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agriculture

   
Article    
UrbanArticle 
Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions
 Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions 
towards Employment Opportunities, Income
Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions 
ds Employment Opportunities, Income 
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for
towards Employment Opportunities, Income 
ation, and Poverty Alleviation for 
Improved Livelihoods  
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for   
ved Livelihoods 
Improved Livelihoods 
Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *
ID ID

itta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com
Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
t of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
* Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27-11-559-2429
4, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
ndence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com  
Received: 16* April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 7 July 2018 
Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
6 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
Abstract: In Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
most urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban areas
n most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
in search of better socio-economic conditions and improved livelihoods is contributing to increased
earch  of  better  socio‐economic Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to 
unemployment levels, poverty and large scale urban deprivation. Given such poverty situations and
unemployment  levels,  poverty areas  and  large  scale of 
in  search  urban  deprivation. 
better  socio‐economic  Given  such  poverty 
conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to 
the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations in these areas are
and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty 
increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of this poverty trap
eas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income-generating purposes. In this
ty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers in the city of Jos
In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
has been investigated by means of a mixed-method research design. Thus, both quantitative and
 of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both 
purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
qualitative
ve  and  qualitative  data  data were
were  collected  for collected fororder 
analyses  in  analyses in order tothe 
to  understand  understand
various  the various dimensions of small
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both 
scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly
s of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  selected
quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in the city
in of Jos, Nigeria.
order  The results
to  understand  the  various 
have shown the spatial distribution of these farming
he results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  practices, as well as the demographic
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  attributes
of these
hic  attributes  of  these  farmers.
farmers.  Small-scale
Small‐scale  fish farming
fish  farming  is  a  is a viable
viable  source
source  of food, generating local employment
of  food, 
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
opportunities as well as much needed income
 local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  in an environment
demographic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  of urban deprivation.
farming  Some
is  a  viable  of the
source  of  food, 
rivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
income (above 20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming significantly alleviates poverty,
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of 
ly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
as it exceeds urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
the Nigerian national minimum wage of 18,000 (50.00 USD). Results also show that
ults also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
the lack ofsignificantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
reliable water supplies and high production costs are some of the most constraining
st  constraining  problems 
problemsthat that
militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency, 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
militate against operational effectiveness and efficiency, along with poor marketing
h poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
of  the  most 
of their produce and lackconstraining  problems 
of preservation that  militate 
facilities. The lackagainst  operational 
of access effectiveness 
to credit and  also
facilities was efficiency, 
lities  was  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  From  the 
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
mentioned as one of the problems besetting this activity. From the perceptions of the respondents
s  of  the  respondents  in  study,
in this this credit 
study, 
a numbera  number 
facilities  was of 
of negative negative 
also  environmental 
mentioned 
environmental as  one  of  impacts 
impacts the  problems 
associated withbesetting  this  fish
small scale activity.  From  the 
farming
 with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
perceptions  of  the  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environmental  impacts 
have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth potential of this kind of farming in Jos,
of  this  kind  of  farming  in  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is 
more integrated local development planning is recommended for addressing the infrastructural and
ded  for  addressing  the  infrastructural 
potential  and  resource 
of  this  kind needs  of  practicing 
of  farming  in  Jos, farmers  for 
more  integrated  local  development  planning  is 
resource needs of practicing farmers for achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.
long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  farmers  for 
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
Keywords: urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa; Jos in Nigeria; increased unemployment;
:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food 
food insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods
 small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food 
insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
 

ion  1. Introduction
1. Introduction 
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach
nited Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
9.6 billion. TheThe United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of
greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most 
most developing
countries  [1,2].  According  countries [1,2].
the  Department  According
of  Economic  to Social 
and  the Department
Affairs  in  of
the Economic and Social Affairs in the
to billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most 
Population developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department estimated
Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN)
Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  [3], it is thatand 
of  Economic  by the same
Social  year,in  the 
Affairs 
66% of the Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year, 
8, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW   
world’s population will be living in urban areas. In Africa and Asia, urbanisation trends
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110; doi:10.3390/agriculture8070110 www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 2 of 16

are growing more rapidly than in other regions, and they are forecasted to be 56% and 64% urban
by 2050, respectively [3]. It is expected that the countries of sub-Saharan Africa will contribute a larger
proportion to the population growth globally, since their urban population is increasing at a faster rate,
with an annual growth rate of 3.6% [3].
However, in many African countries, poverty and food insecurity severely affect the urban poor
compared to their rural counterparts. The urban poor depend mainly on the market, while rural
dwellers have an option to exploit natural resources for income generation and to provide food for
themselves [4,5]. In 2011, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) [6] stated that 960 million
people globally are malnourished, with most of them living in Asia and Africa [7]. Moreover,
FAO [8] and other sources [9,10] have indicated that about one-third of the sub-Saharan African
(SSA) population is malnourished, as they survive on less than 2 USD per day. Furthermore, poor
urban dwellers in SSA countries spend approximately 60% to 80% of their monthly salary on buying
food in the market, thus rendering them susceptible to food price instabilities [11–16]. Both FAO [8]
and Ravallion et al. [17] have indicated that about 33% of urban dwellers in African countries are
living in poverty. In fact, cities such as Kampala (Uganda) and Lilongwe (Malawi) have the highest
urban poverty levels in Africa, with 60% and 80% respectively of their populations classified as being
urban poor [18].
The Nigerian population is estimated to contribute 212 million people to the world’s urban
population between the years 2014 and 2050 [3]. In Nigeria, urban poverty and food insecurity are
fast becoming major socio-economic problems in urban areas [19], and this is afflicting mostly poor
urban dwellers, especially those with weak livelihood strategies [19,20]. Historically, food insecurity at
various scales has increased in Nigeria as agriculture was gradually neglected in favor of comparatively
more investments in the commercial oil sector [21]. It is therefore, not surprising that 79% of urban
households in Nigeria are without food security [22]. According to the Global Hunger Index (GHI),
Nigeria was ranked number 41 in 2000 amongst 119 countries in terms of the prevalence of malnutrition
and rising food prices [23]. The GHI is an indication of the commonness of food insecurity in
any country. It is also an indication of the extreme suffering to which millions of poor people are
subjected to [23]. The provision of adequate food supplies at a reasonable cost represents a great
challenge, especially in the light of ongoing decline in per capita food supply, while the proportion of
undernourished people living in urban areas is increasing. In Central Nigeria, where the city of Jos is
located, poverty levels have increased consistently, from 50.8% in 1985 to 67.0% in 2004 [12].
One way to address poverty levels and under-nutrition in some of the poor communities located
in developing regions involves small-scale fish farming as part of a diversified livelihood strategy.
As indicated by Kawarazuka and Béné [24], compared to other food sources, “fish offer advantages
as they may be more affordable, more available and consumed for preference in various regions of
the developing world”. Available evidence shows that most research associated with fish farming
in Nigeria has focused on private commercial fishing, as well as the role played by small-scale fish
farming, towards sustaining livelihoods in rural areas. For instance, James and Tunde [25] have
reported on the increase of peri-urban aquaculture in Nigeria, and have documented the national
experience, along with critical processes and technological innovations responsible for sustained
growth in this sector. Indeed, given increased national demand for fish in Nigeria and inadequate
supplies, the role of technological innovations necessary for increased fish production is widely
recognized [25–30]. When it comes to fishing communities, many Nigerian studies have concentrated
on their role and activities in predominantly rural areas with largely subsistence economies and
associated vulnerabilities [31–34]. The operations and activities of such fishing communities are not
similar to those involved in fish farming as conceptualized in this paper. Fishing at community level
simply means wild fishing from freshwater and marine ecosystems, without any systematic effort
towards increased production and personal incomes. For instance, Adelekan and Fregene [33] have
studied how the livelihoods of fishing communities living near coastal waters are susceptible and
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 3 of 16

impacted by flooding incidences, and the need for policy-driven interventions that can enhance their
current and future adaptation strategies against adverse environmental and erratic climatic factors.
On the other hand, there is limited literature on the socio-economic contribution of small-scale fish
farming and attendant fishing practices which are aquaculturally-based, thus aiming towards increased
productivity and profitability in some of the urban areas in Nigeria. Such activities are undertaken
by local farmers who are either operating alone on a non-formal basis, or formally, as members of
local agricultural cooperatives. More research in this study area is highly warranted, as it would
help to identify factors that are constraining increased farming productivity and personal incomes,
as well as the kinds of policy interventions that are required to stimulate such farming so that urban
poverty and food insecurity are reduced. In responding to this research gap, the role of small-scale fish
farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers in the city of Jos has been investigated in this paper.
Addressing this main aim was undertaken by means of formulating the following research objectives:
(1) to characterize the spatial distribution of fish farm sites in the city of Jos; (2) to explain farmer’s
perceptions on the role of urban fish farming on their own social and economic conditions; (3) to explain
existing fish farming practices and characteristics; (4) to summarize the employment patterns relevant
to fish farming; (5) to describe perceptions on the most important problems confronting fish farmers, as
well as attendant environmental impacts of this activity; and (6) in order to gauge the order of severity
and intensity of these problems, some measure of ranking was calculated based on analyses of the
feedback obtained from respondents. In giving a theoretical contextualization for urban fish farming
in Africa, a brief literature study is provided, and thereafter, a description of the study area, research
design, and methods is provided. Then, the results of the study are presented and discussed before
conclusions and recommendations are given.

2. Literature Review
This literature review starts with a broad overview of urban agriculture before examining several
aspects of fish production such as food security, income, and employment, with special reference to a
few African countries, including Nigeria. Although urban agriculture can serve as a viable livelihood
strategy to reduce food insecurity and poverty amongst urban residents [10,35–37], its socio-economic
importance has been recognized by both governments and non-governmental organizations over
the last few decades (International Development Research Centre (IDRC) [38]. Urban agriculture is
comprised of “mostly crop and livestock rearing on private, leased, or rented land in urban areas,
in backyards, on vacant public lands, and in semi-public areas” [39]. Such agriculture supplies food to
households during periods of shortage and uncertainty [40–42], and is an income-generating activity
amongst urban farmers, who, in selling their surplus products, are able to supplement their household
income [16,43]. Urban farming also serves as a source of nutritious food which can improve the health
status of city dwellers [44]. The socio-economic role that urban agriculture plays in urban settlements
should not be under-estimated. In Nairobi (Kenya), it is estimated that more than 650 hectares of land
is devoted to urban agricultural practices, and approximately 300,000 households depend on urban
agriculture for their income, food, and employment [44].

Fish Production: Employment Levels, Food Security, and Incomes


Recent studies by the World Bank [45,46] have showed that 25.4 million people are employed
in the fish farming sector in Africa. Relatively few (7.8 million people) are employed in the actual
fishing process, whereas the large majority (17.6 million) are employed in the processing, marketing,
distribution, and supply industries associated with fishing [46]. Most of those employed in the actual
fishing process (7.4 million of the 7.8 million) are small-scale fish farmers, while only 0.4 million are
large-scale farmers [46]. In Tanzania, 10,802 people are employed in the fish farming sector, while in
Egypt, the number is 586,123 [46]. The estimated number of farmers employed in the fish farming
sector in Uganda is about 1.2 million people [47]. In Benin-City, Nigeria, 214,202 people are employed
in fish farming [46].
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 4 of 16

The practice of fish farming in urban areas has played a vital role in contributing to food supply,
and the livelihood of urban dwellers [47,48]. According to the FAO [49], fish is known to be the best
source of animal protein, is rich in amino acids, and low in cholesterol. Moreover, fish farming is
a vital means for the supply of nutrients such as calcium, iron, iodine, and vitamins [50]. In fact,
fish products account for 20% of the protein consumed in Africa, 30% in Asia, and 10% in Latin America
and the Caribbean [51]. Fish farming is also regarded as an important source of food to more
than 400 million Africans, and contributes essential micronutrients, proteins, and minerals to their
meals [10,52–55]. Fish constitutes 40% of the animal protein consumed in Nigeria [56]. The Federal
Department of Fisheries (FDF) [56] has noted that Nigeria produced just over 800,000 metric tons of
fish. Yet 600,000 metric tons of fish must be imported annually to supply the large demand for protein
in this country [57]. These statistics show that fish products in Nigeria have not been sufficient to
satisfy domestic demand for animal protein, thus bearing testimony to the fact that fish production
has not been given the attention it deserves by the government [58].
Aquacultural fish production serves as a means of generating revenue from production and related
processing and marketing activities [50,59]. By 2002, developing nations earned more foreign exchange
from exports of fish products than sugar, rice, and coffee combined [60]. For instance, fish production
serves as a significant sector of Uganda’s economy. The exports of fish from Uganda increased from
1664 tons in 1990 to about 24,965 tons in 2008. This generated revenue of about 124.4 million US Dollars,
or 7.2% of Uganda’s total exports [60]. Fish production also occupies an important position in the
Nigerian agricultural sector; its contribution to the agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) was
approximately 1.3% in 2010 [61,62].

3. Study Area and Methodology


Jos, the capital city of Plateau State in Nigeria, has a population of 736,016 people [63], and
covers an area of 249.9 km2 . It lies at an altitude of around 1290 m above sea level [64]. The climate
is influenced by height above sea level and spatial position across the seasonal migration belt of
the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). Jos falls within the wet and dry climatic type classified by
Köppen [65] as a Tropical Rainy (AW) climate. Mean annual rainfall is 1260 mm, and peaks between
July and August; meanwhile, the mean annual temperature is about 22 ◦ C [66]. Jos owes its origin to
the introduction of tin mining and the convergence of railway lines that connect with several cities,
thus integrating this urban settlement with regional economic networks [67]. The urban area of Jos has
undergone a remarkable transformation as a result of the local tin mining industry, which flourished
for several decades. However, the decline and subsequent collapse of the tin industry in the 1960s led
to the widespread acceptance and practice of urban farming as an alternative source of livelihood [67].
Amongst the various types of urban farming in Jos designed to cope with the negative
socio-economic impacts from the collapsed tin mining industry and other economic problems,
this research has focused specifically on the small scale urban fish farmers in this area. The fish farming
species involved include African catfish such as Clarias gariepinus and C. nigrodigitatus, as well as the
clariid catfish, known as Heterobranchus bidorsalis, all of which thrive in freshwater habitats [68–70].
Almost 81% of small scale fish farmers in Jos are growing and rearing the Clarius gariepinus species
rather than other species such as Clarias nigro-digitatus and Heterobranchus bidorsalis produced by 19%
of farmers. The Third National Fadama project (a World-Bank assisted project) in Jos is comprised of a
total of 125 farmers, of which 40% were randomly selected to obtain a sample size of 50 respondents
for the current research.
A mixed method approach was used to address our research aims and related objectives.
Within this research design, quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed within
a single research study, thus providing deeper insights and new knowledge about the phenomena
being investigated [71]. In the research reported in this paper, questionnaires with both close-ended and
open-ended questions were used to collect both numerical or quantitative data, as well as qualitative
data from the selected fish farmers. The questionnaire-administered interviews were undertaken from
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 5 of 16

October 2015 to February 2016. These interviews were conducted only after prior informed consent
was obtained from the responding farmers.
Close-ended questions were mainly numerical and focused on the demographical attributes of
respondents, employment patterns, and incomes. Furthermore, other numerical data on the various
aspects of farming practices such as operational problems and environmental impacts were presented
in a Likert scale to assess trends or degrees of severity and intensity. All data collected in this manner
were then subsequently analyzed statistically to yield the percentage (%) of responses, thereby yielding
the research results. Furthermore, quantitative data obtained by means of the Global Positioning
System (GPS) was used to characterize the spatial distribution of fish farms in Jos. This quantitative
exercise produced a map showing the position of fish farms in relation to arterial routes in the study
area. On the other hand, qualitative data were collected from respondents by means of addressing
open-ended questions during semi-structured interviews. In such interviews, different narratives
from respondents were transcribed into the questionnaires to help understand the socio-economic
contributions and ramifications of fish farming towards livelihoods, as well as their perceptions of
problems besetting their operational successes. These qualitative data were then subjected to content
analyses whereby the main ideas, salient points, and meanings were identified and summarized as
part of the results in this paper.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Spatial Distribution of Fish Farms


As shown in Figure 1, fish farms are scattered across the study area located in Jos. However,
the location of at least 18 of these (50) farms is situated close to main roads, and this spatial pattern
may be related to the ease of transporting produce to nearby markets, thus affording farmers the
opportunity to sell their produce directly to buyers. This spatial pattern also imply that members
of the public passing along these routes can access these farms to buy fish without much hindrance.
Furthermore, some of these fish farms, besides proximity to road networks, are located nearer to
previous tin mining ponds, which are sometimes exploited for water supplies during the dry seasons.
Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fish farms along main roads.


Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fish farms along main roads.
4.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Fish Farmers
Most (62%) of the respondents in Jos were male (Table 1). This is in line with results obtained by
Ogunlade [72] in Osun State (Nigeria), where it was found that urban fish farming is predominantly
a male-dominated activity. Forty percent (40%) of the respondents were in the 41–50 years age
category, and 54% of them have acquired tertiary educational qualifications. This indicates that small-
scale fish farmers in Jos are literate and have received basic education (Table 1). Sixty percent (60%)
of the respondents had five years of fish farming experience, which may not be enough to gain the
necessary skill set required for increased production levels. According to Aphunu et al. [73],
experience played an important role in understanding fish farming in the Delta State (Nigeria). In an
Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions 
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for   
towards Employment Opportunities, Income 
Improved Livelihoods 
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for   
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  6 of 16
Improved Livelihoods 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
4.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Fish Farmers
Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
*  Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
Most (62%) of the respondents in Jos were male (Table 1). This is in line with results obtained by
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
Ogunlade [72] in Osun State (Nigeria), where it was found that urban fish farming is predominantly a
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
male-dominated activity. Forty percent (40%) of the respondents were in the 41–50 years age category,
Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to u
*  Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
and 54% of Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
them have acquired areas tertiary
in  search educational qualifications.conditions 
of  better  socio‐economic  This indicates that small-scale
and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributin
fish farmers in Jos are literateincreased  and haveunemployment 
received basiclevels, 
educationpoverty  and 
(Table 1).large 
Sixtyscale 
percenturban  deprivation. 
(60%) of the Given  such  pov
situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local popula
respondentsAbstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
had five years of fish farming experience, which may not be enough to gain the necessary
skill set required
areas for increased
in  search  in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way o
of  production
better  levels. According
socio‐economic  conditions  to and 
Aphunu et al. [73],
improved  experience
livelihoods  played
is  contributing  to 
an important increased 
role in understanding this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐genera
unemployment  levels, 
fish farmingpoverty  and 
in the large 
Delta scale 
State urban  deprivation. 
(Nigeria). In an interviewGiven  such 
with poverty 
one
on the 10 Januarypurposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban far
respondent situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
2016, the following points were made:
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, 
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
“If I had better knowledge quantitative 
of this fishand  qualitative 
farming businessdata  were 
two collected 
years for  analyses 
ago, I would
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  in  order 
not have lost to  understand  the  var
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city o
my firstpurposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
stock of 4000 fingerlings”.
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well a
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both   
From this statement,   it can be confirmed that collected 
personal experiences are very critical to successful
quantitative  and  demographic 
qualitative  data attributes 
were  of  these  farmers. 
for  analyses Small‐scale 
in  order  to fish  farming 
understand  is  a 
the  viable  source  of  f
various 
fish
Article  farming and for minimizing losses. Fifty-two percent of respondents were part-time
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environme
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  farmers.
All respondents in the currenturban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farm
study reported a monthly income of above 20,000 (55.60 USD), earned
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions 
directly from demographic  significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (5
fish farmingattributes 
(Table 1).of 
Such
these anfarmers. 
activity is not only affording
Small‐scale  these
fish  farming  is farmers
a  viable asource 
source of of food, 
towards Employment Opportunities, Income 
income, but also provides a USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are s
source of protein to urban residents who buy the
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  produce. Furthermore,
of  the  most  constraining  problems 
18,000that  militate 
USD)against 
the incomesurban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
were above the national minimum wage of (50.00 which was operational 
approved effectiveness 
by and  efficie
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for   
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of acce
the Nationalsignificantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
Salary, Wages Commission (NSWC) [74], thus confirming the income-generation potential
Improved Livelihoods 
of small-scale fish farming, ascredit  facilities 
mentioned was  also 
in other mentioned 
studies [75]. as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  From
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
perceptions 
of  the  most  constraining  of  the that 
problems  respondents  in  this 
militate  against  study,  a  number 
operational  of  negative 
effectiveness  environmental  imp
and  efficiency, 
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the gro
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
Table 1. The socio-economic characteristics of urban fish farmers in Jos.
Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
credit  facilities  was  potential  of  this  kind 
also  mentioned  of  farming 
as  one  in  Jos,  more 
of  the  problems  integrated 
besetting  local  From 
this  activity.  development 
the  plannin
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
perceptions  recommended  for 
of  the  respondents  in  Number
Variables addressing 
this  study,  the  infrastructural 
a  number  of Percentage
of Respondents and 
negative of resource  needs 
environmental 
Responses of  practicing 
impacts  farmer
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
Gender of respondents
*  Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
potential  Male
of  this  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  more  31 62%
integrated  local  development  planning  is 
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
Female Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  19 38%
recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  Africa; 
resource  Jos  in 
needs  of Nigeria; 
practicing increased 
farmers unemployment; 
for 
Age of farmers
insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoo
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
≤30 years 6 12%
areas  in  search  of  better   
31socio‐economic 
to 40 years conditions  and  improved 12livelihoods  is  contributing  to  24%
increased  unemployment  41 to 50 years
levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  20
deprivation.  Given 
Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  such  40% unemployment;  food 
poverty 
≥51 years 12
situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  24%
insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
Educational level of respondents
No formal
1. Introduction 
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
  education (and primary education) 7 14%
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
Secondary education 16 32%
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reac
purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
Tertiary education 27 54%
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of 
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both 
Experience of respondents
1. Introduction  developing  countries  [1,2]. 
≤ 5 years
quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in According  to  the  Department 
30 to  understand 
order  60%of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs  in
the  various 
6 to 10 years 15 30%
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same 
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
≥11 years 5 10%
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most 
Occupation of respondents
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agric
demographic  developing 
attributes  of  these 
time farmers. 
countries 
Full [1,2]. Small‐scale 
According  fish 
to farming 
24 is  a  viable 
the  Department  of source  of  food, 
Economic  and 
48% Social  Affairs  in  the 
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of 
Part time 26 52%
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year, 
urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
Income from fish farming activities ( )
20,000 (55.60 USD) and above 50
significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    100%
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
of 4.3.
the Fish
most Farming
constraining  problems 
Practices that  militate Characteristics
and Associated against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency, 
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
Sixty eight
credit  facilities  was percent of respondents
also  mentioned  as  one  of  practiced
the  problems  fishbesetting 
production on family-owned
this  activity.  From  the  land (Table 2).
perceptions 
However,of  the  respondents 
relatively in  this  study, 
few respondents a  number 
use either theirof 
ownnegative  environmental 
land (28%) or rented impacts 
land (4%). Apart from
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
these trends, 82% of respondents also practice fish farming at other locations. Most (68%) of the
potential  of  this  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is 
respondents work on their farms for about seven days per week (Table 2), and 48% of them are
recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  farmers  for 
occupied by this activity on a full time basis. These findings clearly demonstrate the commitment of
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
the respondents to small-scale fish farming, and how important is this activity to their livelihoods.
Keywords:  urbanization 
Those respondents in  Sub‐Saharan 
with Africa; 
more than 500 fishJos 
perin pond
Nigeria;  increased  68%
constituted unemployment;  food 
of the total, whereas those with
insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
 

1. Introduction 
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 7 of 16

301 to 400 fish amounted to 8%. Regarding the number of fish ponds on individual farms, the majority
(68%) of respondents had 6–10 ponds. Different types of ponds utilized by fish farmers are shown in
Figures 2–4. Most (70%) of the respondents practiced fish production in concrete ponds (built vertically
up from the ground with cement blocks), as shown in Figure 3. Furthermore, the average mass of fish
sold by 90% of the respondents was 2 kg or less per buyer (Table 2). Large masses of fish were seldom
(4–6%) sold to individual buyers.

Table 2. Fish farming practices and characteristics in Jos.

Variables Number of Respondents Percentage of Responses


Land tenure
Family-owned land 34 68%
Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOROwn PEERlandREVIEW 14 28% 8 of 17
Rented land 2 4%
NumberLocation
of daysof fish farms
attending to fish farms
Practiced
5 tofish farming
6 days at home
per week 169 32%18%
Practiced fish farming at other locations 41 82%
7 days per week 34 68%
Number of days attending to fish farms
Number 5 toof fish ponds
6 days per week on the farm 16 32%
1 toper
7 days 5 ponds
week 1434 28%68%
Number of fish 6 toponds
10 pondson the farm 34 68%
1 to≥11
5 ponds
ponds 214 4%28%
6 to 10 ponds 34 68%
Number of fish per pond
≥11 ponds 2 4%
Number of ≤300
fishfish
per pond 7 14%
≤301
300 tofish400 47 8%14%
401
301 toto 500
400 fish 54 10%8%
401 to 500fish
>500 fish 345 68%10%
>500 fish 34 68%
Type of pond
Type of pond
Concrete
Concrete pond
pond 3535 70%70%
Concrete
Concrete stone
stone pond
pond 1212 24%24%
Earthen
Earthen pond
pond 33 6%6%
Marketed
Marketed weight
weight of of
fish
fish
≤2≤2kgkg 4545 90%90%
2 to 3 kg 2 4%
2 to 3 kg 2 4%
4 to 5 kg 3 6%
4 to 5 kg 3 6%

Figure 2. Earthen ponds.


Figure 2. Earthen ponds.
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 8 of 16
Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

   
Figure3.3. Concrete
Figure Concrete pond.
pond.
Figure 3. Concrete pond.

ming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions 
yment Opportunities, Income 
d Poverty Alleviation for   
ihoods 
saac Tebogo Rampedi * 
vironmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
c.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 

ted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 

eas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
ocio‐economic  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to 
evels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty 
ce of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
ly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
ng small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  Figure 4. Concrete stone ponds.
Figure 4. Concrete stone ponds.
role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
Figure 4. Concrete stone ponds.
4.4. Employment Opportunities Generated through Fish Farming
nvestigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both 
4.4. Employment Opportunities Generated through Fish Farming
e  data  were  collected 
4.4. for  analyses 
ItIt was
Employment in  order 
found to  understand 
that most (75%) the 
of various 
the respondents employed 3–4 workers, while a smaller
was Opportunities
found that most Generated
(75%) of through Fish Farming
the respondents employed 3–4 workers, while a smaller
sh farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
proportion (25%) of them employed 1–2. While 43.8% of respondents hadfull-time
full-timeworkers,
workers,nearly
nearly
proportion
It56% found(25%)
wasemployed that of them
most employed
(75%) of the 1–2. While 43.8%
respondents of respondents
employed had
3–4Seventy-five
workers, while a smaller proportion
hown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
56% employed their work force on a part-time basis (Table 3). Seventy-five percent (75%) ofofthe
their work force on a part-time basis (Table 3). percent (75%) the
(25%) of them
these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  employed
farming  is 1–2. Whilesource 
a  viable  43.8% of of respondents
food,  had full-time workers, nearly 56% employed
their work force on a part-time basis (Table 3). Seventy-five percent (75%) of the respondents pay over
nt opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of 
the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
15,001 (41.67 USD) in salaries to their employees per month (Table 3). Even though these salaries
rty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
at the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
roblems  that  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency, 
of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  From  the 
dents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environmental  impacts 
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
*  purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
*  in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both 
Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in  order  to  understand  the  various 
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
Agriculture 2018,areas 
8, 110 in  search  of  better  socio‐economic  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  9 of 16 to 
areas 
increased  in  search 
demographic  of  better  socio‐economic 
attributes 
unemployment  of  these 
levels,  farmers. 
poverty  conditions 
and  Small‐scale  and  fish 
large  scale  improved 
urban farming livelihoods 
is  a  viable 
deprivation.  is  contributing 
Given  source  to 
of  food, 
such  poverty 
increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty 
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of 
situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
are lower than situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
the national approved minimum wage of 18,000 (50.00 USD) per month [74], in an
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
environment in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
of urban
2018, poverty,
8, x FOR this is better than nothing.
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
Agriculture PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
of  the  pay over
most Table ₦15,001
purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
respondents constraining (41.67problems 
3. Employment USD) in salaries to their fish
that through
generated militate  employees
against 
farming
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  per
in month
Jos. (Table
operational  3). Even and  efficiency, 
effectiveness 
though these salaries are lower than the national approved minimum
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both wage of
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in  order  to  understand  ₦18,000 (50.00 USD) the  various 
per month [74],
quantitative  in an
credit  facilities  environment
and  qualitative 
was  also  of urban
mentioned poverty,
data  were  collected this is
as  one  of better
for 
1–2the than
analyses 
Workers nothing.
problems  in  order  to 
25.0%
besetting  understand  the From 
this  activity.  various the 
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
Number of Employees per Respondent
perceptions  of  the  respondents  in  this  study,  3–4a workers
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
number  of  negative 
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  75.0% environmental  impacts 
Table 3. Employment generated through fish farming in Jos.
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
demographic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  Part-time fish  farming  is 56.2% a  viable  source  of  food, 
Type of employment 1–2 Workers 25.0%
demographic 
potential  attributes 
of  this  of  these 
kind  of per farmers. 
farming  Full-time
Small‐scale 
in  Jos,  more  integrated fish 
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of 
Number of Employees Respondent farming  is 43.8%
local  a  viable  source 
development  of  food, is 
planning 
3–4 workers
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  75.0%
recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  ≤ 15,000and  resource 
urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
(41.67 USD) needs  of  practicing  farmers  for 
25.0%
Salaries of employees per month Part-time 56.2%
urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  > 15,001 (41.67 USD)
significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
Type of employment 75.0%
Full-time 43.8%
significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
≤₦15,000 (41.67 USD) 25.0%
Keywords: 
the  most 
4.5. Farmers Perceptions urbanization 
Salaries of employees
onconstraining 
the Socio-Economic in  Sub‐Saharan 
per month
problems  Africa; 
that  militate 
Contributions Jos  in 
of against 
Urban Nigeria; 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
of  operational 
Fish Farming increased 
effectiveness unemployment;  food 
and  efficiency, 
>₦15,001 (41.67 USD) 75.0%
of insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
the  most  constraining  problems  that  militate  against  operational 
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  effectiveness  and  efficiency, 
The different
 
credit 
4.5. Farmers
perceptions
facilities on
Perceptions was 
regarding theContributions
also  mentioned 
the Socio-Economic
socio-economic
as  one  of of Urban
contributions
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
the  problems 
of urban fish farming
Fish Farmingbesetting  this  activity.  From  the 
towards thecredit  improvement
perceptions  facilities  of
of  was  social
the  respondents  and
also  mentioned  economic as  one  conditions
in socio-economic
this  study, of  the  in
problems 
a contributions
number  Jos are portrayed
besetting 
of of
negative  this  in FigureFrom 
activity. 
environmental  5. the 
impacts 
The different perceptions regarding the urban fish farming
All respondents strongly of 
perceptions  agreed
the  that fish farming
respondents  in  is serving
this  study,  asa  anumber 
source of
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  of income
negative to them, while most
environmental  impacts 
towards the improvement of social and economic conditions in Jos are portrayed in Figure 5. All
(98%) mentioned 1. Introduction 
respondents that thisthis 
of 
strongly activity
agreed thatisfish
kind  providing
of  farming isfood
farming  in  forasmore 
Jos, 
serving the urban
a source ofpopulation.
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
potential  integrated 
incomelocal  In addition,
development 
to them, while most 96% of
planning  is 
respondents expressed
potential 
(98%) recommended 
mentioned strong
of  this  views
kind 
for activity
that this that
of 
addressing  fish serves
farming  in  as a
Jos, 
the  infrastructural 
is providing good
more 
food for the urban source of
integrated 
and population.nutrition
local 
resource  needs 
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  for people.
development 
of  practicing 
In addition, Moreover,
planning 
96% of farmers  for  is 
recommended 
many ofrespondents
them (90%) strongly
expressed for  addressing 
agreed
strong thatthat
views the fish
urban infrastructural 
fish farming
serves
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  as a good and 
is resource 
contributing
source needs  of forpracticing 
positively
of nutrition
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  towards farmers 
people. local for 
economic Moreover, many ofJos
them (90%) strongly agreed that urban fish farming is contributing positively
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
growth in the metropolis.
developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs  in  the 
towards local economic
Keywords:  growth in the
urbanization  Jos metropolis. Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food 
in  Sub‐Saharan 
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year, 
Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food 
insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW   
insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 
  Perceptions of farmers regarding contribution of fish farming to socio-
  economic conditions in Jos
(Percent of responses - %)
1. Introduction  100 98 96 90
100 86
1. Introduction 
80 The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
60 The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most 
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most 
40
developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs  in  the 
10
20
developing  2
countries  [1,2].  According  4 Department 
to  the 
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  of  Economic 6 and  Social  Affairs  in  the 
0
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year, 
Source of Food provision
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW   Source of local economic Poverty
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 
income
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    nutrition development reduction
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 

Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly agree

Figure 5. Farmers’ perceptions concerning the contribution of urban fish farming in Jos towards
Figure 5. Farmers’
improving perceptions
economic concerning
and social conditions. the contribution of urban fish farming in Jos towards
improving economic and social conditions.
Finally, 86% of the respondents strongly asserted that fish production is helping to ameliorate
poverty levels amongst the urban poor (Figure 5). This assertion is supported by some pertinent
Finally, 86%
remarks of by
made theone
respondents strongly
of the respondents asserted
during that fish
an interview held production
on Novemberis20,helping
2015: to ameliorate
poverty levels amongst the urban poor (Figure 5). This assertion is supported by some pertinent
“Fish farming has really helped me and my family to survive the five months without
remarks made by Although
salary. one of the
therespondents
income is notduring
much, Ian interview
was held
able to solve myon 20 November
family’s 2015:
financial needs
from the profit I obtained”.
“Fish farming has really helped me and my family to survive the five months without salary.
AlthoughAnother positive is
the income testimony fromI was
not much, a respondent (3 December
able to solve 2015) that
my family’s lends credence
financial to thethe
needs from
importance of urban fish farming as a source of livelihood, especially during difficult economic times,
profit I obtained”.
is summarized below:
Another positive
“I have been testimony
working on from a respondent
this farm (3 December
for the past two 2015)
years and for four that lends
months credence
I had no to the
problems with my employer. I used the money I earned here to address my family needs.
importance of urban fish farming as a source of livelihood, especially during difficult economic times,
is summarized below:

“I have been working on this farm for the past two years and for four months I had no
problems with my employer. I used the money I earned here to address my family needs.
an Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions 
Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributio
towards Employment Opportunities, Income 
towards Employment Opportunities, Income 
ards Employment Opportunities, Income 
towards Employment Opportunities, Income 
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for 
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for 
   
eration, and Poverty Alleviation for 
Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for 
   
Improved Livelihoods 
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 Improved Livelihoods  10 of 16
roved Livelihoods  Improved Livelihoods 
Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
MyAgriculture
employer 2018,
even
8, x FOR
provided
PEER REVIEW
me with a dwelling unit, as you can see; and at least I am
11 of 17
n Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Joha
surviving most of my challenges here”.
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
My employer even provided P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
ment of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 
Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johan
me with a dwelling unit, as you can see; and at least I am
*  These
Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
x 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
findings
survivingsupport
most of my *  Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; wuyepsol@yahoo.com 
thechallenges
results that have been mentioned in other research [10,75,76], that fish
here”.
espondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
farming is aThese
vitalfindings
source support * 
of livelihood Correspondence: isaacr@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 
to many people in developing countries, as it provides
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
that have been mentioned in other research [10,75,76], that local
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
the results
employment, a source
fish farming of nutrition,
is a vital and an income
source of livelihood
d: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  to urban
to many people farmers. countries, as it provides local
in developing
Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 
Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban 
employment, a source of nutrition, Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from ru
and an income to urban farmers.
4.6.areas 
Perceptions of the
in  search  of Most
better Important
socio‐economic  Problems
areas 
ct: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  That Constrain
in conditions 
search  of  and 
better  Fish
improved  Farming
socio‐economic  livelihoods  conditions 
is  contributing 
Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rur and  improved 
to  livelihoods  is  con
4.6. Perceptions
increased 
n  search  of  better  socio‐economic  unemployment of the Most
conditions  and  Important
levels, 
improved 
areas Problems
poverty 
increased 
in  That
and 
livelihoods 
search  Constrain
unemployment 
large  scale 
of  is 
better  Fish
urban 
contributing Farming
levels, 
deprivation. 
socio‐economic  poverty 
to  and 
Given 
large 
conditions  such 
scale 
and  poverty 
urban  deprivation. 
improved  livelihoods Given  s
is  cont
In Figure 6, the most important problems that constrain fish farming based on feedback from
situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
ed  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban 
In Figure 6, the most important situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local 
increased 
deprivation. 
problemsunemployment 
that Given  such 
constrain levels, 
poverty 
fish poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  su
farming based on feedback from
respondents in Jos are indicated. Most of the respondents (98%) expressed the view that there is a
respondents in Jos are indicated. Most of the respondents (98%) expressed the view that there is a
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. On
ons and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations 
situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local p
serious serious
problem in terms
problem in terms of ofthetheavailability
availability ofofwater
water for for
fish fish production
production (Figure (Figure 6). This
6). This problem was problem
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and incom
e areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of 
in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One
waspurposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
ranked
ranked number
number11 in in terms
terms ofofitsits degree
degree of intensity
of intensity amongst amongst respondents.
respondents. Indeed, most Indeed,
streams
purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by ur mostandstreams
verty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating 
this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income
and ponds
ponds around
aroundthe thestudy
study area
area dry dry up,
up, notably
notably during
during thethe
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  January-April
January-April period, period,
which which
in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design
es. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers 
is the dry
purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urb is the dry
season. season. Inevitably,
Inevitably, as a
as a mitigation mitigation step, farmers
step, collected 
farmers augment
augment their
their ponds
ponds with tap
with water (chlorinated
tap water (chlorinated
quantitative  and  qualitative  data in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. 
were 
quantitative 
city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  and  for qualitative 
analyses  in 
data 
order were  to  collected 
understand  for the 
analyses 
various  in  order  to  understand
water) from regional water boards or suppliers. In the worst circumstances, water from the remaining
water) from regional water boards or suppliers. In the worst
ative  and  qualitative dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
data tin
were  collected  for  circumstances, water from
dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in th the remaining
mining ponds in theanalyses 
study area quantitative 
in 
isorder  to  and 
used. Similar understand 
qualitative 
production the  data 
various 
constraints were  collected 
associated withfor 
pooranalyses 
water in  order  to  understand 
tin Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
mining ponds in the study area is used. Similar production constraints associated with poor water
Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as
sions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos, 
supplies have been mentioned dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the
in the Niger State [75]. Another major (98%) hindrance militating
supplies have effective
demographic  been mentioned
attributes  ininNigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as 
of  these  the Niger
demographic 
farmers. 
a. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the 
against fish farming Jos is the highState
Small‐scale [75]. fish 
attributes 
production Another
of farming 
costs, these  major
which (98%)
farmers. 
is 
werea  viable  hindrance
Small‐scale 
ranked source 
number of  2militating
fish 
infood, 
farming  is  a  viable  sou
against
raphic  attributes  of  these effective
farmers.  fish farming
Small‐scale  in Josfarming 
spend
fish  on
demographic  production
is  a  about
viable  ₦42,235
isgenerating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an env
theaverage
high
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of 
terms of severity. Farmers attributes  costs,
source  which
of (117.32
these 
of  USD)
food,  were
farmers.  ranked
on feeds, ₦32,990
number
Small‐scale  (91.642 in
fish  terms is  a  viable  sour
farming 
of USD)
severity. on fingerlings,
Farmers spend andon ₦22,449
average (62.36
ting local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  about USD) on
42,235 medication
urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
(117.32 annually;
USD) onmeanwhile,
feeds,
generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an envi ₦8,716
urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this 
32,990 (24.21
(91.64 USD)
USD) is consumed by miscellaneous expenses. During the
on significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 interviews in this survey,
significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦
deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming 
fingerlings, and 22,449 (62.36 urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this f
USD) on medication annually; meanwhile, 8,716 (24.21 USD) is one of the
respondents had this to say on the January 8, 2016:
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production co
cantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 
consumed by miscellaneous expenses. significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦1
During the interviews in this survey, one of the respondents
hadof this
the to
most  constraining 
“Animal fish8 feeds problems 
alone take of that 
the  to
40%
Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some 
say on the January 2016: militate 
most 
60%constraining 
of against 
the total operational 
costproblems  effectiveness 
of production. that  militate 
I realizedand 
USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production cosagainst 
(that)efficiency, 
operational  effectiveness  an
frommilitate 
the last stock
against I sold”.
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to 
most  constraining  problems  that  along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack
operational 
of  the  most effectiveness 
constraining  and problems 
efficiency, that  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and
credit  facilities  was  also  mentioned  credit as facilities 
with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to one  of  the  was  problems 
also  mentioned 
besetting  as this 
one activity. 
of  the  problems 
along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack  From  the besetting  this  activity
perceptions 
facilities  was  also  mentioned  as  of 
one  the  respondents 
of Perceptions
the  problems  of the in 
perceptions 
credit this 
besetting 
most study, 
facilities 
important of problems
this  a 
the 
was  number 
respondents 
activity. 
also 
faced of  negative 
mentioned 
From 
by urban in 
the  fishthis 
as  environmental 
study, 
one 
farmers of 
in Jos a  number 
the  impacts 
problems  of besetting 
negative this 
environmen
activity
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth 
tions  of  the  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and
perceptions 
negative  of 
(Percentenvironmental 
ofthe  respondents 
responses - %)impacts  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environment
potential  of  this  No problem
kind  of  Minor farming  problem
potential 
in  Jos, 
ted with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  Neutral
of more  Moderate
this  kind 
integrated of problem
farming  Serious
local  development 
in  Jos,  problem
more planning 
associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and  integrated  is  local  development 
98 98
al  of  this  kind  of  recommended 
farming 
100 in  Jos,  for more 
addressing  the 
integrated  recommended 
infrastructural 
potential 
local  90 for 
development 
of  this  and 
addressing 
kind 
90 resource 
planning 
of  needs 
the 
farming  is infrastructural 
of 
in  practicing 
Jos,  more  and 
farmers 
resource 
integrated  for  needs 
local  of  practicing p
development 
achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
mended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 
recommended 
needs  of  practicing 
for  addressing  farmers  the 
76 for  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  f
80 74
ng long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  70
Keywords: 
60
urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan 
Keywords:  Africa; 
urbanization 
Jos  in  Nigeria; 
in  Sub‐Saharan 
increased  Africa; 
unemployment; 
Jos  in  Nigeria; 
food  increased  unemplo
ords:  urbanization  in insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved li
Keywords: 
increased  urbanization 
unemployment;  in  Sub‐Saharan 
food  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemploy
   insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved liv
rity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods 
40
  16 16
20
20 10
6 8 8
2 2 2 4 4
1. Introduction 
0
1. Introduction 
duction  Water Production 1. Introduction 
Marketing of Preservation Credit facilities Government Capacity
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world w
availability costs produce facilities policy building
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most 
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the c
e United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 
The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world w
Figure 6.[1,2]. 
developing  countries  Perceptions of the most
According  to important
developing  problems
the countries 
Department 
The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  faced
[1,2].  by urban fishand 
of According 
Economic  farmers
to  the  in Jos.Affairs  in 
Social 
Department  of the 
Economic  and  Social  A
billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cit
Figure 6. Perceptions of the most important problems faced by urban fish farmers in Jos.
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year, 
ing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department  of developing  Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by th
Economic  countries 
and  Social [1,2]. 
Affairs 
According 
in  the  to  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Af
In different studies [77,78], it has been confirmed that animal feed costs a lot of money. Also,
on Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year, 
Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the
almost all (90%) respondents expressed
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW  serious concerns around the lack
Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 
    of adequate preservation
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture  www.mdpi.com/jour
“Animal fish feeds alone take 40% to 60% of the total cost of production. I realized (that)
facilities
e 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    (ranked number 3). Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW 
This problem involves inadequate storage
www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture    of their produce, which www.mdpi.com/journ
from the lastaffects
inevitably stockthe
I sold”.
shelf-life of their stock. In trying to circumvent this challenge, most fish farmers
in the Jos study area use the traditional smoking method for preserving fish on their farms. As
In reported
differentbystudies
Rahaman [77,78], it in
et al. [79] has beenBengal
a West confirmed that animal
study, without properfeed costs a methods,
preservation lot of money.
high Also,
almost all (90%) respondents
perishability expressed
of stored fish becomesserious concerns
an important around the
constraining lack oftowards
problem adequate preservation
increased
facilitiesproductivity.
(ranked number
Apart from3).theThis
lack problem involves
of preservation inadequate
facilities, storage of
76% of respondents their produce,
experienced serious which
inevitablyproblems
affectsinthe
accessing credit
shelf-life offacilities from local
their stock. financial
In trying to banks (Figure this
circumvent 6). This problem was
challenge, most ranked
fish farmers
in the Jos study area use the traditional smoking method for preserving fish on their farms. As reported
by Rahaman et al. [79] in a West Bengal study, without proper preservation methods, high perishability
of stored fish becomes an important constraining problem towards increased productivity. Apart from
the lack of preservation facilities, 76% of respondents experienced serious problems in accessing credit
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 11 of 16

facilities from local financial banks (Figure 6). This problem was ranked number 3 in terms of severity.
In the absence of the required loans, small scale fish farmers are not able to cater for their various
business needs for optimal production and even expansion possibilities. Similarly, small-scale fish
farmersAgriculture
in West2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Bengal encountered the same difficulties in obtaining funds from government 12 of 17
and
financialnumber
institutions for the purpose of expanding their farming businesses [79].
3 in terms of severity. In the absence of the required loans, small scale fish farmers are not
Furthermore, most
able to cater for (74%)
their variousof business
the fishneeds
farmers in Jos who
for optimal were included
production in this study
and even expansion lamented the
possibilities.
lack of supportive government
Similarly, small-scale policies
fish farmers in for
Westenabling fish farming
Bengal encountered theinsame
the region, let in
difficulties alone subsidizing
obtaining
funds from government and financial institutions for the purpose
their production costs. However, the severity of this problem was less intense, as it was ranked of expanding their farming
numberbusinesses
4 based [79].
on the analyses of feedback from respondents. This situation is similar to the
Furthermore, most (74%) of the fish farmers in Jos who were included in this study lamented
findings expressed by Mwangi as well as Shitote et al. [80,81], who stated that there are no supportive
the lack of supportive government policies for enabling fish farming in the region, let alone
government policies
subsidizing theirfor sustaining
production fish
costs. farmingthe
However, inseverity
Kenya.ofThe this lack of capacity
problem building
was less intense, and
as it wastraining
opportunities for small
ranked number scale
4 based on fish production
the analyses was from
of feedback regarded as a very
respondents. serious isproblem
This situation similar to bythe 70% of
findings
respondents expressed
in Jos (Figure by6).Mwangi as well asthat
This implies Shitote et al.
these [80,81], who
farmers stated
are not that there are
adequately no supportive
informed and enabled
vis-a-visgovernment
the more policies
recent,for sustaining
effective, fishefficient
and farming in Kenya. The
modern lack of capacity
methods building fish
for successful and training
farming, thus
opportunities for small scale fish production was regarded as a very serious problem by 70% of
disadvantaging them from reaching increased productivity levels. Nonetheless, this problem was the
respondents in Jos (Figure 6). This implies that these farmers are not adequately informed and
least severe, as it occupied the fifth rank in terms of the order of importance. Previous research findings
enabled vis-a-vis the more recent, effective, and efficient modern methods for successful fish farming,
in Kenya and Tanzania [82–84]
thus disadvantaging them also
from indicated that inadequate
reaching increased productivity training
levels.programs,
Nonetheless, ineffective
this problem extension
services,was
andtheinefficiency
least severe,inasdisseminating
it occupied the technological
fifth rank in terms knowledge
of the orderto fish farmers are
of importance. retarding the
Previous
research
development offindings in Kenya
fish-related and Tanzania
industries [82–84]
in these also indicated
developing that inadequate training programs,
nations.
ineffective extension services, and inefficiency in disseminating technological knowledge to fish
farmers
4.7. Farmers are retarding
Perceptions theEnvironmental
of the development of Impacts
fish-related industries
of Fish in these developing nations.
Production
The4.7.
results
Farmersbased on farmer’s
Perceptions perceptions
of the Environmental aboutofthe
Impacts Fishenvironmental
Production impacts of fish production are
summarizedThe in Figure 7. According
results based on farmer’sto perceptions
the perceptions andenvironmental
about the viewpoints of all respondents
impacts in this study,
of fish production
fish production processes
are summarized exert7.aAccording
in Figure negative to impact on receiving
the perceptions water resources.
and viewpoints Ninety percent
of all respondents in this (90%)
study, fish
of respondents production
blamed processes
their exert a practices
fish farming negative impact on receiving
for local water resources.
environmental Ninety
pollution, aspercent
waste waters
(90%) of respondents blamed their fish farming practices
are released into the environment without any mitigating controls. for local environmental pollution, as waste
waters are released into the environment without any mitigating controls.

Figure 7. Respondents’ perceptions on the most important environmental impacts of urban fish
Figure 7. Respondents’
production in Jos. perceptions on the most important environmental impacts of urban fish
production in Jos.
Other negative environmental impacts of fish farming entailed pollution of groundwater (86%),
soil (84%), and a decline in the aesthetic quality or natural beauty (68%) of the surrounding
Other negativeInenvironmental
environment. many countries, impacts of fish
fish farming farming
has been entailed
associated with pollution of environmental
such negative groundwater (86%),
soil (84%), and a decline in the aesthetic quality or natural beauty (68%) of the surrounding environment.
impacts and even undesirable nutrient enrichment, which may lead to accelerated eutrophication of
In manyreceiving
countries, fish
water farming
bodies [85]. has been associated with such negative environmental impacts and
Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 12 of 16

even undesirable nutrient enrichment, which may lead to accelerated eutrophication of receiving water
bodies [85].

5. Conclusions and Recommendations


The main research aim of this paper was to examine the role of small-scale fish farming as a
livelihood strategy amongst urban farmers in the city of Jos in Nigeria. Like other towns and cities
in sub-Saharan Africa, Jos is experiencing accelerated migration of people from rural areas, growing
unemployment levels, and, because of high poverty levels and lack of personal incomes, residents are
particularly vulnerable to urban deprivation, including food insecurity. However, urban agriculture
can make a positive contribution towards improving livelihood sources, thereby reducing the intensity
of these vulnerabilities. Apart from characterizing the demographic profile of selected urban fish
farmers in Jos, the results of this study have confirmed that small scale fish farming is an important
livelihood strategy towards poverty alleviation and increased food security. Given the high number 7
of working days set aside by respondents (68%) for their farming activities, and the number 6–8 of
fish ponds per individual farmer (68%), it is clear that this type of farming is playing an important
role in improving local social and economic conditions and well-being amongst participants of the
Third National Fadama project. These farming practices are providing much needed formal and part
time employment opportunities, alternative sources of income, and food supply, thus contributing
positively towards poverty alleviation.
Nevertheless, to transform the current small scale fish farming practices into a path of sustainable
productivity and positive outcomes, there is an urgent need for government interventions that can
empower and enable participants with resources and skills. Many respondents in this study have
highlighted the high costs of production which are affecting their effectiveness and efficiency in a
negative manner. To help circumvent these problems, these farmers need to be enabled through
training interventions that emphasize business and financial planning skills, so that they can make
informed decisions. Also, the need for extension services to these farmers cannot be over emphasized.
Most crucially, given the lack of access to reliable supplies of clean or potable water, credit facilities,
as well as adequate storage facilities, governments and other stakeholders should prioritize the
improvement of local infrastructure, thus helping these farmers to avoid unnecessary food losses
in their production value chain. To be successful, these interventions must be integrated into the
local development planning to ensure that land is provided for small-scale fish farming, while also
taking measures to address the negative environmental impacts of such activities through proper
mitigation plans.

Author Contributions: S.Z.W. collected the primary data needed for this paper and has carried out the data
analyses as well as writing the entire paper. I.T.R. supervised the primary data collection process in Jos,
Plateau State of Nigeria, during site visits and field trips. He also supervised the data analyses and interpretation,
along with critiquing and writing this paper.
Funding: This research received funding from the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) agreement between
the Plateau State University (Bokkos) and the University of Johannesburg (South Africa).
Acknowledgments: This paper originates from the Ph.D. (Geography) research programme conducted by
Solomon Zitta Wuyep, under the supervision of Nico Kotze and co-supervision of both Isaac T. Rampedi at
the University of Johannesburg in South Africa and Ayodeji P. Ifegbesan at Olabisi Onabanjo University in
Nigeria. We would also like to express our sincere gratitude to all small scale fish farmers in and around the
Jos metropolis, Plateau State, in Nigeria for their prior informed consent and valuable time they gave to our
questionnaire-administered interviews. We are also thankful for the funding received from the Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) between the University of Jos (Nigeria) and the University of Johannesburg (South Africa).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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