tap water, it has become a very slightly jelly but was still viscous.

Preparation of Suspenoid (FeCl3 sol. Saturated)

Results and Observation

When the saturated ferric chloride was heated, a solution orange in color was produced.

Foam Formation

Results and Observation

When the test tube containing emulsoid (5% gelatin ) was shook, a permanent foam
was formed while the suspenoid (FeCl3 sol. Saturated) the foam was formed
temporarily. Foam is formed when many gas particles are trapped in a liquid or solid

Precipitation with Electrolytes

Results and Observation

When ammonium sulfate was added in the test tube that contains the emulsoid (5%
gelatin), precipitate was formed. On the other hand, the test tube containing suspenoid
(FeCl3 sol. Saturated),there was no precipitate formed when ammonium sulfate was
added.

Reversibilty

The 5% gelatin was reversible while the FeCl3 solution was not reversible.
Conclusion

An emulsoid which is prepared by heating 5% solution of gelatin. It is a lyophilic

with a strong affinity between a dispersed phase and the liquid in which it is dispersed. If
the dispersion medium used is water, the colloidal solution is known as hydrophilic.
Ferric Hydroxide molecules are formed as a result of chemical reaction of adding ferric
chloride in boiling water. These form the dispersed phase of the colloidal solution known
as suspensoid (lyophobic solution / hydrophobic solution which is irreversible colloid).
In this case, there is a complete lack of strong affinity between a dispersed phase and
the liquid on which it is dispersed. Emulsoid solutions are viscous and form a
permanent foam when they are violently shaken with air. Theoretically, formation of
precipitate happens in higher concentration because it is hydrated. In suspensoid,
formation of precipitate happens in lower concentration. If after a colloidal solution is
evaporated, a sol is reformed upon the addition of water, the colloid is classified as a
reversible colloid. Gelatin is examples of this type of colloid.

Questions

1. What is meant by a protective colloid?

Often a lyophilic colloidal system is stabilized by the addition of a second colloid which
is called a protective colloid. It forms a protective film around the particles and adsorbed
ions of the first colloid and prevents the particles from coming together and coagulating.

2. Compare emulsoid and suspenoid

If two sets of opposite sign are mixed, mutual coagulation usually occurs because of
neutralization of charges. Emulsoid are much more difficult to coagulate than
suspensoids. If an emulsoid sole i.e. gelatin is added to a suspensoid sole e.g. gold
sole, then suspenoid sole appears to be strongly protected against the flocculating
action of the electrolyte. It is probable that the particles of emulsoid are adsorbed by
suspenoid sole and impart their own properties. The emulsoid in this case is known as
protective colloid. This particular aspect is taken care off in many inorganic analysis.

3. Differentiate sols and gels

The liquid state of colloidal solution is known as sol and has low viscosity. Gel is a solid
or semi solid jelly like colloidal solution is known as gel and high viscosity.
4. Why is a suspenoid readily precipitated by salts?

The suspensoid particles carry a definite electric charge and are very easily
precipitated by addition of small amounts of salts owing to its neutralisation. This charge
probably determines the stability of the suspensoid, for similarly charged particles repel
one another and do not tend to aggregate.

Reference

Sarda, V., Handa, A. C., & Arora, K. K. (n.d.). Chemistry (p. 496). Saraswati House Pvt
Ltd.

Kasture, A. V. (2008). Pharmaceutical Analysis Vol. - I. Pragati Books Pvt.

Banerjee, P. K. (2008). Introduction to Bio Physics (p. 51). S. Chand Publishing.

Thorpe, W. V. (1952). Biochemistry for Medical Students (p. 43). CA: Lippincott.

Kumar, A. B. (2009). A Text Book Of Practical Botany 2 (p. 391). Rastogi Publications.

Wilson, D. W. (1944). A Laboratory Manual of Physiological Chemistry (6th ed., p. 42).

OH: Williams & Wilkins.