Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270

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Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Wind tunnel simulation of the three-dimensional airflow patterns behind cuboid

obstacles at different angles of wind incidence, and their significance for the
formation of sand shadows
Wanyin Luo ⁎, Zhibao Dong, Guangqiang Qian, Junfeng Lu
Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Sand shadows commonly form downwind of obstacles in arid and semi-arid regions. Understanding their dy-
Received 22 March 2011 namics requires insights into the airflow patterns behind the obstacles under different wind regimes. Here,
Received in revised form 24 October 2011 we studied models of cuboid obstacles to characterize the three-dimensional responses of airflow behind ob-
Accepted 27 October 2011
stacles with different shape ratios to variations in the incident flow in a wind-tunnel simulation. Wind veloc-
Available online 6 November 2011
ity was measured using particle image velocimetry (PIV). The flow patterns behind cuboid obstacles were
Keywords:
complicated by changes in the incidence angle of the approaching flow and in the obstacle's shape ratio.
Dune dynamics The flows separated both horizontally and vertically, creating reverse-flow cells downwind of the obstacles.
Obstacles to wind flow The horizontal cells were characterized by two asymmetrical, opposing reverse vortices at flow incidence an-
Secondary airflow patterns gles greater than 60 to 65°, whereas the vertical cells formed a single vortex at all angles. The cells shifted po-
Shadow dunes sition in response to changes in the incidence angle and shape ratio, reflecting the interaction between outer
Wind tunnel simulation and reverse flows. The parameters of the horizontal and vertical reverse cells depended on the shape ratios
and incidence angles but not on the wind velocity. The sizes of the horizontal and vertical reverse cells
were correlated, reflecting their interactions. The low-velocity “shadow” behind the obstacle caused sand de-
position and determined the sand shadow's evolution. Field experiments will be required to relate these air-
flow patterns to sand shadow development.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Sand shadows (also called shadow dunes) form in the lee of obstacles,
and are widely distributed in arid and semi-arid regions and in some
coastal regions around the world. The most frequently reported obsta-
cles that create such sediment deposits are topographic obstacles such
as hills and rocks, human structures such as cairns or buildings, and sed-
iments trapped by vegetation (e.g., Karcz, 1968; Carter, 1978; Hesp,
1981; Clemmensen, 1986; Wilson, 1988; Gunatilaka and Mwango,
1989). Consequently, sand shadows have received much attention
from eolian geomorphologists (Bagnold, 1941; Clemmensen, 1986;
Hesp and McLachlan, 2000; Hesp et al., 2005; Dong et al., 2008). During
the formation and subsequent evolution of sand shadows, there is an it-
erative interaction between the obstacle's geometry, the characteristics
of the secondary airflow fields created by that geometry combined with
the direction of the incident wind, the morphology of the sand shadow,
and the interaction between neighboring dunes or obstacles (Cooke et
⁎ Corresponding author at: Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering
Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 320, West Donggang Road, Lanzhou,
Gansu Province 730000, China. Tel.: +86 931 4967498; fax: +86 931 8277169.
E-mail address: wyluo@lzb.ac.cn (W. Luo).
al., 1993; Livingstone and Warren, 1996). Understanding the dynamics
of these dunes thus requires insights into the airflow fields behind
obstacles.
As the name implies, sand shadows represent sediment accumula-
tions that form in the shelter (wind shadow) of, and immediately be-
hind, an obstacle. Bagnold (1941) first used this name to describe the
accumulation of eolian sand in the lee of an obstacle that reduces the
local wind velocity. Similar structures, associated with both wind and
water, have subsequently been recognized in a variety of depositional
environments (e.g., Wilson, 1988). Allen (1982) suggested the less
specific term current shadow for such features in both eolian and
aqueous environments. However, related terms such as lee dune,
shadow dune and coppice dune are more widely used in the eolian lit-
erature to describe such deposits (Hesp, 1981; Pye and Tsoar, 1990;
Cooke et al., 1993).
Although sand shadows have attracted research attention because
of their occurrence outside Martian craters, they are the least well-
understood of anchored dunes (Greeley and Iversen, 1985). The litera-
ture suggests that these deposits cannot survive large changes in wind
direction, such as the ones that occur where the wind regime is highly
variable in direction, and can only grow to meso- or mega-size under
constant wind regimes (Cooke et al., 1993; Livingstone and Warren,
1996). Obstacles generate different sand shadows depending on the

0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.10.027
 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270
Fig. 1. Successive stages in the growth of sand shadows, based on the illustrations of
Bagnold (1941). Airflow around the obstacle creates two wings (A), which gradually
coalesce (B) as the secondary air flow and reverse flows within the wind shadow
carry the grains towards the middle of the obstacle, producing an early sand shadow
(C) under an ideal wind which is relatively constant in direction. The sand shadow is
modified to something that resembles the structure shown in (D) when the wind is
supposed to swing between two limiting directions indicated by the two arrows.
sand supply, wind regime, and the geometry of the obstacle, and can
generate double or single sand shadows. The eolian literature on sand
shadows mainly concerns their internal sedimentary structures and
morphological descriptions (Clemmensen, 1986; Gunatilaka and
Mwango, 1989), and little attention has been paid to the aerodynamic
processes that govern their development. Although there is an obvious
association with turbulence patterns in the lee of an obstacle, there is
still much to learn about sand shadows.
The wind pattern around the solid cuboid obstacle has been stud-
ied intensively in the field of civil engineering through experimental
and numerical simulation (Castro, 1979; Hunt et al., 1979; Hunt,
1982; Castro and Dianat, 1984; Martinuzzi and Tropea, 1993; Lamb,
1994; Chou and Chao, 2000). There exists a considerable amount of
published data for flows around obstacles. However, most literature
is concerned with the flow structure upstream of surface-mounted
rectangular cylinders in channel flow, there are few studies concern-
ing the three-dimensional phenomena in the lee of an obstacle with
different shapes and, in particular, the sedimentological process in-
volved are still unclear. When a sufficiently strong wind flows around
a rectilinear obstacle, flow separation occurs in the lee of the obstacle.
The nature and significance of this and related secondary flows are
controlled by the interaction of at least two factors: the obstacle's
shape and the angle of incidence of the flow (Sweet and Kocurek,
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up used to measure (A) the vertical flow patterns and (B) the horizontal flow patterns behind an obstacle.
259
Fig. 3. Illustration of the obstacle model and coordinate system used in the wind tunnel
tests. Model parameters: H = height, W = width, B = thickness, U = free-stream wind
velocity, z = height above the bed, and x = distance downwind of the obstacle model.
1990; Cooke et al., 1993). Sand shadows can form after a storm or
can be created by a weaker wind that exceeds the threshold frictional
velocity required to entrain sand particles (Bagnold, 1941;
Clemmensen, 1986; Pye and Tsoar, 1990; Cooke et al., 1993;
Livingstone and Warren, 1996).
The morphology and evolution of a sand shadow are sensitive to
the angle of the incident wind and the shape of the obstacle, which
strongly affects the secondary flow patterns in its lee (Bagnold,
1941; Gunatilaka and Mwango, 1989; Dong et al., 2008). Wind tunnel
studies have shown that the shear stress exerted on the sand bed in
the wake of an obstacle is a function of the obstacle's dimensions
and the friction wind velocity (Greeley and Iversen, 1985). Iversen
et al. (1990) found that the intensity of turbulence and erosion was
related to the obstacle's aspect ratio (the ratio of its height to its
width perpendicular to the flow). Dong et al. (2008) wind tunnel sim-
ulation revealed that the flow patterns around shrubs were compli-
cated by the presence of bleed flows (which pass through the
obstacle) and displaced flows (which flow around the obstacle)
when the shrub density equals or exceeds a critical density (which
ranged between 0.05 and 0.08). Thus, sand shadows develop behind
dense shrubs when the dominant reversed flow leads to sediment ac-
cumulation on the lee side. If the obstacle's shape varies in three di-
mensions, some of its facets will be oblique to the flow direction.
Bagnold (1941) illustrated the ideal stages in the evolution of sand
shadows (Fig. 1), and noted that the size of the sand shadow is very
sensitive to the shape of the bottom of the obstacle. However, the
characteristics of the wakes that develop behind angular bodies, and
especially the secondary airflow patterns behind these bodies, and
their relationship with their shape and changes in the angle of inci-
dence of the wind are not yet fully understood. To investigate the
mechanisms responsible for the formation and evolution of sand
shadows under complicated secondary airflows, we performed a
scaled wind-tunnel simulation. Our goal was to improve understand-
ing of the three-dimensional airflow patterns behind cuboid obstacles
using models with different shapes and under different angles of inci-
dence of the wind. We characterized the airflow fields using particle
260 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270
image velocimetry (PIV), and used the results to define the horizontal
and vertical variations in airflow patterns as a function of the wind in-
cidence angle and the obstacle's shape ratio, taking advantage of the
ability of PIV to provide non-intrusive velocity measurements within
the whole field of the target area. Based on our results, we discuss the
geomorphological significance of the lee vortex and wake.
2. Scaled wind-tunnel simulation
2.1. Experimental set-up
The scaled simulation experiments were carried out in a wind tunnel
at the Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences. The blow-type, non-circulating wind tunnel
(Fig. 2) has a total length of 10.5 m, with a 4 m-long test section. The
cross-sectional area of the test section is 0.4 m tall by 0.4 m wide. The
free-stream wind velocity in the wind tunnel can be varied from 1 to
35 m s− 1. To ensure that the test airflow is aerodynamically rough, a
roughness array at the front of the working section enhances boundary
layer development in the working section, and the boundary layer in
the test section is generally more than 120 mm.
The sizes and shapes of sand shadows in arid and semi-arid re-
gions are highly variable, ranging from meters to kilometers in length,
depending on the obstacles that create them, and both parameters
are controlled primarily by the frontal area (height × width) of the ob-
stacle (Cooke et al., 1993). There is considerable variation in the
shapes of obstacles in the real world, so it is impossible to create a sin-
gle representative model that would be geometrically similar to all
the obstacles found in the field. We instead chose a scale model com-
parable to the kinds of anthropogenic obstacles that are widely dis-
tributed at the edges of deserts in northern China and that are
threatened by sand deposition. These obstacles (cairns and buildings)
generally have a height of 1.0 to 3.0 m and a frontal area of approxi-
mately 1 to 20 m 2.
Fig. 3 shows a schematic diagram of the wind obstacle model and
the coordinate system used in this study. The height (H) and width
(W) of the test model were 25 and 50 mm, respectively, resulting in
a frontal area of 1250 mm 2. The thickness (B) was set to 5, 10, and
20 mm to generate different shape ratios (λ = 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8),
which is defined as the ratio of the top (or basal) area of the test
models to its side area perpendicular to the wind. Thus, we examined
the effects of three cuboid models with different shape ratios on wind
Fig. 4. (A) Horizontal velocity and (B) turbulence intensity profiles for the approaching flow as a function of height in the absence of the model obstacles. u(z) = wind velocity at
height z above the surface; U = free-stream wind velocity. Heights represent multiples of H, the height of the obstacle.
flow patterns in our tests. Based on the dimensions of the above-
mentioned real-world obstacles, the geometric scaling of the obstacle
models was therefore between 1:40 and 1:120. The ratio of model
height to the boundary layer height, H/δ, was 0.21 (i.e., 25:120).
Thus, the tunnel's flow depth posed little restriction on boundary
layer development over the obstacle models (White, 1996). The
ratio of the model's width to the width of the working section of
the wind tunnel was 0.125 (i.e., 50:400). This ensured that wind tun-
nel constraints (“wall effects”) on the flow patterns around the
models would be insignificant. In the tests, we positioned the models
in the middle of the working section of the wind tunnel.
For small-scale experimental models to adequately simulate field
phenomena, a number of dimensionless variables should not differ
significantly between the model and the corresponding full-scale
values (Kind, 1976; Iversen, 1981). The constraints imposed by the
conditions in wind-tunnel studies rarely allow all of these similarity
requirements to be met simultaneously, and some compromises
must thus be adopted (Musick et al., 1996). The geometric scale of
the test models (between 1:40 to 1:120) in the present study rough-
ly met the strict Reynolds number requirements for dynamic simi-
larity. Nonetheless, we tried to generally meet the requirements of
“Reynolds number independence” recommended by White (1996)
for solid models. We investigated air flow at three free-stream
wind velocities (U = 6, 8 and 10 m s − 1) so that the flow Reynolds
numbers (Re = Uδ/ν) would be sufficiently high, ranging from
5.14 × 10 4 to 8.57 × 10 4, where δ is the thickness of the boundary
layer and v is the kinematic viscosity of the air. In addition, the Reyn-
olds number calculated using the width of the obstacle model
(50 mm) ranged from 2.14 × 10 4 to 3.57 × 10 4. During the testing,
the models were positioned 3.0 m downwind from the leading
edge of the test section of the wind tunnel, at a distance equal to
25 times the boundary layer thickness, which meets the general
rule for matching mean velocity profiles (White, 1996). Under
these conditions, Reynolds number independence was attained for
the solid models used in our study (Townsend, 1956; Snyder,
1972; White, 1996).
Seginer's (1975) experiment showed that the size of the lee vortex
decreased greatly as the wind flow became increasingly parallel to a
barrier, and at angles of incidence between 30° and 50°, velocities in
this vortex flow can exceed velocities in the unaffected upwind
flow. To examine the effect of obstacle orientation (here, represented
by the wind incidence angle), we chose 10 incidence angles (α = 45°,
 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270 261

50°, 55°, 60°, 65°, 70°, 75°, 80°, 85°, and 90°), which we achieved by
rotating the model in the x–y plane on the wind tunnel floor.
We measured the wind field around the obstacle models using a
PIV device provided by the Beijing Cubic World Science & Technology
Development Co., Ltd. It has five key components (Fig. 2): a double-
pulsed laser (two laser pulses that illuminated the seeding material
in the target area within a short time interval), light-sheet optics (op-
tics that transformed the laser light into a thin light plane that could
be guided into the target area), a CCD (charge-coupled device) cam-
era with a fast frame-transfer CCD that captured the two frames
exposed by the laser pulses, a synchronizer (a timing controller that
used highly accurate electronics to synchronize the laser with the
camera), and software and a data-acquisition card that captured,
stored, processed and displayed the data on a computer. This mea-
surement technique is based on a combination of laser-imaging tech-
nology with digital image processing. For more details concerning the
measurement principle, see Stanislas et al. (2000) and Dong et al.
(2007a). We used a mist of olive oil droplets (with a mean particle di-
ameter less than 1 μm) diffused by a thermal aerosol generator at the
entrance of the drive section of the wind tunnel as the seeding

Fig. 5. Illustrations of the horizontal streamline patterns around the model obstacles (λ = 0.8, U = 8 m s− 1) as a function of the incidence angle (α). Units on the two axes of the
graphs represent multiples of W, the width of the obstacle.
262 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270

material. The wind velocities measured by the PIV equipment were

calibrated using a static Pitot tube before the test, and the difference
between the two measurements was less than 0.5%.
Fig. 2 shows the experimental set-up and the layout of the instru-
mentation. We selected a vertical plane parallel to the wind direction
and that passed through the centerline of the models, and a horizontal
plane that was parallel to and 5 mm above the floor of the wind tunnel,
the lowest level that our PIV system could resolve, and investigated the
flow patterns in these two planes as functions of the model's shape ratio
and the wind velocity. To measure airflow fields in the vertical plane,
we projected a light sheet from the ceiling of the wind tunnel
(Fig. 2A), and positioned the CCD camera of the PIV system 0.25 m
from the light sheet, resulting in a target measurement area 104.4 mm
long by 104.4 mm tall (producing a 2048 × 2048 pixel image with a
magnification coefficient of 0.051). To measure airflow fields in the hor-
izontal plane, we projected the light sheet from the side of the wind
tunnel (Fig. 2B), and positioned the CCD camera with a wide-angle
lens 0.50 m above the light sheet, resulting in a target measurement Fig. 6. Variation of the deflection angle for the horizontal reverse cells (θ, the angle be-
area 161.8 mm long by 161.8 mm wide (producing a 2048 × 2048 tween the x-axis and a line connecting the flow separation and reconnection points) as
pixel image with a magnification coefficient of 0.079). The image acqui- a function of the wind incidence angle (α) and wind velocity.
sition rate was set at 10 frames per second. The estimated wind velocity
represented the average of the values recorded over a period of 40 s
(i.e., 400 frames). Each pair of two frames (separated by an interval of horizontal and vertical planes. The displaced flows in the two planes in-
80 to 120 μs) yields a wind-velocity dataset. The final measurement re- evitably interfere with each other, forming layers with different flow
sults thus represent the average of 200 records, ensuring its statistical patterns (Hesp, 1981; Dong et al., 2008). Since the flow patterns were
significance. similar at different shape ratios and wind velocities (independent of
the Reynolds number), we have focused in this paper on the flow pat-
2.2. Approaching flow terns behind a typical obstacle (with λ = 0.8) as an example of the
flow separation and reattachment that occur in both horizontal and ver-
The secondary flows that develop in the presence of obstacles are tical planes in the remainder of our discussion.
formed by modification of the approaching flow. We measured the ve-
locity profiles of the approaching wind above the bare tunnel floor be- 3.1.1. Horizontal flow patterns
fore testing of the model obstacles, and calculated the turbulence To avoid the complexity created by changes in the obstacle geometry
intensity as a function of height (Fig. 4). The vertical and lateral velocity and orientation, many previous studies of the horizontal flow patterns
components of the approaching wind were negligible compared with around an obstacle have focused on the flow dynamics around typical
the longitudinal (horizontal) velocity component. The velocity profiles simple, symmetrical solid obstacles such as cylinders and spheres. Most
in the turbulent boundary layer of the approaching flow were success- of the classical work was thus concerned with idealized two-
fully fitted using a logarithmic expression (r2 > 0.99, P b 0.05): dimensional horizontal flows, and the researchers calculated wake
widths, points of flow separation, and velocity profiles for these obstacles
uðzÞ u z (e.g., Hesp, 1981; White, 2004). This research found that the horizontal
¼ ln
U k z0 flow patterns around cylinders and spheres were functions of the obsta-
cle's Reynolds number (White, 2004). However, for a Reynolds number
where u(z) is the mean horizontal wind velocity at height z, U is the greater than 6.96 ×104, as in the present study, the horizontal flow pat-
free-stream wind velocity, z0 is the aerodynamic roughness length, u* tern should be independent of the Reynolds number, and horizontal flow
is the friction velocity, and k is the von Karman constant. The friction ve- separation results in the formation of two opposing vortices in the lee of
locities corresponding to the three free-stream wind velocities (6, 8 and the obstacle (White, 2004). For three-dimensional solid obstacles, the
10 m s− 1) were 0.26, 0.33 and 0.37 m s − 1, respectively. The aerody-
namic roughness lengths corresponding to these velocities were
1.2 × 10− 5, 0.8 × 10− 5 and 0.4 × 10 − 5 m, and decreased with increasing
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
free-stream wind velocity. The turbulence intensity (defined as u′ 2 =U,
u′ is the fluctuation velocity of the streamwise velocity components)
generally decreased with increasing height, ranging from 0.08 to 0.14
close to the ground surface.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Flow separation and reattachment

Unlike the airflow produced behind porous obstacles (e.g., fences

and shrubs), the airflow fields behind solid obstacles such as those in
the present study are simplified by the absence of a bleed flow that
passes through gaps in a porous obstacle. As is the case for two-
dimensional solid obstacles (i.e., obstacles that are thin perpendicular
to the wind direction) no bleed flow exists, so flow patterns behind
the obstacles were dominated by simultaneous displaced flows in the
Fig. 7. Illustration of the parameters used to characterize the horizontal reverse cells
that formed behind an obstacle (λ = 0.8, α = 90°, U = 8 m s− 1). S and C are the flow di-
vergence and convergence points, respectively; lc and w are the flow convergence po-
sition and width of the horizontal reverse cell, respectively. All values are expressed as
multiples of the width (W) of the obstacle.
 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270
flow pattern depends on both the width of the obstacle and its orienta-
tion with respect to the wind (Howard, 1985; Cooke et al., 1993).
Fig. 5 shows the typical horizontal streamline patterns around the
obstacle models (λ = 0.8) for the different flow incidence angles at a
free-stream wind velocity of 8 m s − 1. The flow patterns behind the ob-
stacles can be divided into two parts based on a somewhat ill-defined
discontinuity surface according to Bagnold's (1941) method; this sur-
face represents the boundary between the external (outer) flow region
that mostly passes by the obstacle without significant modification, and
the internal flow region behind the obstacle in which a reverse flow de-
velops. For all incidence angles, the lee airflow separated just behind the
downwind flank of the obstacle and recovered at some distance (typi-
cally around 2W) downwind of the obstacle. Immediately downwind
of the point of flow separation, a reverse cell forms in the wind shadow
of the obstacle and fills this space with vortices of reversed airflow. The
airflow is characterized by two opposing vortices when the incidence
angle is 60° or greater. In contrast with permeable obstacles, the two
vortices were asymmetrical at all incidence angles except 90° (perpen-
dicular to the wind), although the values at the angles of 80° and 85°
were nearly symmetrical. The pattern of flow separation and reversal
behind porous obstacles is different because of bleed flows that push
the reverse cells so that they form farther behind the obstacle. The de-
flection angle θ (the angle between the x-axis and the line that connects
the flow divergence point S with the flow convergence point C) for the
reverse cells behind the obstacles decreased with decreasing incidence
angle until one of the reverse vortices disappears, at an incidence angle
less than 65° (Fig. 6). As the incidence angle decreases, crosswinds
move the reverse cell laterally and downwind (Fig. 5). This suggests
that the incidence angle does not determine the existence of a flow sep-
aration and a flow reversal behind obstacles with a constant shape ratio,
although it may influence the characteristics of the separation cell. The
positions of the centers of the two opposing vortices are affected by the
incidence angle; the distance between the two points increases to a
value greater than the width of the obstacle, ranging from 1.05W to
1.23W, as the incidence angle decreases, but does not appear to differ
between wind velocities.
Fig. 8. Variations in the parameters of the horizontal reverse cells as a function of the incidence angle and wind velocity (λ = 0.8).
263
The results of our tests indicated that although the dimensions of
the flow patterns were affected by the free-stream wind velocity, the
pattern itself remained similar for the range of wind velocities (6 to
10 m s − 1) and Reynolds numbers (5.14 × 10 4 to 8.57 × 10 4) that we
investigated. The flow structures illustrated in Fig. 5 thus appear to
be generally representative of the range of free-stream wind veloci-
ties and modeled obstacles that we examined. The shape of the re-
verse cells was roughly elliptical, and the flow began to recover
some distance downwind from the separation cell.
We chose four parameters to characterize the separation cell: the
flow convergence position (lc), width (w), area (sH), and aspect ratio
(w/lc) of the horizontal reverse cell (Fig. 7). The flow convergence posi-
tions are expressed as the distance of the convergence point from the
center of the downwind edge of the obstacle, and could be identified ac-
curately from the streamlines. This parameter characterizes the long
axis of the reverse cell. The width of the reverse cell can be roughly de-
fined by the position of the outermost boundaries of the two areas with
closed streamlines. This width thus characterizes the short axis of the
reverse cells. The area of the reverse cells is defined as the area enclosed
by the outermost boundaries of the flow lines that define the reverse
cells, and represents the magnitude of the development of a horizontal
flow reversal. The aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the width to the
length of the reverse cells, and thus characterizes the degree of horizon-
tal flatness (i.e., along the x-axis) of the reverse cell. The flow conver-
gence position and the width of the horizontal reverse cell are
expressed as multiples of the obstacle's width (W), whereas the area
of the horizontal reverse cell is converted into a dimensionless relative
area expressed as sH/Ab (where Ab = W × B = 50 mm× 20 mm, repre-
sents the horizontal basal area of the obstacle model).
Fig. 8 shows the variation in the four parameters as a function of the
incidence angle and the free-stream wind velocity behind obstacles
with shape ratio of 0.8. Because the flow convergence point tended to
move farther downwind as the incidence angle decreased, the width
of the reverse cell generally decreased with increasing incidence
angle, indicating that the reverse cell develops more strongly and be-
comes more symmetrical as the wind becomes more perpendicular to
264 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270

the obstacle, resulting in both narrowing and shortening of the reverse
cell. The area of the reverse cell increased as the incidence angle in-
creased, whereas the aspect ratio generally decreased, indicating that
the increasing separation of the flow at larger incidence angles flattens
the reverse cells and increases the sheltered area in the lee of the obsta-
cle, where sand can accumulate. The response of the four parameters of
the reverse cell to wind velocity does not show a clear trend.
Fig. 9 shows the horizontal isovelocity contours behind obstacles
with a shape ratio of 0.8 under a free-stream wind velocity of
8 m s− 1. For all incidence angles, a negative or zero wind velocity oc-
curs immediately behind the obstacle. As the incidence angle increases,
the isovelocity lines become denser, indicating a greater velocity reduc-
tion. A negative-velocity bubble (i.e., a vortex of reversed flow) caused
by flow separation formed at a distance starting from 0.5W to 1.5W

Fig. 9. Illustration of typical horizontal isovelocity contours behind model obstacles with different incidence angles (λ = 0.8, U = 8 m s− 1). All distance values are expressed as mul-
tiples of the width (W) of the obstacle.
 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270 265

downwind in the lee of the obstacles. The velocity in the bubble became
increasingly negative and the bubble moved closer to the obstacle as the
incidence angle increased. The area of the negative-velocity bubble de-
creased as the incidence angle decreased. Using the −0.5 m s− 1 isove-
locity line as an example, the center of the bubble enclosed by this line is
located at 1.2W to 1.3W downwind of the obstacle for an incidence
angle less than 60°, but is located at 0.6W to 0.7W downwind for an in-
cidence angle greater than or equal to 80°. The shape of the negative-
velocity bubble changed in complex ways, and the bubble seemed to
move farther from the x-axis as the incidence angle decreased, which
may lead to different forms of sediment deposition behind the obstacle.
As was the case for the shift in the position of the reverse cells, the shift
in position of the negative-velocity bubbles and the magnitude of the
velocity reduction reveal the effects of an oblique wind flow.
3.1.2. Vertical flow patterns
Previous research on two-dimensional vertical flow patterns, and es-
pecially on the vertical flow separation over transverse dunes and porous

Fig. 10. Illustration of the vertical streamline patterns around the model obstacles (λ = 0.8, U = 8 m s− 1). Units on the two axes of the graphs represent multiples of H, the height of
the obstacle. The dashed line indicates the change in position of the center of the vertical reverse cell.
266 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270
Fig. 11. Illustration of the parameters used to characterize the vertical reverse cell
(λ = 0.8, α = 90°, U = 8 m s− 1). R is the reattachment point; lR is the reattachment dis-
tance; h is the height of the vertical reverse cell. Units on the two axes of the graphs
represent multiples of H, the height of the obstacle.
fences, mainly focused on the dynamical effect of the stoss (windward)
slope on the airflow patterns in the lee of the obstacle and on the effect
of fence porosity on the shelter distance downwind of the barrier so as
to determine the optimal design of sand-protection fences (e.g., Walker
and Nickling, 2002; Dong et al., 2007a,b). Flows that separated above
dune ridges, cliff bodies, and porous fences generally reattached at some
distance in the obstacle's lee, which would lead to the deposition of wind-
blown sand upwind of the reattachment point. If the stoss slope of the ob-
stacle is greater than 50°, a vortex forms immediately upwind of the
obstacle, producing circulation patterns that create an “echo dune”
(Tsoar, 1983). The flow pattern in a vertical plane (here, the x–z plane)
therefore has strong significance for the formation of sand shadows.
Fig. 10 shows the typical vertical flow patterns behind obstacles
with a shape ratio of 0.8 under a free stream wind velocity of 8 m s− 1
at different incidence angles. For all incidence angles, flow separation
occurred at the downwind edge of the obstacle, leading to the develop-
ment of a reverse flow in the lee of the obstacle, immediately down-
wind of the separation point. The shape of the reverse cell was
roughly elliptical, and the flow began to recover at some distance
(2.5H to 3.0H) downwind from the separation cell. The position of the
Fig. 12. Variations in the parameters of the vertical reverse cells as a function of the incidence angle and wind velocity (λ = 0.8).
center of the vertical reverse cells shifts downwind, away from the ob-
stacle, with increasing incidence angle. We chose four parameters to
characterize the vertical reverse cell (Fig. 11): the reattachment dis-
tance (lR), height of the reverse cell (h), area of the cell (Sv), and the as-
pect ratio (h/lR). These parameters are defined as follows.
The reattachment distance is the horizontal distance between the
downwind edge of the obstacle and the reattachment point (point R
in Fig. 11), where the separated flow begins to reattach and move for-
ward along the surface. This parameter characterizes the long (hori-
zontal) axis of the separation cell. Theoretically, the downwind apex
of the reverse cell and the reattachment point should be located at
different positions because the former can occur above the surface
whereas the latter must be at the surface. However, the difference
in their positions appears to be sufficiently small that it can be
neglected, and in practice, both the downwind apex of the reverse
cell and the reattachment point can be characterized by the reattach-
ment distance (Walker, 1999; Dong et al., 2007a). We determined the
reattachment point by examining the horizontal velocity component
of the flow along the ground in the lee of the obstacle. This point
was located where the horizontal velocity changes sign, moving
from upwind to downwind. The height of the reverse cell in Fig. 11
can be roughly defined by the maximum height of the upper bound-
ary of the closed streamlines, which characterizes the short (vertical)
axis of the separation cell. The area of the reverse cell is defined as the
area enclosed by the outer boundary of the reversed-flow stream-
lines, and represents the extent of the development of the vertical
flow reversal. The aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the height of
the reverse cell to the reattachment distance. This parameter charac-
terizes the vertical flatness of the reverse cell. The reattachment dis-
tance and height of the vertical reverse cell are expressed as
multiples of the obstacle height (H), and the area of the vertical cell
is converted to a dimensionless relative area expressed as sV/Ab
(where Ab equals the base area of the obstacle model).
Fig. 12 shows the variations in these four parameters as a function of
the incidence angle and wind velocity for obstacles with a shape ratio of
 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270
0.8. All four parameters varied more with respect to the incidence angle
than with respect to the wind velocity. The reattachment distance in-
creased linearly from 2.5H to 3.5H with increasing incidence angle.
These reattachment distances are much shorter than those reported for
two-dimensional transverse dunes (Dong et al., 2007a) and porous
fences (Dong et al., 2007b) and slightly shorter than those reported for
three-dimensional model shrubs (Dong et al., 2008), but longer than
those reported for three-dimensional artificially-flexible plant clumps
(Hesp, 1981). Dong et al.'s (2007a, 2007b, 2008) wind-tunnel simulation
showed that the reattachment distance was a function of the stoss slope
for transverse dunes and a function of the porosity (density) of porous
fences and shrubs. It generally ranged from 4.8H to 10.8H for transverse
dunes as the stoss angle increased, and ranged from 8.4H to 16.0H for po-
rous fences as porosity decreased (for porosity less than 0.2), but varied
within a narrow range (from 3.7H to 4.4H) when the shrub density was
greater than 0.8. Hesp's (1981) wind-tunnel test showed a shorter reat-
tachment distance (approximately between 1.5H to 2.1H, estimated
from the three-dimensional flow pattern diagram (Fig. 2in his paper))
than our result, mainly because of the large size and the flexibility of
plant clumps that he used in the simulation caused the flow to be reat-
tached near to the plant. Furthermore, the flow visualizing techniques
in Hesp's research were not as accurately as the PIV system in the present
work, which also caused the flow pattern from those earlier methods to
be roughly estimated. This difference suggests both that the flow pat-
tern's complexity increases around porous obstacles as a result of bleed
flows and that the three-dimensionality of vegetated or solid obstacles
creates interference between the horizontal and vertical flow patterns
that shortens the reattachment distance. We did not find a significant
correlation between the reattachment distance and the position of the
horizontal flow convergence in our data (Fig. 13A), possibly because
these values were measured at different heights above the surface.
The height and area of the vertical reverse cell both increased as the
incidence angle increased (Fig. 12B, C), but the height increased more
slowly than the area. The aspect ratio decreased with increasing inci-
dence angle, but fell within a narrow range (from 0.5H to 0.68H) for
all incidence angles, suggesting that the incidence angle affects both
the height and the area of the reverse cell. The area of the horizontal re-
verse cell was roughly related to the area of the vertical reverse cell
(Fig. 13B), which means that the three-dimensional reverse cell behind
the obstacles expanded both in lateral and vertical directions as the in-
cidence angle increased. Our results also show that the shape ratio of
the solid obstacles influenced the parameters of both the horizontal
and the vertical reverse cells.
Fig. 14 shows the vertical isovelocity contours behind obstacles with
a shape ratio of 0.8 under a free-stream wind velocity of 8 m s − 1. The
streamlines became denser as the flow incidence angle increased. As
the airflow passed over the angular bodies, the compressed streamlines
spread out, leading to a reduction in the mean flow velocity and the
Fig. 13. Relationships between (A) the horizontal reattachment distance and the position of the horizontal flow convergence and (B) between the areas of the horizontal and ver-
tical reverse cells (λ = 0.8, U = 8 m s− 1).
267
formation of a negative-velocity bubble some distance (between
0 and 3.0H) downwind of the obstacle, which would lead to the deposi-
tion of eolian sediment. The bubble of negative velocities moved down-
wind and decreased in width as the incidence angle decreased and
expanded farther downwind as the incidence angle increased, similar
to the pattern for the vertical reverse cells shown in Fig. 10. The area
of the negative velocity bubble increased with increasing incidence
angle, reaching its maximum size at an incidence angle of 90°, when it
covered a distance of about 3.0H along the surface. Both the form and
the evolution of the vertical and horizontal isovelocity patterns with re-
spect to the incidence angle were comparable, which also suggests that
the development of flow velocity patterns in three dimensions are
related.
3.2. Effect of the shape ratio
Even though the flow patterns behind the obstacle were most
strongly affected by the flow incidence angle, the shape ratios also
influenced the flow separation. The aspect ratio of obstacles has
been shown to influence the intensity of erosion (Iversen et al.,
1990). For example, wakes in the lee of sharp, continuous scarps are
much longer than those in the lee of smooth, isolated obstacles
(Engel, 1981; Cooke et al., 1993).
Fig. 15 shows the variations in the mean parameters of the hori-
zontal reverse cells as a function of incidence angles for obstacles
with different shape ratios. All parameters changed with respect to
the incidence angle for all three shape ratios, confirming that the
flow patterns are similar for the three ratios. Except for the aspect
ratio, the values of the other three parameters increased as the
shape ratio decreased; that is, the thinner (streamwise direction)
the obstacle, the greater the acceleration of the flow, the stronger
the separation effect, and the greater the convergence distance down-
wind from the obstacle. Thus, the area with a horizontal reverse flow
is wider behind a thin obstacle than behind a thick obstacle, and the
flatness of the cell increases behind the thicker obstacle.
Fig. 16 shows the variations in the mean parameters of the vertical
reverse cells as a function of the incidence angle for obstacles with
different shape ratios. The four parameters of the vertical reverse
cells showed more complex patterns than with the horizontal cells,
but the overall trends with respect to the incidence angle were simi-
lar to those of the horizontal reverse cells. This again suggests that the
development of horizontal and vertical velocity patterns was related.
For example, the reattachment distance was largest for a shape ratio
of 0.8 at incidence angles less than 60°, but lowest for this shape
ratio at incidence angles greater than 65°. This may be because the
shape ratio has less effect than the oblique flows (around the obsta-
cle's flanks) on the flow separation when the incidence angle is less
than 65°, whereas the shape ratio has a greater effect on the flow
268 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270

Fig. 14. Illustration of typical vertical isovelocity contours behind the model obstacles with different incidence angles (λ = 0.8, U = 8 m s− 1). Units on the two axes of the graphs
represent multiples of H, the height of the obstacle.

separation when the airflow is more perpendicular to the obstacle, 4. Conclusions

especially for obstacles with a large shape ratio, for which the wide
top would interfere with flow separation and lead to flow reattach- We simulated the three-dimensional flow velocity field behind cu-
ment near the surface (White, 2004). boid obstacles with different shape ratios as a function of the flow
 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270 269

Fig. 15. Variations in the mean parameters of the horizontal reverse cells as a function of incidence angle and shape ratio.

incidence angle using scale models in a wind tunnel to provide a deeper
understanding of the aerodynamic factors that control the formation of
sand shadows behind the obstacles. Using PIV, we were able to obtain
detailed measurements of the airflow patterns behind the model obsta-
cles. This non-intrusive measurement technique provided rich data on
the flow patterns in both the horizontal and the vertical planes. Our
simulation tests appear to be approximately independent of the Reyn-
olds number. Because the flow patterns were similar for obstacles
with different shape ratios, the incidence angle had a stronger influence
on the flow patterns that developed around the obstacles. The wind ve-
locity also had a relatively small effect on the flow patterns. The airflow
separated both above and beside the obstacles, forming a negative-
velocity bubble (reversed flow) in the “wind shadow”. This bubble
would lead to the deposition of eolian sediments in the shadow zone.
The shadow disappeared at some distance downwind from the obstacle
that depended on the incidence angle, and the flow once again merged

Fig. 16. Variations in the mean parameters of the vertical reverse cells as a function of incidence angle and shape ratio.
270 W. Luo et al. / Geomorphology 139–140 (2012) 258–270
with the general flow of the wind, which reflects the overall evolution
of sand shadows.
An incidence angle of 60° or 65° appears to be the critical angle
below which horizontal reverse cells seem to fade away, and instead
of paired reverse cells, only a single small vortex develops. We chose
four parameters to characterize both the horizontal and vertical re-
verse cells, and found that all four affected the characteristics of
these cells, depending mainly on the incidence angle. The obstacle's
shape ratio also affected the characteristics of the reverse cell, espe-
cially the flow convergence and reattachment positions and the as-
pect ratios in both the horizontal and the vertical planes. The
reverse cells developed in both planes, and the areas of the two
cells were correlated, but not strongly.
As this was an exploratory study, we analyzed the airflow patterns
behind the model obstacles with an emphasis on their relationship to
the incidence angle and the shape ratio of the obstacle. We found that
the incidence angle was the most important factor that affected the
flow patterns behind the obstacles, but that the shape ratio was also
important. On this basis, the size and shape of the sand shadows
that evolve behind such obstacles should be related to the obstacle's
shape ratio and the wind's incidence angle. This hypothesis should
be confirmed by future tests using eolian sediments to determine
the shape and size of the sand shadows that form behind the obsta-
cles. This will provide stronger evidence of the geomorphologic sig-
nificance of our results for the formation and development of sand
shadows. However, the limited space available in wind tunnels, in-
cluding the one we used for the present study, usually restricts our
ability to simulate dune morphology. Additionally, flow patterns be-
hind an obstacle may be changed when a sand mound has formed
in its lee (as indicated in Fig. 1). The present study applies only to
the initial stage in that there is no sand mound in the lee of the obsta-
cle. Thus, field experiments to study the development of sand
shadows will be required to relate the airflow patterns observed in
the present study to dune morphology and evolution in the field. Fur-
thermore, this paper only discussed the responses of mean velocity
field behind obstacles to variations in the incident flow and its signif-
icance on the formation of sand shadows. There should be a causal re-
lationship between the sand shadow formation and other parameters
such as the turbulence structures, shear stress and pressure. Analysis
of different aspects of all these parameters in future research will pro-
vide a deeper understanding of the aerodynamics of sand shadow for-
mation and its evolvement process.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (40901003) and the West Light Foundation for Doctoral
Program of The Chinese Academy of Sciences (Y028701001). We
would like to acknowledge the two anonymous referees and the editor
Andrew Plater for their constructive comments and suggestions that
helped to improve the manuscript.
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