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Summary-A general method for identifying and evaluating mag- The third source of interference is that produced by
netic sources associated with the magnetic airborne detector- eddy-current magnetic fields. These occur in all of an
equipped aircraft is described. It is derived for the compensation of
magnetic noise related to the maneuvers of the aircraft. Mathemati- aircraft's skins, ribs, frames and other structural units
cal formulas are included with a uniform engineering method, that without respect to the magnetic materials from which
is independent of the type of magnetic source encountered, for an- they are constructed. The eddy currents require only
alyzing magnetic airborne detector records. A method for calibrating the existence of electrical conductivity and airplane
magnetic sources while in flight is also offered. maneuvers, and are generated in the same fashion as the
currents produced in a coil or loop of wire rotating in a
I. INTRODUCTION magnetic field. An electrical conducting path is formed
F OR this investigation, the AN/ASQ-8 magnetic around the outside edge of the aircraft's conducting
airborne detector (MAD) installation was used. sheets or closed-loop structures. As the aircraft maneu-
During flight operations, its detector magnetonme- vers in the magnetic field of the earth, electrical
ter is aligned with the earth's magnetic field at the currents are produced in different metallic parts pro-
particular geographical location and measures only in- portional to time changes of the fluxes of the earth's
crements of the magnitude of the magnetic field along magnetic field through these parts. The flow of current
the earth's magnetic-field lines. Random fluctuations in creates a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to
output of the detector magnetometer were a maximum the plane of the sheet or conducting loop.
of 0.05 gamma (approximately one millionth of the In the group of noise sources related to the maneuvers
earth's magnet ic field, 1 gamma= 10-5 oersted). of the carrier are displacements through magnetic
The sources of magnetic noise external to the MAD gradients (almost vertical for pitch maneuvers).
can be classified into two distinct groups: noise un-
related to the maneuvers of the aircraft, and noise re- II. BAsic GEOMETRY
lated to the maneuvers of the aircraft. This paper is
concerned only with the noise which is related to the The reference system used in this paper is defined by
maneuvers of -the aircraft. the natural axes of motion of the aircraft with the
There are three different sources of magnetic inter- detector located at the origin (0), as shown in Fig. 1.
feren-ce associated with the airframe. The first source is The X axis and its unit vector i are parallel to the
the permanent magnetism of various ferromagnetic transverse axis (T) of the aircraft and are positive for
structural partIs of the aircraft, which may result from T left; the Y axis and its unit vector]1 are parallel to the
some manufacturing process or from contact with a aircraft's longitudinal axis (L) and are positive for L
magnet or magnetized parts or tools. This type of field forward; the Z axis and its unit vector k are parallel to
turns with the aircraft, thereby changing its relation the vertical axis (V) of the aircraft and are positive for
to the earth's field vector and causing a change in the V down.
magnetic field surrounding the magnetometer. The maneuvers of the MAD carrier in pitch, roll and
A second characteristic source of magnetic inter- yaw are defined as follows:
ference, produced by airframe parts, is the induced Roll maneuver: rotation of the aircraft about the
magnetic fields created in the aircraft's ferromagnetic longitudinal (L) axis.
structures by the earth's magnetic field. These fields are Roll angle (41): the angle between the transverse
generally associated with soft iron parts, although they (T) axis and the horizontal pos-
also occur, to a limited extent, in hard steel parts. Unlike itive for left wing down.
the permanent field, the induced magnetic field does Pitch maneuver: rotation of the aircraft about the
not turn with the aircraft, but its polarity and magni- transverse (T) axis.
tude are deterrnined by the direction and magnitude of Pitch angle (X): the angle between the longitudinal
the earth's field. (L) axis and the horizontal-
positive for noise down.
*
Received by the PGANE, February 17, 1961. Yaw maneuver: rotation of the aircraft about the
t Electronics Div., The Martin Company, Baltimore, Md. vertical (V) axis.
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96 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND NAVIGATIONAL ELECTRONICS September
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1961 Leliak: Magnetic Airborne Detector 97
expanidilng and replacing cos2 Y= 1 -cos2 X-cos2Z terials used in the aircraft skins, ribs, frames and other
structures and on the location of the detector in the air-
Hid = He[(TT - LL) COS2 X + (LT + TLJ cos X cos Y craft. Lower-case letters are used throughout this paper
+ (VT + TV) cos X cosZ + (VL + LV) cos YcosZ to designate the eddy-current sources. Magnetic air-
- (VV -- LL) COS2 Z + LL) ]. (6b) craft sources are referred to by the 16 quantities: T,
L, V, (IT-LL), (VV-LL), (TL+LT), (TV+T-T),
Sinice the amplifier associated with the detector (L V+ VL), (tt-11), (vv-11), It, vt, tl, vl, tv and iv,
passes alternating current only, the constant term LL
need not be considered. The quantities (TT-LL), VI. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
(TL-+LT), (TV+-VT), (LV+HVL) and (VV-LL) are AND GENERAL SOLUTION
dependent on the dimensions, location and susceptibil- In order to attack the problem in general, it is neces-
ity of the aircraft materials exhibiting induced magnetic sary to solve a system of equations relating to the 16
effects and on the location of the detector in the fields sources of magnetic interference due to the permanent,
emanating from these materials, but they are inde- induced- and eddy-current fields of the aircraft.
pendent of the aircraft maneuvers. All 16 magnetic sources can be related to the aircraft
Capital letters are used throughout this paper to maneuvers and the equations can be developed fron
designate the induced field sources. data received during sinusoidal manuevers of a MAD-
equipped aircraft. For sinusoidal maneuvers, the ma-
V. THE EDDY-CURRENT FIELD EQUATIONS neuver angles can be expressed as in (8).
The eddy-current field at the detector input HE 41 =4J'm sinwt, X = X,m sin wl Q = Qm5sin cot , (8)
(origin 0) can be written as the vector sum of the eddy-
current magnetic fields due to each component of the where Q.mn Xm Qm are angular amplitudes of 50 to 10°
earth's field. The eddy-current fields produced by and w is an angular frequency of the order of magnitude
HX, HU, HZ at the detector input are proportional to of 1.
HZI, HS, HZ, respectively, and, in general, are not aligned The equations so developed are expressed as follows:
with a principal axis of the aircraft.
They may be written as in (7) where the propor- K1aT + K2aL + K3aV + K4a(TT -LL)
tionality coefficients may be interpreted in the same + + K16a(vi) =
manner as those of the induced field expressions. Re- KibT + K2bL + K3bV + K4b(TT -LL)
arranginig expressions for the eddv-current components
due to Hx, H1,, HI, the total eddy-current field at the + - + H K6b(vi) = M2
detector input HE is expressed in (7a). Again, as in the
case of the induced and permanent fields, the total K1PT + K2PL + K3PV + K4P(TT - LL)
intensity seen by the magnetometer is only the projec-
tion of this field in the direction of the earth's magnetic + . . . + K16P(vi) = M16 (9)
vector. This component HED may be written as in (7b). The coefficients K1aK2a . . . K16pcan be calculated and,
HE = fIH(ti + ti + tvk) + H(iua + Iii + Ivk) in general, depend on the aircraft attitude, heading, type
of manuever, period and angular amplitude of the
+ fz(vti + vli + vvk) (7) maneuver, magnetic dip angle and the strength of the
HE = (HJxt + niylt + Hfvt)z + (xtl + IH,ll + HfIvl)y earth's magnetic field. The expressions for these co-
+ (HWtv + Hziv + HZvv)k (7a) efficients are obtained by the substitution of cos X,
cos Y, cos Z from (1)-(4) into (5b), (6b) and (7b). These
He *HE expressions are presented in Tables 1-111.
HED = T he terms Mll1, 212, etc., are magnitudes of the TiIAD
He
signals as indicated on the IVIAD-equipment pen re-
Expanding and replacing, corder for particular aircraft attitudes, and they depend
on the MAD equipment's sensitivity, phase and fre-
sin Y Y sin XX sin ZZ quency response. In pitch maneuvers, however, the = - -
HED = He[(tt 11) cos X(cos X) + It cos X(cos Y)' signals produced include those caused by the vertical
+ vI cos X (cos Z)' + tl cos Y(cos X)' gradient effect (signal due to changes in altitude); these
components must be excluded before the true magnitude
+ vI cos Y(cos Z)' + Iv cos Z(cos X)' of pitch signals can be determined.
+ iv cos Z(cos Y)' + (vv ii) cos Z(cos Z)']. (7b) Initial attempts to -solve the general equation (9) by -
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98 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND NAVIGATIONAL ELECTRONICS September
TABLE 1*
SIGNAL-TO-SOURCE RATIOS FOR ROLL MANEUVERS AS FUNCTIONS OF HEADING 0
L cos 4,
.1 - 11 2 sin 24 C052 ;- sin 24, sin2 ; 4 Cos2 4 sin 244 -4 Cosl24 sin 24,4 + 2 sin2 4 sin 244
ti 2 sin 24 cos 44 2
- COS2 4COS 4
tv - sin 24 sin 244 - COS2 4, sin24 2 cos2 4 sin2 ,4, + sin2 4 cos2 44
-2 COS2
+sn
v i-1 -2 sin 24, cos2 4 - 2 sin 24) sin2l, - COS2 4, sin 244 - sin2 4, sin 244 + I cos2 4, sin 244
* The proper use of this table can be illustrated by the following example. In (7) the signal created by the source (TT-LL) on roll
maneuvers according to this table will be represented by the expression:
(TT - LL)He[(I sin 24 sin 24) sin 0 - (1 COS2 4 COS2 4,) cos 20 + sin2 4 sin2 4, + COS2 4 COS2 4,].
TABLE II*
SIGNAL-TO-SOURCE RATIOS FOR PITCH MANEUVERS AS FUNCTIONS OF HEADING 0
T cos 4
TT - LL -2 Cos2 4 cos2 4,
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1961 Leliak: Magnetic Airborne Detector 99
TABLE II (Cont'd)
TV + VT 2 sin 24) cos X - cos2 4 sin X
LV + VL sin 20 cos2X -2 sin 24 ssif2 iCos2 )~X -4 cos2 0 sin 2X 1 sin2 4) sin 2X - cos2 4 sin 2X
vv - 11 - sin 24) COS2 X + sin 24) sin2 XX I COS2 4 sin 2XX - sin2 4) sin 2X? + - cos2 4 sin 2XX
*
The proper use of this table can be illustrated by the following example. In (9) the signal created by the source (vv-11) on pitch maneui-
vers according to this table will be represented by the expression:
(vv - l)He[(-2 sin 24) COS2 XX + 2 sin 24 sin2 XX) cos 0 + (I COS2 4 sin 2XA) cos 20 - 2 sin2 4 sin 2XX + 1 cos2 4 sin xA]
TABLE III*
SIGNAL-TO-SOURCE RATIOS FOR YAW MANEUVERS AS FUNCTIONS OF HEADING 0
VV - LL 2 sin2 4)
TL + LT -2 Cos2 4 sin 20
It - 11 4 cos2 4) sin 2Q
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100 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND NAVIGATIONAL ELECTRONICS September
system). The errors in the determination of roots of (9) The second harmonic component of the signal at the
(magnetic sources of the aircraft) depend on the ac- detector magnetometer oultput for every permanent or
curacy of signal measurements and the ratio of signal induced source can be expressed as mS,j cos 2wt, where
to source for each term. As this ratio becomes smaller, m is also a function of the heading and angular amnpli-
a greater error is introduced into the final root solution tude of the maneuver as well as of the dip angle.
for the source. Thus, in order to reduce or eliminate The fundamental and second harmonic componients of
such errors, it is essential to exclude from (9) harmonics the eddy-current magnetic-source signals due to small
of signals in which the ratio of signal to source is es- angular amplitude sinusoidal maneuvers are expressed
pecially small. as nSed cos ct and PS,d sin 2cot, respectively, where Sed
It can be shown that the fundamental component of is equal to the product of eddy-current sourceXH ; n
every permanent or induced magnetic source signal at and p are coefficients dependent on the headinig, fre-
the output of the detector magnetometer, due to any quency and angle amplitude of the maneuver as well as
pitch, roll, or yaw sinusoidal manuever accomplished at of the dip angle.
small angular amplitudes, can be expressed by In Tables IV and V the coefficients 2k, 2m, 2n anid
kSpi sin ct (i.e., always in phase with the maneuver 2p are given as functions of the magnetic dip angle 4
angle), where k is a function of the heading and for X = 1 (T= 6.28 seconds) for sinusoidal pitch and
angular amplitude of the maneuver as well as the yaw manueuvers of 50 amplitude and for roll maneuvers
dip angle in the geographical area of the maneuver. of 100 amplitude. All maneuvers are performed onl
w= (27/T) is the angular frequency of the maneuver. North-South, East-West cardinal headings. In the re-
S,i is the value of magnetic source for the permanent mainder of this article, these maneuvers are called ref-
magnetic field (sources T, V, L). erence maneuvers.
or S is (source XHO) for the induced fields sources The expressions kS,i sin cot, mS,i cos 2wt, nS,d cos
(TT-LL), (VV-LL), (TL+LT), (TV+ VT) and COt, PSed sinl 2wt, and the coefficients of Tables IV and V
(L V+ VL), where Ho is the strength of the earth's can be derived by expanding the expressions sin 41, sill
magnetic field in the maneuver location at dip 241, cos 4', cos 24, sin X, sin 2X, cos X, cos 2X, sin Q, sin 2Q,
angle q. cos Q and cos 2Q found in Tables I-III into Tavlor's
TABLE IV
VALUES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PERM-INDUCED AND EDDY-CURRENT SIGNAL COEFFICIENTSt FOR CARDINAL HEADINGS
(co = 1, /m = 100, Xm= 50, = 5 0)
North-South East-West
Source
Roll Pitch Yaw Roll Pitch Yaw
vI -0.175 cos2
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1961 Leliak: Magnetic Airborne Detector 101
TABLE IV (Cont'd)
tl ±0.174sin2,| -0.175cos21 (
vt -0.34(9) cos2 * -$
TABLE V
VALUES OF THE SECOND-HARMONIC PERM-INDUCED AND EDDY-CURRENT SIGNAL COEFFICIENTSt FOR CARDINAL HEADINGS
(co = 1, Xlm= 10s, Xm=50 XQ = 50)
North-South East-West
Source I I~~~~~~~~~~
Roll Pitch Yaw Roll Pitch Yaw
VV - LL 0.030 sin12 4 - 0.008 cos 24, -0 030 cos 24, 0.008 sing2 4
TL + LT
ti
0)HEn
it c)
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102 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND NAVIGATIONAL ELECTRONICS September
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1961 Leliak: Magnetic Airborne Detector 103
5
for t-T12:
@- hAm(,, XAm) sin (w, Am) + Z Fed
(MO - MT/2) cos - (MT/4 - M3T/4) sin
- EhAm(W,, An,) sin [sp(w, Am) + a]
a] - -E Fp7 sin a (25)
5
2s 5
5
E-cz Fed cos
a + E fp cos,
The same procedures used with (15) can be repeated
with (16) and (17) to obtain similar formulas for roll
+A-(51) "O E fed sin1= (20) and yaw maneuvers with the exception of the vertical-
5 ~~~~~~s gradient term, which is absent during these maneuvers.
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104 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND NAVIGATIONAL ELECTRONICS September
For roll maneuvers:
(M0-M T12) sin a±+(M T/4-M3T/4) cos a
Z FPX = (26) 2
M.A.D. SIGNAL M T/4
2sE -
I
BT/4
10
(MO-MT/2) cos a--(MT14-M3T/4) sinac AIRCRAFT ROLL ATTITUDE A 0 T/2
E Fed = (27)
2sE Lo@
10 AIRCRAFT PITCH ATTITUDE
5 40
By varying cardinal magnetic headings 0 or even dip DC.- - --
angles q it is possible to obtain simple mathematical
expressions for all the magnetic sources.
VII. CALCULATION OF THE AIRCRAFT
MIAGNETIC SOURCES 80
0.0625 0.0714 0.0833 0.1000 0.1250
CYCLES/SEC
0.1666 0.2500 0.5000 _ _ _ _ +
50 yaws at co = 1 for cardinal compass headings as Fig. 4-AN/ASQ-8 system frequency response (HTA band).
a function of the magnetic dip angle X should be
compiled (see Tables IV and V). VIII. CALIBRATION OF COMPENSATING SOURCES
(5) Values for the terms Am(w, XAm) and o(w, XAm) the
amplitude and phase shift of the detector mag- To compensate the original magnetic fields associated
netometer oscillations during pitch maneuvers with the aircraft, it is necessary to apply compensating
for various co and Xm should be compiled into sources which are equal to the aircraft sources as de-
tabular form. It is necessary to know these values termined from (24)-(29) but opposite in sign. Hence, it
for every new construction of the aircraft. If is necessary to calibrate these sources prior to the com-
such a table is not available, it is possible to pensation procedure.
exclude the vertical-gradient terms appearing in The source-calibration procedure requires that two
the pitch equations in many cases by performing similar maneuvers (pitch, roll or yaw) be peformed on
pitch maneuvers of identical frequency and an- any heading with and without a compensating source
gular amplitude on opposite cardinal headings. SX, where Sx is to be calibrated. Sx is created by coils,
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1961 Correc tion 105
rings or permalloy strips, which serve as comiipensating ments of this method of compensation. Of course, de-
devices and are attached or mounted on the aircraft. velopment of devices for indicating and controlling the
MAD signals received from the compensation frequency and angular amplitude of the aircraft maneu-
maneuvers are analyzed in accordance with (24)-(29) vers could improve considerably the accuracy of this
and Table IV. From these equations and Table IV, the method.
source-calibration formulas are readily derived. The method developed is applicable to any type air-
plane or airship capable of performing single-axis
IX. PRACTICAI NOTES sinusoidal maneuvers.
The main source of error with which this miiethod is
concerned is nonsinusoidal maneuvers of the aircraft. REFERENCES
Usually, the maneuvers indicate amplitude and fre- [1] W. E. Tolley and J. D. Lawson, "Magnetic Compensation of
quency modulation, and often they are nonperiodical. MAD Equipped Aircraft," Airborne Instruments Lab. Inc., Min-
eola, N. Y., Rept. 201-1; June, 1950.
Also, it is not easy practically to obtain pure single-axis [2] P. Leliak, "Identification and Evaluation of Magnetic Field
maneuvers. However, practical applications proved that Sources Associated with MAD Equipped Aircraft," Electronics
Div., The Martin Company, Baltimore, Md., Rept. No. ER 7362;
a sufficiently trained pilot can satisfy the basic require- September, 1955.
CORRECTION
W. K. Saunders, author of "Post-War Developnients band of interest, it can be shown that some geometries
in Continuous-Wave and Frequency-Modulated Ra- produce harmonics of the fundamental vibration fre-
dar," which appeared on pages 7-19 of the March, 1961, quency in the path length. Owing to the very small
issue of these TRANSACTIONS, has called the following path variations that are significant, these harmonics
to the attention of the Editor. cannot always be ignored."
On page 7 replace the last 8 lines of the 3rd para-
graph with: On p. 11, insert + in second displayed formula.
On p. 12, second line, second paragraph: "AN-APN-
"through signal three-thousandths of an electrical de- 100 [16]."
gree, given certain phase relationship may produce On p. 14, section D, second paragraph, third line:
as large a low-frequency signal in the mixer as a return "Fig. 14 [25], [36], [50]."
wave fully m-odulated by Doppler, but 142 db below On p. 14, section D, second paragraph, 28th line:
the transmitter in power. At X-band, three-thou- "[25], [36], [50].1"
sandths of an electrical degree is represented by On p. 14, section D, second paragraph, last line: "by
0.00001 inch on a direct path, or one-half that on a Witmer [50 ] . . . . "
path involving a reflection from a missile fin. Even if On p. 15, next to last paragraph, sixth line: replace
the fundamental vibrations of the mechanical system V(t) with U(t).
have frequencies which are well below the Doppler On p. 16, Fig. 15 caption: replace V(t) with U(t).
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