Wind Induced Conductor Motion - EPRI

Updating the EPRI Transmission Line Reference
Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion

(“The Orange Book”)
2005 Progress Report
1010223
Effective December 6, 2006, this report has been made publicly available in accordance
with Section 734.3(b)(3) and published in accordance with Section 734.7 of the U.S. Export
Administration Regulations. As a result of this publication, this report is subject to only
copyright protection and does not require any license agreement from EPRI. This notice
supersedes the export control restrictions and any proprietary licensed material notices
embedded in the document prior to publication.
Updating the EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book:
Wind-Induced Conductor Motion
2005 Progress Report
1010223
Technical Update, October 2005
EPRI Project Manager
John Chan
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395 ▪ PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 ▪ USA
800.313.3774 ▪ 650.855.2121 ▪ askepri@epri.com ▪ www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF
WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI).
NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY
PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH
RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM
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DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN
THIS DOCUMENT.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
EPRI
With assistance from Havard Engineering Inc., Charles Rawlins, and Jonas Weisel & Associates.
Please note: This Progress Report contains draft chapters of the EPRI book entitled Transmission Line
Reference Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion (“The Orange Book”). These draft chapters are
incomplete and preliminary in nature. Funders are invited to provide comment and feedback on these
chapters by responding to the Reader Survey on page vii of this report. The chapters will be revised
and completed in 2006, and a hardcover edition will be published at the end of 2006.
This is an EPRI Technical Update report. A Technical Update report is intended as an informal report of
continuing research, a meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.
NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 2005 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This document was prepared by
EPRI
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, CA 94304
Principal Investigator or Authors
J. Chan, EPRI
D. Havard, Havard Engineering, Inc.
C. Rawlins, Consultant
J. Weisel, Jonas Weisel & Associates
This document describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
Updating the EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion (“The
Orange Book”), 2005 Progress Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005, 1010223.
iii
ABSTRACT
The EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion was published
in 1979, and is still a well-used reference today. This book describes the mechanisms and control
systems for the different forms of vibration of conductors, including fatigue of conductors,
aeolian vibration, wake-induced oscillation, and galloping. Since its publication, there have been
considerable developments in both approach and technology in this field. There is also a concern
that the book is too academic and cannot easily be put to practical uses. To address these
concerns and to meet current needs, the book will be updated.
The objective of updating the book is to provide transmission and distribution line designers with
the best practical tools to design overhead lines effectively in order to minimize damages to the
lines from wind-induced conductor motion, and to provide overhead line maintenance staff tools
to analyze vibration problems on existing lines for improvements of their performance related to
such motion. Overall, the goal will be to provide the electric power industry with a useful and
practical reference guide that will complement the new edition of the “Red Book”—the EPRI AC
Transmission Line Reference Book: 200 kV and Above.
This report describes progress in 2005. Activities included development of a tender document,
solicitation of proposals, selection and awarding of contracts to author teams, a kick-off meeting
of lead authors to coordinate approaches to all chapters, and initial drafting of most chapters.
Drafts of Chapters 2 through 6 were developed in 2005, and are included in this progress report
in Appendices C through H. The drafts represent a substantial effort. In most cases, more than
60% of the drafting is complete. The draft chapters provide a clear indication of the direction and
breadth of the revision, and of the areas of new information to be included. The drafts are,
however, incomplete in some areas, and placeholder heading titles indicate where more
information is to come in the future. With these draft chapters, this report provides readers with a
preview of the revised edition of the Orange Book, which will be published in final form in
2006. Applets will be developed in 2008, if funding allows.
A Readers Survey is provided with this Progress Report on page vii in order to obtain feedback
and comment from funders on the draft chapters.
v
READER SURVEY
EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion

After you have read draft Chapters 2-6 of the revised Orange Book, contained in Appendices D-
H of this Progress Report, please answer the following questions to provide feedback to the
authors. (Please be as specific as possible—identify chapter and section.)
Please send responses to John Chan at jchan@epri.com.
1. Clarity of Sections. Identify sections that are not clear.

2. Detail in Sections. Do you need to see greater detail in any sections?
3. Number of Illustrations, Photos, and Tables. Do you wish to have more or fewer
illustrations, photos, or tables? Please identify any items you would like to see more or less
illustrated.
4. Clarity of Figures. Identify figures that not clear enough or are missing.
5. Topics Missing. Identify topics that are not currently in the drafts but that should be covered.
6. Topics Not Of Interest. Are there topics that are covered but that are not of interest to you?
If so, please identify.
7. Practical Examples. Are there practical examples that are missing? Please identify and be
specific.
8. Appropriateness of Approach. Does the approach in the individual chapters meet your
expectations as a user?
9. CD. The final version of the book will contain a CD. What would you like to see included in
the CD?
10. Applets. Are there applets that you would like to be included in a later edition? (Applets are
simple application programs for making calculations.)
11. Unpublished Fatigue Information. Are you aware of particular work not published on
special conductors or OPGW, regarding fatigue, that you would be willing to share with
EPRI?
vii
CONTENTS
1 BACKGROUND......................................................................................................................1-1
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1-1
Approach..............................................................................................................................1-1
Implementation Plan ............................................................................................................1-3
Overall Scope and Structure of the Revised Edition ............................................................1-6
2 ACTIVITIES IN 2005...............................................................................................................2-1
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................2-1
Development of the Tender and Awarding of Contracts ......................................................2-1
Authors Meetings .................................................................................................................2-1
Drafts of Chapters ................................................................................................................2-1
Solicitation of Utility Interest .................................................................................................2-1
3 PROGRESS AND FUTURE PLANS ......................................................................................3-1

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................3-1
Progress...............................................................................................................................3-1
Future Plans.........................................................................................................................3-1
A MINUTES OF MEETINGS, 2005 .......................................................................................... A-1
B TENDER DOCUMENTS ....................................................................................................... B-1
C CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. C-1
D CHAPTER 2 AEOLIAN VIBRATION .................................................................................... D-1
E CHAPTER 3 FATIGUE OF OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS ................................................... E-1
F CHAPTER 4 GALLOPING CONDUCTORS ..........................................................................F-1
G CHAPTER 5 BUNDLE CONDUCTOR MOTIONS................................................................ G-1
H CHAPTER 6 OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLES ............................................................. H-1
I CHAPTER 7 TRANSIENT MOTIONS .....................................................................................I-1
J GLOSSARY AND INDEX .......................................................................................................J-1
ix
1
BACKGROUND
Introduction
EPRI is sponsoring development of a new edition of the Transmission Line Reference Book:
Wind-Induced Conductor Motion, commonly known as the “Orange Book,” which was
originally published in 1979.
Development of a new edition is being undertaken for several reasons. First, while the book is
still a well-used reference for conductor vibrations, it is now almost a quarter of a century old.
Since its publication, there have been considerable developments in both approach and
technology in this field. Second, there is also a concern that the book is too academic and cannot
easily be put to practical uses.
To address these concerns, revision of the book will update existing information in the Orange
Book to reflect the state-of-the art knowledge in the field of wind-induced conductor motion.
The revision process will also add new information to the book to cover topics, interests, and
technology that have been developed since the book was last published. In addition, the revision
will broaden the scope of the book to acquire global utility experience in conductor motion.
As regards practicality, the audience for the book consists of transmission and distribution line
designers and staff responsible for maintenance of overhead lines, interpretation of line failures,
and correction of poor designs. The objective of this revision project is to provide them with the
best practical tool to design overhead lines effectively in order to minimize damages to the lines
from wind-induced conductor motion, and to analyze existing lines for improvements of their
performance related to such motion. The new edition will include examples to facilitate the
understanding of wind-induced conductor motion and the application of the knowledge to
practical uses. Usability of the volume will be improved with inclusion of an index, applets
(small computer calculation programs), and other suitable electronic media.
Overall, the goal will be to provide the electric power industry with a useful and practical
reference guide that will complement the new edition of the “Red Book”—the EPRI AC
Transmission Line Reference Book: 200 kV and Above.
This section describes the general approach that is being taken to revise the Orange Book and the
implementation plan.
Approach
The strategy for the revision of the Orange Book has been to assemble a team of world experts to
update different chapters of the book or to write new chapters to cover advancements in
technology in this field. The overall timeframe for the project will be approximately three years.
At the start, a preliminary review of the book was carried out to identify the scope of revisions
and to identify potential authors for the revisions. The list of potential authors was further
1-1
augmented through personal contacts, referrals, and national and international committees related
to the subject.
It was decided that work would be divided into chapters, and that the revision of the chapters
would be tendered. The identified experts on the prepared list would be invited to submit
proposals. The proposals submitted by the bidders would include recommendations for the
revisions to be carried out.
It was further decided that an expert would be selected through the tender process to be the lead
author of each chapter. This author will have overall responsibility for the update or creation of
that chapter. Forming a team among experts to complement one another’s skills would also be
acceptable. The selection of experts will support a balance between academics and practitioners.
To ensure the quality of the finished product, another expert in the same field would be selected
to review each chapter for technical accuracy. The draft would also be submitted for peer
reviews by representative end-users.
An expert would not be assigned to undertake the writing of more than one chapter. However,
he or she can be the reviewer of other chapters.
In addition, an Editorial Committee was formed to ensure the revised Orange Book will be
completed according to the project’s goals, to review the technical contents, and to ensure
consistency of style and format among different chapters. The Committee consists of four
individuals. The Project Manager is John Chan of EPRI. The Technical Assistant is David
Havard of Havard Engineering Inc., who has extensive experience in wind-induced conductor
motion and is well known in the field. The Technical Consultant is Charles Rawlins, who also
has a long background in the field and was one of the authors of the original edition. The
Editorial Assistant is Jonas Weisel, who has more than 25 years experience in technical writing
and editing, particularly in the electric utility industry.
1-2
Implementation Plan
Revision of the Orange Book is following the two-phase process outlined below (also see
Figures 1-1 and 1-2):
1. Development of Tenders and Awarding of Contracts

• Initial Scoping and Solicitation of Interest
• Preparation of Technical Update Report
• Finalizing of Scope and Authors
2. Production Process
• Review of Current Edition and Recommendations for Revision
• Writing and Review
• Editing and Publication
In 2005, as noted in Section 2, the tender was prepared and issued, and contracts were awarded
(Tasks 7 and 8 in Figure 1-1). Also, in 2005, an initial meeting of lead authors was held, and first
drafts of most chapters were written (Tasks 1 through 3 in Figure 1-2).
1-3
Figure 1-1. Development of tenders and awarding of contracts.
1-4
Figure 1-2. Production process for revision of EPRI’s Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-
Induced Conductor Motion.
1-5
Overall Scope and Structure of the New Edition
The revised edition of the Orange Book will include a re-ordering of the sequence of chapters
and two new chapters, as shown in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1 Revised Table of Contents
Current Edition Revised Edition

Chapter Title Chapter Title
No. No.
1 Introduction 1 Introduction
2 Fatigue of Overhead Conductors 2 Aeolian Vibration
3 Aeolian Vibration 3 Fatigue of Overhead Conductors
4 Galloping Conductors 4 Galloping Conductors
5 Wake-Induced Oscillation 5 Bundle Conductor Motions
6 Overhead Fiber Optic Cables
7 Transient Motions
Glossary
Index
The re-ordering of Chapters 2 and 3 in the revised edition is intended to explain more about the
phenomenon of vibration before discussing the effects of vibration. The new Chapter 6 will
provide information on fiber optic cables, which have come into use since the earlier edition. It
will include a review of the types of cable construction, attachment hardware, aerodynamic
problems that can occur, qualification test procedures, and field experience. The new Chapter 7
will cover transient motions, which include short circuit forces, bundle rolling, ice drop, gust
response, and wind action on members. While some of these topics were briefly mentioned in the
earlier edition, experience in the intervening years offers new insights on these phenomena.
It was also decided to include, where available, case study information on utility field
experience. In addition, while the focus of the book will be on overhead transmission lines,
discussion will also be included, when relevant, of distribution lines.
A glossary and index will also be included in the new edition. There was agreement that applets,
or small computer programs, will be incorporated with the new edition of the Orange Book for
the purposes of providing users with simple calculation tools needed to assess different aspects
of line vibration.
The subtitle of the book will be changed to: Transmission Line Reference Book: Vibration and
Dynamics of Overhead Conductors.
Applets will be developed in 2008, if funding allows.
1-6
2
ACTIVITIES IN 2005
Introduction
In 2005, the primary activities included development of a tender document, awarding of
contracts to author teams, a kick-off meeting of lead authors to coordinate approaches to all
chapters, and initial drafting of chapters.
The direction for these activities was provided in two meetings. In February, the Editorial
Committee met in Las Vegas, Nevada, to draft a tender document and discuss the process of
soliciting bids and awarding contracts. Following issuing of the tender in March and awarding of
the contracts in April, a meeting of the lead authors and the Editorial Committee was held in
May in Toronto, Canada. This meeting was intended to determine the scope of each chapter and
to coordinate writing.
Work on the first drafts of chapters was initiated following the May meeting, and the first drafts
are incorporated in this progress report as Appendices C through J. Other activities were carried
on during the year to solicit further interest in and funding for the project.
Section 2 describes activities conducted in 2005 to revise the Orange Book.
Development of Tender and Awarding of Contracts

It was decided that the authors to revise the Orange Book should be selected through a
competitive bidding process. Accordingly, EPRI issued a formal Request for Proposal (RFP) in
February 2005 for revision of Chapters 2 though 7 of the Orange Book. (Chapter 1 and the end
matter [Glossary and Index] will be prepared by the Editorial Committee.) The RFP, or tender
document, was sent to more than 30 individuals with expertise in this area and interest in
contributing to the book. (A copy of the tender document is included in this report as Appendix
B.)
The tender document requested that bidders submit proposals for revising one or more specific
chapters. (Bidders could bid on more than one chapter, but only one chapter would be awarded to
any bidder.) Bidders were asked to bid as individuals or as part of a team. Team members could
include a lead author and one more team members, who could serve as co-authors or resource
persons. A statement of qualifications was required for each member of the team. Bidders were
also required to comment on the suggested approach to each chapter as reflected in skeleton
outlines, which had been prepared by the Editorial Committee. That is, bidders were to indicate
what they would do in addition to, or differently from, the skeleton outline. Further, bidders were
required to provide a cost estimate for writing the chapter and attending meetings. The deadline
for proposals was March 28, 2005.
In response to its RFP, EPRI received a number of bids from qualified experts in the field.
However, in all but one case, these bids were significantly over the anticipated budget for the
2-1
work. It was possible that the tender document may have unintentionally misled bidders as to the
required size of writing teams and thus, the budget available for the project. As a result, in order
to develop the revised edition with the available funds, EPRI subsequently assigned fixed-price
budgets to the six chapters being revised. These budgets were weighted relative to the expected
level of effort, and were consistent with budgets for other EPRI books under revision.
Consideration was given to the expected length of each chapter and whether it is new material or
an update of existing material. Bidders were asked to notify EPRI by late April 2005 if they were
interested in proceeding with revision of the chapters under the fixed-price budgets. An
acceptable agreement was made with lead authors for every chapter. Successful candidates were
invited to a kick-off planning meeting in May 2005 (see below).
Assignments were subsequently made as follows:
Chapter Lead Author
Chapter 1, Introduction Editorial Committee
Chapter 2, Aeolian Vibration Giorgio Diana
Chapter 3, Fatigue of Overhead Conductors Louis Cloutier
Chapter 4, Galloping Jean-Louis Lilien
Chapter 5, Bundle Conductors Claude Hardy
Chapter 6, Overhead Fiber Optic Cables Jeff Wang
Chapter 7, Transient Motions Anand Goel
Glossary/Index Editorial Committee
Authors Meetings and Conference Calls
Kick-off Meeting
A kick-off planning meeting was held in Toronto, Canada, on May 24-25. The meeting brought
together lead authors for the chapters and the Editorial Committee. Attending were John Chan,
EPRI; Louis Cloutier, University of Sherbrooke; Anand Goel, Hydro One; Dave Havard, Havard
Engineering; Jean-Louis Lilien, University of Liege; Craig Pon, Kinectrics; Chuck Rawlins,
Consultant; Jeff Wang, ETS; and Jonas Weisel, Jonas Weisel & Associates. The purpose of the
meeting was to discuss how the group could work together to revise the Orange Book. The
meeting primarily consisted of presentations by each of the lead authors to explain their approach
to their respective chapter and areas where their approach might diverge from the approach
proposed by the Editorial Committee.
Presentations were made on Chapter 2 by Chuck Rawlins (for Giorgio Diana who was unable to
attend); Chapter 3 by Louis Cloutier; Chapter 4 by Jean-Louis Lilien; Chapter 6 by Jeff Wang;
and Chapter 7 by Anand Goel and Craig Pon. (Following the meeting, Claude Hardy agreed to
act as lead author for revision of Chapter 5.) It was agreed that first drafts of the chapters would
be completed by October 15, 2005, for inclusion in this progress report.
Charleston Meeting
A number of members of the Editorial Committee and the authors met in conjunction with the
Conductor Dynamics Conference in Charleston, South Carolina on September 22, 2005 to
review progress on the book. In discussion, it was decided to provide utility funders of the
Orange Book project with a survey form, where they could provide feedback on the revision
2-2
draft on issues such as whether the book is covering areas of interest to the users and where more
information is needed.
Conference Calls
Conference calls were held on August 8 and October 25, 2005 to review progress on the book.
Minutes are included in Appendix A of this Progress Report.
Drafts of Chapters
Drafts of Chapters 2 through 7 were developed in 2005 and are included in this progress report in
Appendices C through I. More information on the status of the drafts is provided in Section 3 of
this progress report. The drafts are intended to represent an initial start. They are incomplete in
some areas, and placeholder heading titles indicate where more information is to come in the
future. The drafts have not been reviewed by peer reviewers or the Editorial Committee. They
have also not been edited or formatted in the form in which they will be published. The chapters
are scheduled to be completed, reviewed, edited, and formatted in 2006.
Solicitation of Interest
A number of activities were undertaken in 2005 to solicit additional interest from utility funders
and from potential authors of the book:
• Magazine Article. An article entitled “Shake and Break: Diagnosing and Preventing
Damage Caused by Wind-Induced Conductor Motion” was written by John Chan and Jonas
Weisel for possible publication in a trade press magazine. The article describes the Orange
Book and its revision, as well as recent application of the book by two utilities (Bonneville
Power Administration and Arizona Public Service). The article was submitted to T&D World
Magazine on September 19, 2005.
• Presentations to Task Force. Presentations on the Orange Book were made to the EPRI
Overhead Transmission Inspection & Maintenance Task Force on April 6-8, 2005, in
Charlotte, North Carolina, by John Chan and on August 16-18, 2005, in Denver, Colorado,
by John Chan and Dave Havard. The presentations described the goals of the revision, the
approach, and the progress to date.
• CIGRE Meeting. On April 27, 2005, in Bilbao, Spain, Dave Havard made a presentation on
the Orange Book to a meeting of the CIGRE Working Group 11, Mechanical Behavior of
Conductors and Fittings.
2-3
3
PROGRESS AND FUTURE PLANS
Introduction
Significant progress was made in 2005—with lead authors and writing teams selected, and initial
drafts of six chapters written. A complete version of the revised book is planned to be made
available by the end of 2006.
Progress
Drafts of Chapters 2 through 6 were developed in 2005, and are included in this progress report
in Appendices C through H.
The drafts represent a substantial effort. In most cases, more than 60% of the drafting is
complete. The draft chapters provide a clear indication of the direction and breadth of the
revision, and of the areas of new information to be included.
The drafts are, however, incomplete in some areas, and placeholder heading titles indicate where
more information is to come in the future. In addition, the draft chapters have not been reviewed
by peer reviewers or the Editorial Committee, and have also not been edited or formatted in the
form in which they will be published.
As noted below, the chapters are scheduled to be completed, reviewed, edited, and formatted in
2006.
Future Plans
A meeting of the lead authors and the Editorial Committee will be held January 26-27, 2006, in
Albuquerque, New Mexico. The meeting will review the draft chapters, decide on work
remaining to be done, and establish a production schedule for the rest of the year.
Once the draft chapters are completed, they will proceed through steps 4 though 7 in the
production process as outlined in Figure 1-2 of this progress report. The chapters will be
reviewed by peer reviewers and the Editorial Committee, and will be copyedited and laid out.
Chapter 1, the Glossary, and the Index will be prepared by the Editorial Committee.
An electronic version of the revised edition will be available the end of 2006. A hard copy will
be published in 2007. Applets will be developed in 2008, if funding allows.
3-1
A
MINUTES OF MEETINGS, 2005
Meeting Minutes
Orange Book Editorial Committee

Third Meeting
February 3-4, 2005
Gold Coast Hotel and Casino
Las Vegas, Nevada
Attending: Guests:
John Chan, EPRI Mark Orth, Arizona Public Service
Dave Havard, Havard Engineering Anand Goel, Hydro One (Friday only)
Chuck Rawlins, Consultant Craig Pon, Kinectrics (Friday only)
Jonas Weisel, Jonas Weisel & Associates
Thursday, February 3, 2005
John opened the meeting and welcomed the members of the Editorial Committee to the
Committee’s third meeting. He noted that they had last met in August of 2004 in Toronto. He
said all the groundwork for development of the tender had been completed last year, and
summarized in the Technical Update report published in October 2004. The key achievement of
this meeting will be to write the tender document.
Due to limited funding of the project, it will not be possible to fund completion of the book in
2005. There are several ways to approach the writing. For example, the project could sponsor the
writing of just a few chapters this year. However, John said he believes that the better way to
proceed is to begin on all chapters this year, even though they will not be completed.
In keeping with the Committee’s pattern of holding alternate meetings in the West and in
Toronto, the next meeting will be in Toronto. That meeting could be the first meeting of the
authors who have been chosen to write the book. By the time of the next meeting, the authors
will have been selected and ready to begin writing. The meeting could be a session for lead
authors to present their plans for chapters and to obtain broad consensus for the book’s direction.
John sketched out a preliminary schedule. The tender could be issued by February 21. Bidders
would have four to five weeks to reply, so bids would be due by March 28. The Committee
would have two weeks to review bids. (The Committee would meet by conference call or
webcast.) Winning bids would be announced by mid-April or the end of April. The next meeting
could be held May 16-17 or May 24-25.
A-1
John referred to the meeting agenda (see attached).
1. Outstanding Items from Last Meeting. Jonas made a presentation on three editorial issues
raised in the previous meeting—obtaining a Word version of the first edition of the Orange
Book, developing a magazine article, and revision of the Authors’ Guide.
• Word Version. At the previous meeting, the possibility was raised of locating or creating
an electronic version of the first edition. The idea was that it might save authors of some
chapters the need to re-produce any material that was not necessary to change. It might
also be possible to locate some of the original photos. After some research, Jonas found
that the publisher of the first edition no longer exists and that EPRI does not have the
original files. EPRI does have a pdf file, but not a Word version of the first edition. The
cheapest way of generating an electronic version would be to have the book re-keyed. It
would cost $6 per page x 240 pages = $1,440. Dave estimated that about 50% of the book
was still valid and worthy of being re-keyed. John said it might be easiest, given the cost,
just to go ahead and have the whole book re-keyed. Dave asked if it might be possible to
use some of the photos from the first edition. Jonas said he could try scanning some of
the photos, which was done for the Red Book, and see what the quality is like.
• Magazine Article. Jonas noted that in the last meeting the Committee had discussed the
possibility of having an article about conductor vibration placed in a trade magazine such
as T&D Magazine. The article would describe a utility vibration problem (a case study),
and would be used to help generate interest in the Orange Book and possibly attract
additional funders.
The original concept for the article was to describe a case where a utility initially did not
know that they had a vibration problem. They were discovering broken strands and
replacing conductors, and only later associated it with vibration.
Following the Task Force meeting last fall, John and Dave suggested that Jonas start with
BPA. Jonas interviewed BPA’s Jerry Reding. The main area discussed was a large
program to replace two types of failing devices (spring-type spacer dampers and steel-
coil twin spacers) (about 100,000 units of each). Jonas pointed out that this is a different
concept than the one described above. John said that was OK since the BPA problem is
actually typical of many utilities.
Mark described a recent vibration problem at APS. On one of the utility’s lines, bolt
failures were occurring, causing outages. The line is in wide open terrain, without wind
breaks. A root cause analysis showed that the failures were a result of excessive cyclic
loading. Previous conductor field tests indicated the loading was about 10 pounds. But
lab tests indicated the bolts should handle at least 100 pounds. As a result, the research
focus shifted to insulators. Subsequent field tests showed that insulator loading was 50-
120 pounds. The utility is still investigating why the amplitudes are so great. But the
solution was to add dampers. Use of the dampers has stopped the occurrence of outages.
Mark said, “Without the Orange Book, we would not have known what to do.”
A-2
Jonas took a copy of Mark’s PowerPoint presentation and agreed to interview Mark by
telephone later in order to get more details and to develop an article.
Dave also suggested that Jonas contact Ed Busse of Consolidated Edison about a
galloping issue.
• Authors’ Guide. Jonas said he had revised the Authors’ Guide, based on Dave’s email of
11/30, primarily to revise the section on SI units to make it more specifically relevant to
the Orange Book.
2. Plan for 2005.

• Funding. John said the available funding for writing in 2005 would be $100K. John
suggested that the project aim to do all chapters at once. If the chapters are not complete
in two years, the project will be extended to a third year. The contracts issued this year
will be contingent on being extended to 2006. John said bids should give the total price
that would be spread over two years.
• Deliverables. Deliverables this year will include Vibration software 3.0, which will be
completely re-vamped. Chuck raised the issue of whether it will be compatible with
what’s in the Orange Book. John said that he would provide information on the algorithm
used in Vibration Software 3.0 to Chuck and Dave for their review and comment.
• The other deliverables this year will be drafts of the chapters. An EPRI draft report is due
October 30, 2005. The report will be a progress report on the project. It will include
actual drafts of the chapters. The deadline for authors will be October 12, 2005. The
chapters may be incomplete, and include chunks of the first edition.
• Schedule of Activities. John referred to the schedule noted earlier for writing, issuing,
and reviewing the tender and awarding the bids. Dave noted that there will be a Cigre
meeting in Bilbao, Spain on April 25-27.
3. Tender Document. John led the committee in a drafting of the tender document. John
suggested that the cover letter be very brief and just identify the attached documents.
Attached documents will include the authors guide, the skeleton outline (both overview and
detailed), and a list of technical references. The cover letter should also include directions to
the FTP site, where there would be a pdf copy of the first edition. Dave noted that the bidders
will have to receive a list of all the other potential bidders, so that interested parties could
form teams.
Dave asked that a definition of applets be included and that bidders understand that they
would not be required to develop applets themselves but would be asked to identify topics for
applets.
4. Chapter Drafts. John said that the tender should make clear that only Chapters 2-7 are open
for bids. Chapters 1 and 8 will be written by the Committee. Drafts of chapters will be
scheduled to be included in the EPRI report to be published in October 2005.
A-3
5. Legal Issues. Jonas presented a summary of a meeting held on January 25, 2005 with John
and Kevin Chu, one of EPRI’s attorneys. The meeting covered copyright and legal issues
raised in the August 2004 Editorial Committee meeting. Jonas gave the Committee a
transcript of the conversation. The conversation covered: use of copyrighted data in figures,
use of informal conference papers, discussion in the Orange Book of manufacturers’
products, and contractor agreements with the authors.
6. Conflicts of Interest. John discussed the need for the Committee members to sign EPRI
forms for conflict of interest.
Friday, February 4, 2005
John recapped what had been discussed the day before, and reviewed the proposed schedule for
development and issuance of the RFP. He said the group should aim to complete a draft of the
tender by the end of the day’s meeting.
John noted that only lead authors will need to attend the meeting in May in Toronto. He said that
it should also be clear the contracts will be held by the lead authors, and that lead authors will be
responsible for their teams. John said that, if not enough lead authors bid on the project, the
Committee will put together teams.
John said that limited funding is available for the project, and the tender should say that
“cofunding is a factor in selection of bidders.” Cofunding could be in the form of reduction in
hourly rate, funding from other organizations, or support from external sources.
The group worked throughout the morning and early afternoon to complete a first draft of the
tender. Jonas said he would take the draft and refine it and have it ready for review by the
Committee by February 11. He and John would meet on February 15 in Palo Alto to finalize the
tender and arrange for it to be released.
John will set up a meeting so that there can be coordination of the development of the software
and the Orange Book. It is important that the algorithm used in the software and that found in
the text are consistent.
The meeting was adjourned in mid-afternoon.
Prepared by: Jonas Weisel
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Orange Book Revision
Editorial Committee, Third Meeting
February 3-4, 2005
8:3000 to 4:30, Salon G
Gold Coast Hotel and Casino, Las Vegas, NV
AGENDA
1. Outstanding Items from Last Meeting

• Editorial: First edition conversion to Word, magazine article, revision of Authors Guide
• Technical: Number of chapters, Chapter Contents
2. Plan for 2005
• Funding
• Deliverables: Vibration Software 3.0, Chapters of Orange Book
• Schedule of Activities: Technical Update report due 10/30/05.
3. Tender Document
• Review draft
• Procedures for issuing, reviewing tenders
• Schedule for issuing, awarding, first meeting with writers
4. Chapter Drafts
• Strategy for writing in 2005: Number of chapters
5. Legal Issues
• Copyright issues
• Manufacturer issues
6. Conflicts of Interest
• Contracts for Editorial committee members
• Participation of Committee members in bidding
7. Future Tasks
8. Date and Location for Next Meeting
9. Finalize all documents for tender
10. Meeting adjourned at 4:30
A-5
Meeting Minutes
Orange Book Authors Meeting

May 24-25, 2005
Hydro One
Toronto, Canada
Attending:
John Chan, EPRI
Louis Cloutier, University of Sherbrooke
Anand Goel, Hydro One
Dave Havard, Havard Engineering
Jean-Louis Lilien, University of Liege
Craig Pon, Kinectrics
Chuck Rawlins, Consultant
Jeff Wang, ETS
Summary of Main Points

• Chapter Assignments. Chapters have been assigned as follows: 1 Editorial Committee, 2
Diana, 3 Cloutier, 4 Lilien, 5 Hardy if possible, 6 Wang and Pon, 7 Goel, 8 Editorial
Committee. (Note: Subsequent to the meeting, Claude Hardy agreed to take on Chapter 5.)
• Conference Call. A conference call will be held on August 8, 2005 at 8 am Pacific, 11 am
Eastern, and 5 pm Central European. The toll-free call-in number will be 1-888-632-4892.
The PIN number is 8265. Callers from Europe may need a special prefix. John will provide
that. If the call-in number changes, a notice will be sent out.
• Informal Get Together. Members of the group may meet informally in conjunction with the
Conductor Dynamics Conference in Charleston, South Carolina on the morning of September
22, 2005.
• Next Meeting. The next meeting will be held to coincide with the IEEE meeting in early
February 2006 in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Exact dates to be determined. (Subsequently
January 26 and 27, 2006 were chosen.)
• FTP Site. An FTP site will be set up for posting and downloading files.
• Word Files. Files of the first edition of the Orange Book in Microsoft Word will be
distributed to the lead authors and the editorial committee, for their use in reproducing
passages of the chapter that do not change.
• Deadline. The deadline for first drafts to be included in the progress report is October 15,
2005. These submissions may be incomplete drafts, but it is necessary for something to be
submitted for each chapter. This deadline cannot be extended due to contractual agreements
with funders.
• Contracting. John will develop contracts as soon as he can. Invoices should include the
contract number.
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Tuesday, May 24, 2005
Project Background: John Chan
John welcomed the attendees, and initiated introductions around the room. He said the purpose
of the meeting was to discuss how the group could work together to update the book. The key
part of the meeting will be presentations by each of the lead authors on their respective
chapters—to indicate their planned approach and any deviations from the outline (“skeleton”)
already developed. Lead authors have been identified for nearly all the chapters. For those
chapters presently without lead authors, the group will discuss the best way to proceed.
As regards the budgets, John said that EPRI funding is purely from its members. Funding for
revision of the Orange Book is restricted to those dollars specifically assigned to the book and is
very limited. He requested that authors bill half their budgets this year—by early December
2005. Otherwise the budget will be lost.
John reviewed the history of the project thus far. He had contacted Dave early on to discuss the
best approach to revision, and then met with Chuck and Jonas to form an Editorial Committee. In
the first year of the project, they reviewed the first edition and identified sections to be added,
removed, and revised. This constituted the skeleton outline for the book and the proposed
revision plan. They identified experts in the areas covered by the book, who could be candidates
for the updating process. It was decided to go out for bids in order to identify as many experts in
the field as possible.
Editorial Issues: Jonas Weisel
Jonas reviewed the Authors Guide, which is a short guidebook that sets some ground rules for
the production process, setting up files, formatting parts of the book, etc. A copy of the Authors
Guide will be posted on the FTP site.
Key points:
• Drafts should be reviewed by the technical reviewers, including the team’s technical
reviewers, outside reviewers, and users before the book is submitted for production.
• Figures, tables, and equations are numbered by section, not just chapter. E.g., the fifth figure
in the fourth section of Chapter 3 is Figure 3.4-5.
• Reference format is “author-date,” not numbered footnotes.
• Authors need to keep a list of text, tables, figures, and photos reproduced from other sources,
so that the production team may request copyright permissions.
• SI units should be used with English measures in parentheses.
• The production team can assist authors by providing a Word version of the first edition and
by re-drawing or improving figures, as needed.
• Figures will be printed in black and white. Figures (especially graphs) relying on color
coding should be avoided. The CD may include color photos.
A-7
Dave asked if the differently sized European page would be an issue for production. Jonas said
he would check on that. Jean-Louis asked if it would be possible to use material from an
upcoming CIGRE brochure. Jonas said that CIGRE had given permission to use their material in
the EPRI Red Book, which is being published this year. But he would discuss the issue with the
EPRI attorney.
Overview on Assigned Chapters: Dave Havard and John Chan
Dave made an overview presentation on progress to date on the revision. He proposed a new
title” Transmission Line Reference Book: Vibration and Dynamics of Overhead Conductors.”
The group approved this title.
Dave reviewed volunteers who have offered to contribute, progress to date, and changes to each
chapter. The question was raised about whether station buses would be covered. Two issues are:
vibration of tubular bus due to vibration and the forces due to short circuits on twin buses. It was
agreed that it might be covered in Chapter 7, “Transient Motions,” or possibly in an appendix to
the book.
John reviewed the contracting procedure. He will draft a simple statement of work, and all lead
authors will receive a contract with standard terms and conditions.
Chapter 4, Galloping: Jean-Louis Lilien
The authors in the team will include Dave, Chuck, and Pierre van Dyke. More external reviewers
are needed, particularly for Sections 4 and 5—possibly someone from the European group or the
Japanese. They can be identified next year. Team members may meet in conjunction with the
Cable Dynamics Conference in September 2005.
Deviations from skeleton outline:

• Refer to CIGRE activity.
• Include worldwide data.
• Add torsional stiffness.
• Add aerodynamic drag damper.
• Add galloping parameters.
• Aerodynamic curves with real ice.
• New design of clearances.
• Tension variation.
• Mode superposition.
• Test results at test stations.
A-8
Jean-Louis raised concern over the ability to obtain permission to use CIGRE material. The
Orange Book and an upcoming CIGRE brochure will be complementary. The need to obtain
permission needs to be discussed at top levels. Dave will give Jonas name(s) of contact persons
at CIGRE. Norman Bell is head of the committee (Committee B2- Publication &Tutorial
Advisory Group [bell.normand@hydro.qc.ca]).
Jean-Louis said he could provide a video of galloping to be included in the CD accompanying

the book.
Issue was raised about how much to say about hardware. It was agreed that it is OK to say that if
you use this type of device, you will have this effect. OK to describe applications that have been
made, tests that have been done. Give references. Should we discuss why we’re NOT using some
devices? No. Authors can list devices from CIGRE survey. Authors should also flag areas that
may be sensitive, so that the Editorial Committee can look at them and make determination.
Craig asked if we should provide procedures that users could apply. John showed the group a
format in the new EPRI Red Book, where an author had included detailed procedures. This
would be OK.
Jean-Louis asked if there can be blocks of text set aside for detail. Jonas suggested that the
format incorporate sidebars.
Chapter 3, Fatigue of Overhead Conductors: Louis Cloutier
The authors will include Alain Cardou and Sylvain Goudreau. Louis said that the chapter will
indicate that fatigue mechanisms could take into consideration the geometry of the conductor.
His team is starting to do tests on conductors with different geometries to see if geometry has an
effect. They will not have results for two years. For this book, they will provide preliminary
results.

• Include fatigue of conductor clamp systems.
• More importance to Yb as a practical indicator of fatigue performance.
• Include fatigue measurement test methods.
• Include several test performed to establish the relative performance of different systems.
Issue raised about how to resolve differences of opinion that may arise between authors and
reviewers. John said Editorial Committee will resolve.
Issues raised about several contractual Terms and Conditions:

• 2.02 ix. Can we use proprietary material if we get permission? (Jonas will ask attorney.)
• 7.08. Export laws (Probably OK. Jonas will ask attorney.)
• 7.06. Insurance. (EPRI will waive this.)
A-9
Chapter 6, Overhead Fiber Optic Cables: Jeff Wang
The authors will include Craig Pon and Tony Gillespie.

• Add hardware of fiber optic cables.
• Combine 6.2, Dampers and 6.5 Damper Types.
• Discuss damper installation locations.
In discussion the point was made that there is no agreement in the industry on damper
installation locations. CIGRE has done a survey that could be used. But it was suggested that the
authors do their own questionnaire and survey of utilities and manufacturers, using a targeted
mailing list. It is not necessary to obtain results by October 2005.
Wednesday, May 25, 2005
Chapter 2, Aeolian Vibration: Giorgio Diana
Chuck Rawlins presented this presentation for Giorgio Diana, who was unable to attend the
meeting.
The authors will include Umberto Cosmai, David Hearnshaw, Andre Laneville, Alessandra
Manenti, and Konstantin Papailiou. (Giorgio Diana will coordinate the chapters. David
Hearnshaw will check the English usage.)
In discussion, the need was expressed for utility reviewers. Possible reviewers include Tony
Gillespie, Andre LeBlond, Jim Duxbury, Bruce Freimark, Robert Kluge, Jerry Reding, and Ming
Lu. Anand will contact Jim Duxbury. Craig will contact Jerry Reding.

• Add concepts of modes of vortex shedding.
• Add mechanics of bundle conductor motions.
• Add data relevant to vortex shedding from “dynamic” bundles.
• Add new data on wind power input.
• Add section on modeling.
• Maintain discussion on spacer-damper requirements.
• Add new CIGRE recommendations on safe tensions for damped and undamped bundles.
• Add a short section on the expanded bundles vibration problems.
A-10
Chapter 7, Transient Motions: Anand Goel
Anand will be the lead author for this chapter, with assistance from Craig Pon and Masoud
Farzaneh.
Areas:
• Short-Circuit Forces—Craig, Jean-Louis, Anand
• Bundle Rolling—Jeff, Dave
• Gust Response—Japanese researchers, Giorgio, Southwire Book (Dale Douglass)
• Wind Action on Members—Manitoba Hydro, Louis, ITC, Dave
• Noise from Wind—Jeff, Manitoba Hydro
• Earthquakes—Louis
• Corona induced vibration —Masoud
• Station Bus—Anand, Dave; Chuck will review CIGRE papers.
Anand, Craig, and Dave will discuss cases of member failures. Can collect data on this. Anand
also has data on bus vibration.
Chapter 5, Bundle Conductors: (To Be Determined)
John will contact Claude Hardy to see if he will participate in the revision.
Chapter 1, Introduction: Editorial Committee
Work will begin on this chapter this year, time permitting.
Miscellaneous
• Problems. Dave requests that members of the group send him photos or videos of problems
that he can show to the EPRI Task Force in August to spur interest in the revision of the
Orange Book.
• FTP Site. John asks Jonas to arrange for setting up the FTP site. New chapter numbers will
be used. Folders will be set up for each chapter. Filenames will have this format: “Section
number, author’s last name, month and day.” For example: “Section 3.3 Havard June 26.”
• Classification of Information. Chuck suggests that the authors develop a system of
classification of information in the book with regard to levels of accessibility, accuracy, and
usefulness. All chapters will use the same terms and possibly have a box or italic text to
designate it. Chuck will develop a memo for review by the Editorial Committee. (Subsequent
to the meeting, a draft memo was received by the Editorial Committee.)
• PowerPoint. Craig asks Jonas to prepare a PowerPoint presentation on the Orange book
revision for presentation at a June IEEE meeting in San Francisco.
A-11
EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book –
Wind-Induced Conductor Motion (Orange Book) Revision
First Meeting with Authors
May 24 & 25, 2005
9:00 to 16:30 hr
Hydro One Office
483 Bay Street
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
AGENDA
1. Welcome & Introduction

2. Project Background & Objectives
3. Editorial Committee Functions & Review Process
4. Editorial Issues
• Authors Guide
• The production process
• Usage guidelines
• Copyright
• Available assistance
• Lessons learned from other books
5. Overall Revision Strategies
• Chapters 1 and 8
• Applets
6. Assigned Chapters
• Presentations by lead authors or delegate
• Questions & discussions
• Final Scope of Work
7. Unassigned Chapters
• Strategy for unassigned chapters
• Possible formations of teams
8. Project Schedule & Deliverables
9. Progress Review – Methods & Frequencies
• Conference calls
• ftp site
• Other suggestions
10. Administrative Items
• Contract
• Invoice
• Payment
11. Other Business
12. Next Meeting
• Date
• Location
A-12
Note:
1. A presentation to describe the team’s approach in revising the chapter shall be made by each
lead author or his/her delegate. The presentation shall not be more than 15 minutes and shall
not contain more than 5 slides. Questions and discussions lasting not more than 45 minutes
will follow. The topics to be covered in the presentation are:
• Describe each team member’s responsibilities
• Describe any additions or changes to the team
• List deviations from EPRI’s proposed skeleton and provide brief explanation
• List addition to & deletion from existing text
• Suggest further improvements
2. A group dinner will be hosted by EPRI in the evening of May 24 at 6:00 pm. All participants
and their guests are invited.
A-13
Minutes of Orange Book Conference Call
August 8, 2005
Attending:
John Chan, EPRI
Giorgio Diana, Politecnico di Milano
Claude Hardy, Claude Hardy International
Jeff Wang, ETS

• Next Conference Call. The next conference call will be held on Tuesday, October 25, 2005,
at 8 am Pacific, 11 am Eastern, and 5 pm Central European. The toll-free call-in number will
be 1-888-632-4892. The PIN number is 8265. Callers from Europe will need additional
access codes, as provided for the last conference call.
• Get Together. Members of the group may meet in conjunction with the Conductor
Dynamics Conference in Charleston, South Carolina, from 9 to 11 am on September 22,
2005 at the Frances Marion Hotel.
• Next Meeting. The next meeting will be held in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on Thursday
and Friday, January 26 and 27, 2006, to coincide with the IEEE meeting being held earlier
that week. Meeting will be two full days.
• Deadline. The deadline for first drafts to be included in the progress report is October 15,
2005. These submissions may be incomplete drafts, but with all headings identified. It is
necessary for something to be submitted for each chapter. This deadline cannot be extended
due to contractual agreements with funders.
• Invoicing Procedure. Go to epri.com. At top of the page, go to “About EPRI.” Go to
“Working with EPRI.” Here is all the information related to contracts and recommended
invoice formats. On the left-hand side, under “Business Forms, Policies, and Procedures,”
click on “Sample Invoice Form.” Use this form for your invoice. Be sure to include the
correct “EPRI Agreement Number” (contract number) where indicated. Send the invoice, as
noted, to EPRI Accounts Payable Department. The schedule for invoicing is very flexible—
you can invoice anytime and as often as you like, but not more than twice a month. But be
sure to invoice the amount allocated this year by December 1. Please do not invoice until you
receive your contract.
A-14
Introduction
John opened the conference call and reviewed the agenda, including status of contracts, progress
of work to date, contents of the progress report, and invoicing practices. He said he would
summarize the invoicing procedure in an email, as well.
He reminded authors that the purpose of this revision is not only to update the book, but also to
provide a practical tool that is useful to design engineers, with relevant examples.
Contracts
• Diana. Contract emailed August 5. Has been received. But it is in the name of Giorgio
Diana, and should be assigned to Politecnico di Milano, Departimento di Meccanica.
(Subsequent to the conference call, John forwarded a revised contract the week of August 8.)
• Laval University (Louis). Contract faxed July 29. Everything is in place and ready to go.
Okay to send invoice for the first $10K.
• Jean-Louis Lilien. Contract emailed August 5. Looks OK.
• Claude Hardy. Signed and returned contract July 8. Requested a return confirmation from
Kristine Dulay at EPRI. Has not received it. (Subsequent to the conference call, John
arranged for Ms. Dulay to send confirmation to Claude.)
• Jeff Wang. Received contract last week of July Signed and returned to EPRI.
• Anand Goel. Will have contract next year. Writers have volunteered to write sections. John
said there is a small amount of money available for Chapter 7 this year, and he will discuss
this off-line with Anand. Louis found a writer who will write one section. John suggested
that Louis’s writer contact Anand to see how much is available for this.
• Kinectrics. A contract will be issued next year.
Progress Report
John and Jonas will write this report, and have started working on it already. The report will give
some background on the project and what work has been done this year. The chapter authors
should just submit whatever they have written for their chapters by October 15. It is not
necessary to send any information on their progress or budget. The drafts may be partial drafts. If
you have not included or completed a section, just identify the heading title and say, “To Be
Completed.”
Status of Work
• Chapter 3 (Louis Cloutier). Each of the three authors is working on his own, re-reading the
existing chapter. When Louis returns from holidays, they will meet and review what they
have to do. Will decide issues, such as whether they continue to use fymax or yb. Will work on
it later in August. They need to determine where the new data are—for example, Dave
Sunkle on special support. But they expect no problems. It will go rapidly once they resolve a
few issues. Expect to have no difficulty in meeting the deadline.
• Chapter 2 (Giorgio Diana). The authors have already met and decided how many
paragraphs in each section and the contents of the sections. Expect to be able to meet the
October deadline.
• Chapter 4 (Jean-Louis Lilien). Have three authors—waiting news from the other two (Dave
and Pierre). They have revised the introduction and started the overview. Sees no problem in
A-15
getting a first draft by mid-October. But Jean-Louis is very concerned about copyright issues
concerning information that overlaps with an upcoming CIGRE brochure that is being
written by Pierre Van Dyke. They need agreement as soon as possible. Jonas said he has
contacted the EPRI lawyer who recommended that we apply to CIGRE for permission for
this specific case (even though CIGRE gave EPRI blanket permission to use their documents
in the EPRI Red Book). Jonas will submit request to Catherine Ott at CIGRE.
• Chapter 5 (Claude Hardy). They did a lot of preparatory work while working out the
proposal. Have also done a good proportion of the reduction work. Have drafted two sections
and one subsection. With confirmation of the contract, they will launch the rest of the work.
Claude asked for a clarification concerning spacer damper requirements, as noted in the
minutes of the May meeting in Toronto. He said that he assumes that spacer damper
requirements will be covered in Chapter 5, and that spacer dampers will only be covered in
Chapter 2 from an Aeolian vibration perspective. John suggests that Claude confirm this with
Giorgio.
• Chapter 6 (Jeff Wang). Jeff said that they have already started work on the hardware. Have
contacted the hardware manufacturers to get the updated information regarding the fiber
optic cable hardware, especially on the damper installations locations. There is no industry
standard. Tony has some input on this, and they will include that. By October 15, they should
be able to finish a partial first draft. Craig said the outline for this chapter developed by Dave
and Chuck is a good start, but the scope may extend beyond that. Before they get into the
details of writing, they will need to clarify the scope. When Jeff returns from China, he will
put together a new table of contents and discuss with Craig and Tony.
• Chapter 7 (Anand Goel). They have received input from the contributors of what will be in
the various sections. Anand sent an email showing the contents for each of the nine sections.
They expect to have two sections by October. For those sections that are incomplete, will just
put in headings. Jean-Louis asked if the bundle rolling section was on dynamics or torsional
stiffness. Jeff said it will basically be on dynamics, but in order to describe the mechanics,
they will need to introduce the torsional stiffness theory of the bundle. Chuck said it should
also include static considerations. Jean-Louis said he will cross-reference Chapter 7 to refer
to torsional stiffness, but not include a lot of detail, which will be in Chapter 7. Jeff will write
the section in Chapter 7.
Miscellaneous
• Word Versions of Chapters. Jonas said that Word versions were developed of the chapters
in the existing edition. These were sent to the authors and posted on the FTP site in early
June. If anyone has any questions, they should contact Jonas.
• FTP Site. Jonas said an FTP site was set up. It requires no username or password. It can be
used to upload or download files. When authors complete their drafts, they can upload them
to the FTP site.
• European Page Size. Jonas said that, at the Toronto meeting, Jean-Louis asked if this is a
problem. Jonas said he checked on this, and EPRI Publications said that this is not a problem.
• Availability to Students. Jean-Louis asked if the completed book would be available to
students. John said it would be available at a nominal price.
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Minutes of Orange Book Conference Call
October 25, 2005
Attending:
John Chan, EPRI
Giorgio Diana, Politecnico di Milano
Masoud Farzaneh, University of Quebec, Chicoutimi
Sylvain Goudreau, Laval University
Claude Hardy, Claude Hardy International
Dave Havard, Havard Engineering
Jeff Wang, ETS

• Next Meeting. The next meeting will be held in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on Thursday
and Friday, January 26 and 27, 2006, to follow the IEEE meeting being held earlier that
week. The meeting will be two full days.
• Schedule. The schedule for delivery of final drafts is as follows:
− February 28, 2006 Chapter 2
− March 15, 2006 Chapter 3
− March 31, 2006 Chapter 5
− April 15, 2006 Chapter 1
− April 30, 2006 Chapters 4, 7
− May 15, 2006 Chapter 6
− May 31, 2006 Chapter 8 (Index)
Introduction
John opened the conference call. He said the purpose of the call is to review what we have to do
before we meet in Albuquerque to go over the draft thoroughly.
Contracts
All the contracts are in place except for Craig Pon (Kinectrics) and Anand’s group. John will put
that in place later this year or early next.
Invoices
John asked if there were any problems. He said it should take about two weeks to get paid. John
asked Claude to tell him if he does not receive payment in a week. The fastest way to invoice is
electronically. John will send an email to the whole team to identify the correct email address.
John reminded the team to be sure to send final 2005 invoices by December 1, 2005.
A-17
Status of Chapters
Jonas reviewed the status of chapters downloaded to the FTP site.
• Chapter 2 (Aeolian Vibration). One file is on the site. It looks very complete.
• Chapter 3 (Fatigue). Two files are there—one with text, the other with new figures. Jonas
will insert the new figures into the text. Jonas requested a table of contents.
• Chapter 4 (Galloping). Fifteen files are on the site. Jonas will combine the sections and re-
number the figures. He requested a table of contents.
• Chapter 5 (Bundle Conductors). Seven files are on the site. Jonas will combine the
sections.
• Chapter 6 (Fiber Optic). One file and two case studies are on the site. Jonas requested a
table of contents.
• Chapter 7 (Transient Motion). Jonas will include Anand’s outline.
Spacer Dampers
Claude asked where spacer dampers will be discussed. He said he assumed that they will be
covered in Chapter 5, except as they concern Aeolian vibration. Giorgio said spacer dampers
could be described in Chapter 5. However, he said the dynamics of the spacer would be covered
in Chapter 2 on Aeolian vibration. Also some experiments related to Aeolian vibration would
also be covered in Chapter 2. So Claude and Giorgio agreed that there is no disagreement about
what each of their teams is covering.
Chapters 1 and 8
Dave pointed out that the Progress Report should include at least a list of contents for those two
chapters. Jonas said he would do this.
Progress Report
Jonas noted that he would include the current drafts of the chapters in the Progress Report. At
this point he will NOT do any editing, other than to verify that the numbering of sections,
figures, tables, and equations is correct. The Report will indicate that this version is a draft. Jonas
will do this renumbering in the next week or so and re-post the files on the FTP site for review
by the authors. If the authors wish to proceed with writing, they can use this latest version. If
authors wish to make any changes for the draft included in this Progress Report, they should post
a new file by November 1.
Reviewers
Giorgio asked who the reviewers will be. John said the first round will be internal review within
the team itself. Users will review drafts after the Albuquerque meeting, once the drafts are more
complete. Funders who review the Progress Report, once it is published in December, can also
send comments to John. (This would be a “preliminary” user review.)
Torsional Stiffness of Bundles

Jean-Louis raised an issue concerning the torsional stiffness of bundles. He refers to it briefly in
the galloping chapter, but he does not plan to cover it in that chapter. Is it appropriate in Chapter
5 or 7? Jeff and Claude agree that it should go in Chapter 7, but there can be references in
Chapters 4 and 5.
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Appendices
Louis asked if lab test results should go in appendices within each chapter. John and Chuck said
yes.
Editing
Jean-Louis asked if Jonas will take care of re-numbering of figures and introduce automatic
numbering so that the authors can use it for future drafts. Jonas said he would prefer not to use
automatic numbering, and that he will take responsibility for checking and re-doing numbering
of figures, tables, etc. He said he would also take responsibility for putting references in the
correct format to save authors time. Dave asked how many numbers are allowed in headings.
Jonas said the maximum is three. After that, headings are boldface-italic and then just italic. But
for now, it is acceptable to have different heading styles and numbering as long as it is consistent
within the chapter.
Charleston Meeting
Several of the authors met on September 22 in Charleston. Topics discussed included:
• Author Bios. One topic discussed was the decision to use small author bios at the front of
each chapter. Jonas will send a sample of the bios used in the Red Book. Bios and photos will
be included of the key authors and co-authors.
• Referencing Format. Another topic was the new method of formatting references, which
uses author and date, not numbers. Jonas said that he would make this change for authors if
they did not want to take the time to do it.
• Surveys. It was suggested that there be a survey to users to obtain feedback on the plan for
revision and the draft chapters. John and Jonas will develop a survey form to solicit specific
responses, and this form will be included in the Progress Report—with feedback on each
chapter, on the format of the book, what’s included and not included, and suggestions for
applets. A boldface note could be included on the first page of the Progress Report to say that
this is a draft only and that a survey form is included.
Next Meeting
The next meeting will be January 26-27, 2006 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, just after the IEEE
meeting. These dates are confirmed so travel plans can be made. Dave has the hotel information
and will send it to team members. Craig will send an email to John with the name of a person
who can help John reserve a conference room. The meeting will be two full days—running until
5 pm on Friday. Craig will send an agenda of the IEEE meetings to all team members. John said
the lead authors should just prepare a few slides on what has been done in each chapter, any
coordination issues with other chapters, and any new theories or ideas that will be included in
this edition.
A-19
Schedule
Discussion was held to determine the deadlines for delivery of a complete (un-edited) draft of
each chapter. Thorough review of the draft will take place at the Albuquerque meeting on
January 26-27, 2006. The final draft will be re-submitted for user review by May 31, 2006. Final
(electronic) publication is August 31. Chapters will be delivered to Jonas for editing on the
following staggered schedule:
• February 28, 2006 Chapter 2
• March 15, 2006 Chapter 3
• March 31, 2006 Chapter 5
• April 15, 2006 Chapter 1
• April 30, 2006 Chapters 4, 7
• May 15, 2006 Chapter 6
• May 31, 2006 Chapter 8 (Index)
After these dates, authors may add or revise, if necessary. After May 31, the chapters will be
submitted for Editorial Committee review and user review. Conference calls will be held over
the summer to discuss results of user review.
Color Figures
Jean-Louis asked if color figures would be allowed. Jonas said color would appear in the
electronic version of the book, but that the hardcopy bound version would only be black-and-
white. Jonas will convert figures from color to black-and-white for authors.
Copyright
The issue of copyright permissions for borrowed material was raised. Jonas said that he would
arrange for seeking copyright permissions.
A-20
B
TENDER DOCUMENTS
REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL & QUOTE (RFP&Q)
Re: Request for Technical Proposal & Quote (RFP&Q); RFP&Q 057308-01, “Revision of EPRI Transmission
Line Reference Book: Wind Induced Conductor Motion” (Orange Book)
To: Recipients of RFP&Q:
The attached Request for Proposal is for development of a new edition of the
Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind Induced Conductor Motion (Orange Book)
This RFP includes Background and Instructions as well as a Bidding Form to be completed in order to indicate your
proposed role and costs for writing chapters of the new edition.
A copy of the current edition of the Orange Book is available for your reference at the following ftp site listed. It can
be accessed using the User Name and Password given below.
ftp://ftp.epri.com
User Name: Orange

Password: 7reSaDa9
You are invited to provide EPRI with a proposal and quote covering the requirements set forth in the enclosed
documents. Proposals must be sent via e-mail to Michelle Pettit (mpettit@epri.com) no later than 4:00 p.m.
(Pacific Time) on March 28, 2005 (hard copy proposals are not required). E-mail responses should be sent in
Microsoft Word, Excel or PDF format with “RFP&Q 057308-01” specified in the subject line. PLEASE
NOTE THIS IS A QUICK TURNAROUND RFP&Q. No late proposals will be accepted. The Proposal shall
remain effective for a period of ninety days after the due date. Proposals will be reviewed by EPRI personnel and
external participants.
The estimated period of performance:

Begin on April 18, 2005 and end on December 31, 2006.
We would appreciate an informal note of Intent. If you are teaming please advise who your lead author and team
members are. We do not need exacting detail at this time, a quick email note listing the names would suffice.
Please send your response to Michelle Pettit at mpettit@epri.com on or by March 7, 2005.
Your proposal should be in response to the attached documents:

MOST IMPORTANT INFORMATION IS LISTED IN THE FIRST ATTACHMENT YOU SEE BELOW:
• Background, Instructions, Bidding Form and Important Notes.
Listed below is supporting documentation and reference.

• Attachment A: Summary Skeleton Outlines of Proposed Changes
• Attachment B: Detailed Skeleton Outlines of Proposed Changes
• Attachment C: List of Potential Participants for Teaming
NOTE: (Teaming in responding to this RFP is encouraged).
• Attachment D: List of Technical References
• Attachment E: Author’s Guide
B-1
• Attachment F: Form 112
• Attachment G: EPRI Standard Terms and Conditions
Your response should include:
• Bidding Form
• Budget on EPRI Form 112
• Key Personnel Resume(s)
The Selected Contractor may need to supply the following:
• EPRI Form 112 Backup

• Revised Technical Proposal
Any exceptions to Statement of Work should be clearly stated and explained. Elaborate submissions are not
encouraged. Complete the Bidding Form as requested.
EPRI’s standard terms and conditions for a Fixed Price contract are enclosed. Any proposed exceptions must be
clearly stated and explained in your proposal. A willingness to accept EPRI’s contract terms and conditions is
strongly desired.
IT IS THE POLICY OF EPRI NOT TO SOLICIT OR ACCEPT PROPOSALS OR OTHER DOCUMENTS THAT
ARE MARKED TO INDICATE THAT THEY ARE CONFIDENTIAL OR CONTAIN PROPRIETARY
INFORMATION OF THE SENDER OR THAT RESTRICTED HANDLING IS REQUIRED. NORMAL
BUSINESS PROPRIETY WILL BE OBSERVED IN HANDLING PROPOSAL MATERIALS. BIDDER
AGREES TO THIS CONDITION BY SUBMITTING A PROPOSAL.
All inquiries and technical questions regarding this RFP&Q shall be submitted via e-mail to Michelle Pettit
(mpettit@epri.com) no later than March 15, 2005. Accordingly, questions and answers (if any) will be provided to
all recipients of the RFP&Q. Bidders are not to contact EPRI’s technical staff directly. Any such contact may result
in the disqualification of your proposal.
The following evaluation criteria will be used by EPRI in evaluating proposals submitted in response to this
RFP&Q. Bidders should not minimize the importance of an adequate response in any area, as all of the criteria
listed will be considered in determining EPRI’s selections.
The proposal will be evaluated based on its technical merits, pricing and co-funding from the bidder.
After all proposals have been evaluated, you will receive e-mail notification of our decision from the undersigned.
This is the only official notification of selection. Please note EPRI will not authorize the start of work or incurrence
of costs to be reimbursed by EPRI prior to execution of a formal contract.
Sincerely,
EPRI Contracts Department
B-2
RFP&Q 057308-01
BACKGROUND AND INSTRUCTIONS
Introduction
EPRI is sponsoring development of a new edition of the Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-Induced
Conductor Motion, commonly known as the “Orange Book,” which was originally published in 1979.
This book covers the following topics:

Aeolian Vibration
Fatigue of Overhead Conductors
Galloping Conductors
Bundle Conductor Motions
It is also planned to add material on “Overhead Fiber Optic Cables” and “Transient and Other Motions.”
Development of a new edition is being undertaken for several reasons. First, while the book is still a well-used
reference for conductor vibrations, it is now almost a quarter of a century old. Since its publication, there have been
considerable developments in both approach and technology in this field. Second, there is also a concern that the
book is too academic and cannot easily be put to practical uses.
To address these concerns, revision of the book will update existing information in the Orange Book to reflect the
state-of-the art knowledge in the field of wind-induced conductor motion. The revision process will also add new
information to the book to cover topics, interests, and technology that have been developed since the book was last
published. In addition, the revision will broaden the scope of the book to acquire global utility experience in
conductor motion.
As regards practicality, the audience for the book consists of transmission and distribution line designers and staff
responsible for maintenance of overhead lines, interpretation of line failures, and correction of poor designs. The
objective of this revision project is to provide them with the best practical tool to design overhead lines effectively in
order to minimize damages to the lines from wind-induced conductor motion, and to analyze existing lines for
improvements of their performance related to such motion. The new edition will include examples to facilitate the
understanding of wind-induced conductor motion and the application of the knowledge to practical uses. Usability
of the volume will be improved with inclusion of an index and other suitable electronic media.
Overall, the goal will be to provide the electric power industry with a useful and practical reference guide that will
complement the new edition of the “Red Book”—the EPRI AC Transmission Line Reference Book: 200 kV and
Above.
Approach
The strategy for the revision of the Orange Book is to assemble a group of world experts to update different chapters
of the book or to write new chapters to cover advancements in technology in this field. These experts will be
selected on the basis of the following RFP.
In 2003, as part of the initial planning for the revision of the Orange Book, an Editorial Committee was formed to
ensure that the book would be revised according to the project’s goals. The Editorial Committee developed an initial
revision plan for each chapter in the revised edition. These plans are captured in the “skeleton outlines,” which are
included here as Attachments A and B, and described further below. The Editorial Committee also developed a list
of possible interested participants, and outlined a production process for the book.
The production process will be as follows: Once contracts have been awarded, lead authors will meet in May 2005
in Toronto to clarify objectives and review plans for revision. Authors and author-teams will write first drafts. There
will be regular progress reports and conference calls, as frequently as progress merits. Drafts will be reviewed by the
Editorial Committee, technical reviewers, and end-users. Initial drafts will be published in an EPRI report in October
2005. After drafts have been approved through technical review, chapters will be copyedited and laid out, and the
book will be published. The production process is expected to last two years—2005 and 2006.
Bidders may participate in the revision of the book in several roles:
B-3
• Lead Author/Manager. An expert will be selected to be the lead author/manager of each chapter. This author
will have overall responsibility for the update or creation of that chapter, will be the single point-of-contact with
the Editorial Committee, and will be accountable for deliverables. Lead authors will be required to attend the
initial authors meeting. Lead authors heading up a team will be awarded a contract for the team. Bidders may
bid to be the lead author of more than one chapter; however, a bidder will not be assigned to be the lead author
of more than one chapter.
• Co-author. An expert may bid, and be selected, to write a portion of a chapter, and to participate with a team in
developing a chapter.
• Resource Person. An expert may bid or volunteer to serve as an information resource for a team. This
individual may suggest relevant references and approaches to material.
• Technical Reviewer. The Editorial Committee will hire technical experts to review each chapter for technical
accuracy. In addition, authors may volunteer to review chapters other than their own. The draft will also be
submitted for peer reviews by representative end-users.
Note: There will be an expert and/or team for each chapter. Forming a team among experts to complement
one another’s skills is encouraged. Attachment C provides a list of interested participants with their contact
information to enable bidders to solicit team members. Persons not on this list may also be contacted to
participate as team members. The team is envisaged to include a lead author, coauthors, and resource people.
Teams will be expected to cover all parts of a chapter. There is only one lead author/manager for each
chapter. The Editorial Committee will assemble teams, where necessary.
Scope of Work
Bids are being accepted for revision of six chapters, as follows:

Chapter 2: Aeolian Vibration
Chapter 3: Fatigue of Overhead Conductors
Chapter 4: Galloping conductors
Chapter 5: Bundle Conductor Motions
Chapter 6: Overhead Fiber Optic Cables
Chapter 7: Transient and Other Motions
Chapter 1 (Introduction) and Chapter 8 (Index, Glossary) will be developed by the Editorial Committee.
The revision plan for the Orange Book is captured in a series of “skeleton outlines.” Attachment A is a summary
version of these skeleton outlines. Attachment B is a more detailed version of the outlines. The outlines indicate
proposals for: the scope of information to be included in each chapter, material from the previous edition that is to
be reduced or moved, new areas of information to be added, possible examples, and references.
Please consult these outlines before completing the Bidding Form. However, please note that these outlines are
intended to be initial positions. Bidders are encouraged to indicate in the Bidding Form what they would do in
addition to, or differently from, the proposed revision.
Authors will also be responsible for suggesting the development of software “applets” to accompany the text.
Applets are small, Java-based, stand-alone calculation modules. The applets provide users with sample problems and
results to illustrate concepts in the text. The applets are interactive and allow users to input parameters and calculate
results. Applets will be developed by programmers, but authors will need to work with the programmers to suggest
areas of calculation and parameters.
Chapters will be written according to an Authors Guide, which is included as Attachment E. For material from the
current edition that is to be included unchanged in the revised edition, a Microsoft Word version of the first edition
will be made available to authors.
Note: Limited funding is available for this project. Cofunding will be a factor in the selection process.
Cofunding may be in the form of unbilled hours, reduction in hourly rate, funding from other organizations,
or support from other external sources.
B-4
More Information
For more information, or if you have questions, contact EPRI Contracts, Contract Analyst Michelle Pettit
(mpettit@epri.com). Contracts will then contact the technical staff for a response. Answers to all questions
received will be emailed to all bidders.
B-5
BIDDING FORM
Please complete a separate form for each chapter on which you are bidding. You may bid as a team (Part A) and/or
as an individual (Part B) for any chapter.
Chapter Number:
Chapter Title:
Name:
Address:
Telephone:
Email:
A. Bidding as a Team
When bidding as a team, please submit a maximum of one page each of related experience and pertinent
publications for each participant. Teams may include as many members, as desired.
Lead Author:
Team Member (1)

Role (please check): Co-author ___ Resource Person: ___
Name:
Sub-topic(s):
Team Member (2)

Role (please check): Co-author ___ Resource Person: ___
Name:
Sub-topic:
Comments on Proposed Skeletons. (Briefly describe if there is anything that you would do in addition to, or
differently from, the proposed skeleton outline.)
Total Cost Estimate

Estimate your total cost (hourly rate and number of hours) to complete the work over two years. (Note: Awards will
be fixed price. Estimate is for full scope of work, which will include attendance by lead author at two 2-day
meetings in North America in 2005 and 2006, writing of first draft, preparation of references, incorporation of
changes following peer review, incorporation of comments following editorial review, and review of page layout.
First drafts are to be completed in 2005.)
Total Cost:
Less Cofunding:
Net Cost:
Additional Suggestions/Comments
B-6
______________________________________________________________
B. Bidding as an Individual
Co-author only:
Resource Person:
Technical Reviewer:
Comments on Proposed Skeletons. (Briefly describe if there is anything that you would do in addition to, or
differently from, the proposed skeleton outline.)
Total Cost Estimate

Estimate your total cost (hourly rate and number of hours) to complete the work over two years. (Note: Awards will
be fixed price. Estimate is for full scope of work, which will include attendance by lead author at two 2-day
meetings in North America in 2005 and 2006, writing of first draft, preparation of references, incorporation of
changes following peer review, incorporation of comments following editorial review, and review of page layout.
First drafts are to be completed in 2005.)
Total Cost:
Less Cofunding:
Net Cost:
Additional Suggestions/Comments
B-7
C
CHAPTER 1, INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1, Introduction, will be written in 2006 by the Editorial Committee.
This chapter will introduce the range of conductor motions to be addressed in greater detail in the
subsequent chapters. The chapter will provide an overview of the new edition and explain why
an updated edition is needed.
Revisions will include addition of state-of-the-art technology for each type of conductor motion,
discussion of transient motions and other effects, and expansion of conductor tables to include
missing types.
Contents will include:
1.1 Overview of the Conductor Motion Problem
1.2 The Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion
1.3 Introduction to Types of Conductor Motion and their Effects
1.4 Mechanics of Conductor Motions
1.5 Conductor Tables
1.6 Glossary of Terms
1.7 Units and Conversion Factors
References
C-1
D
CHAPTER 2, AEOLIAN VIBRATION
D-1
CHAPTER 2 AEOLIAN VIBRATION
CONTENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 EXCITATION
2.3 CONDUCTORS
2.4 DAMPING DEVICES
2.5 SYSTEM RESPONSE
2.6 EFFECTS ON LINE DESIGN
2.7 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
2.8 REFERENCES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Aeolian vibration is one of the most important problems in transmission lines because it
represents the major cause of fatigue failure of conductor strands or of items associated with
the support, use, and protection of the conductor. In this phenomenon, conductor strand
fatigue failures occur at the suspension clamps or at the clamps of the other devices installed
on the conductor such as spacers, spacer dampers, dampers and other devices.
Forces induced by vortex shedding are the cause of this type of vibration. From an
aerodynamic and aeroelastic point of view, the problem is very complex as will be clearly
explained in the following paragraphs. In addition, some differences arise in the mechanics of
the phenomenon depending on whether single or bundled conductors are being considered.
The response of the conductor to vortex shedding excitation is strongly non linear in terms of
the vibration amplitude. This non-linearity is related to both the conductor parameters and the
characteristics of the wind blowing across the conductor.
From an engineering point of view, it is important to have a relatively simple approach to

predict the conductor or bundle response to vortex shedding. The most common approach
relies on the Energy Balance Principle (EBP) in which the steady state amplitude of vibration
of the conductor or bundle due to aeolian vibration is that for which the energy dissipated by
the conductor and other devices used for its support and protection equals the energy input
from the wind.
In this phenomenon, maximum vibration amplitudes can be as low as one conductor diameter
where they can cause fatigue of the conductor strands due to bending. The problem may be
defined as controlling the conductor vibration amplitude in order to maintain the stress in the
conductor strands below the fatigue endurance limit. Adequate control can be achieved if the
correct amount of damping is present in the system and if necessary, additional damping can
be introduced in the form of damping devices such as dampers and spacer-dampers.
The energy introduced by the wind to single and bundle conductors has been determined
through wind tunnel measurements. Vortex shedding excitation on a vibrating cylinder is
quite a complicated phenomenon and details will be given in Section 2.2 ‘Excitation’, which
will cover such aspects as vortex shedding frequency, lock-in, synchronization range, modes
of vortex shedding, variables controlling the phenomenon and energy input for both single
and multiple conductors. The energy dissipated by the conductor and damping devices can be
determined through laboratory measurements
The conductor mechanical models, self-damping and bending stiffness will be treated in
Section 2.3 ‘Conductors’, whilst damping devices used to provide additional damping and
control aeolian vibration will be treated in Section 2.4 ‘Damping Devices’.
From the comparison between introduced and dissipated energies, the steady state amplitude
of vibration of the conductor can be evaluated together with strains and stresses in its most
significant sections: This is done using computation programs whose main features and
controlling variables are described and discussed in Section 2.5 ‘System Response’.
The effects on line design of the aeolian vibration phenomenon will be discussed in Section
2.6, whilst the last section of the chapter will describe the methods and associated
instrumentation to perform aeolian vibration measurements in the field.
2
2.2 EXCITATION
2.2.1 Introduction
Organisation of the section Excitation
2.2.2 The Conductor as Flow Disturbance
In this short section, the different flow regions produced by the presence of a conductor in the
airflow will be identified and presented. Using Figure 2.2-1 (source: M.M. Zdravkovich,
“Flow around Circular Cylinders, Vol.1: Fundamentals”, page 4, ISBN 0-19-856396-5),
Figure 2.2-1 Conductor in an airflow.
The region IV will be identified as the wake and the location of the vortex shedding process.
This process will be linked to the upstream regions. In the particular case of conductors, the
boundary layer will be said to remain laminar and transition to occur in the separating shear
layer.
When the frequency of the shed vortices approaches one of the conductor resonance
frequencies, there is the onset of an aeroelastic instability called vortex-induced vibration, or
aeolian vibration in the field of cable dynamics. When the frequencies of the shed vortices
differ, the resultant pressure fluctuations are still applied but their intensity is insufficient to
bring the conductor into significant amplitudes of motion. The wake (or the organization of
the vortices) downstream from a vibrating conductor should be expected to differ from that of
a stationary conductor.
3
2.2.3 Vortex Shedding in the case of a Stationary Conductor
Variables Controlling the Phenomenon
The flow of a fluid interacting with a cylindrical shape has been observed to generate vortices
that are shed in a downstream wake. Leonardo da Vinci sketched such vortices downstream
from a stationary pile (Figure 2.2-2). Ancient civilisations also knew that aeolian sound was
caused by wind blowing over a string.
Cenek Vincent Strouhal (1878) formed a

dimensionless parameter from his
measurements of f, the frequency of the
audible tone generated by wires and rods
(diameter D) whirled through the air at
velocity V; this dimensionless parameter,
fD/V, was to be defined the Strouhal
number following a suggestion by Henri
Bénard (1926). Adapting Strouhal’s (1878)
data, M. M. Zdravkovich (1985) produced a
dimensionless graph of the variation of the
Strouhal number in terms of the Reynolds
number, VD/υ; υ is the kinematic viscosity
of the fluid.
Vortex shedding in the case of a stationary

cylinder is then a phenomenon controlled
by four primary variables, f, D, V and υ
which can be reduced to two dimensionless
parameters, S and R, respectively the
Strouhal and Reynolds numbers. In the
particular cases of stationary cylindrical
conductors (5 mm<D<50 mm and 1
m/s<V<10 m/s), the Reynolds number may
Figure 2.2-2 Studies of a water flow range from a value of 50 to 20000 and the
interacting with an obstacle circa 1513 by Strouhal number can be evaluated using
Leonardo da Vinci from Carlo Pedretti (1987) Figure 2.2-3.
For example, consider a 20 mm diameter conductor in a 5 m/s wind (10°C): the Reynolds
number is then 7000 and the Strouhal number 0.185 according to Figure 2.2-3. The vortices
would be shed at the frequency:
f(Hz) = S∗V(m/s)/D(m) = 0.185∗ 5/0,02 = 46.3 Hz
If mixed English units (V in mph, D in inches and f in Hz) are adopted, the value of the
Strouhal number remains the same but the formula for the determination of the frequency of
the vortex shedding must be modified according to:
f(Hz) = S ∗V(m/s)/D(m) = S∗ V(mph) ∗17,6/D(in)
4
Figure 2.2-3. Relationship between Reynolds number and Strouhal number from Wind-
Induced Conductor Motion (source EPRI)
For a 0.75 inch diameter conductor in an 11 mph wind (50°F), the value of the Reynolds
number is 7200 and that of the Strouhal number remains close to 0.185 according to Figure
2.2-3; in this case the Strouhal frequency, that is the frequency at which vortices are shed
downstream from this particular stationary conductor, is 47.8 Hz.
The Wake of Vortices and the Aerodynamics Force Transfer
The alternate shedding of vortices at the Strouhal frequency in the wake of the stationary
conductor induces an unsteady pressure distribution on its surface. This alternating pressure
unbalance is translated in mean and fluctuating loads: CD and CL, respectively the mean drag
and lift coefficients and, CDRMS and CLRMS, the rms drag and lift coefficients. In the case of a
bare conductor, the value of CL is 0, as one expects by symmetry. Figure 2.2-4 shows the
variation of the three other coefficients as a function of the Reynolds number. The figure also
indicates if transition from laminar to turbulent states occurs in the wake (TrW), the shear
layer (TrSL) or the boundary layer (TrBL). The conductor should remain practically
motionless (stationary) if the damping of the conductor’s system is sufficiently large or if the
frequency of the shedding vortices does not match one of the natural frequencies of the
conductor’s system.
Within the range of Reynolds numbers typical of conductors (from 103 to 2∗104), the
aerodynamic force coefficients can be evaluated using the following curve fit expressions:
CL=0
CD=1.05
CLRMS = 0.42 − 0.33 e −2×10 (R×10 )
4 −6 2
CDRMS=…….
5
Figure 2.2-4 Variation of force coefficients for a circular cylinder in smooth flow (after M.M.
Zdravkovich 1997)
Vortices shed downstream from a stationary cylindrical conductor are named Kármán-Bénard
vortices after Theodore von Kármán and Henri Bénard for their pioneering work in this field.
Figure 2.2-5 shows a flow visualization of the near wake downstream from a stationary
circular cylinder using a fog generator, a laser sheet and a digital high-speed camera: half of
the cylinder shows faintly on the left of the figure
Figure 2.2-5 Kármán-Bénard vortices R=8800,

[Source: Laneville (2005)]
The photo, obtained at a Reynolds number matching that of a typical conductor, shows the
turbulent nature of vortex shedding in the case of a conductor; the length of formation of the
vortices can be observed to be of the order of three diameters. Vortex shedding will adopt a
completely different mode in the case of a conductor in motion, as will be shown
subsequently.
6
2.2.4 Vortex Shedding in the case of a Vibrating Conductor: Aeolian Vibrations
Initiation of Aeolian Vibration: Onset and Lock-in (p 7 of Orange Book + new material)
Additional Variables Controlling the Phenomenon (new)
Modes of Vortex shedding: 2S and 2P (new material)
2.2.5 Wind Power Input (p 86-87 of Orange Book)
Case of a Single Conductor (p86-87 +new data)
Case of Multiple Conductors (new material)
7
2.3 CONDUCTORS
2.3.1 Types and Basic Properties of Conductors
Overhead transmission lines transmit electric power using stranded cables called conductors.
In fact, conductors are the only active component of a transmission line and account for a
significant proportion of the overall costs of the line, up to as much as 40%. Conductors have
to sustain a range of electrical, mechanical and environmental “loads” over the projected life
expectancy of a line, which can be well over 50 years of service and therefore, special
attention is given to the selection of their constituent materials, layout and design. Although
this book covers the effects of conductor vibration, it is considered relevant to summarize the
common types and basic properties of conductors employed today in transmission lines in this
chapter.
The simplest and most widely used form of conductor is that of concentric layers of single
round wires stranded around a so-called core. In order to reduce torsional imbalance, the
stranding takes place in alternating direction from layer to layer, the outer layer being often
applied with a right hand twist, Figure 2.3-1. Each layer has six wires more than the layer
beneath it, ensuring in most of the cases, a good “fit” in every layer.
The most common types of bare overhead conductors are constructed from aluminium and its
alloys and can be further strengthened with steel. Most typical types are All Aluminium
Conductor (AAC), All aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC), Aluminium Conductor Steel
Reinforced (ACSR), Aluminium Conductor Alloy Reinforced (ACAR) and Aluminium Alloy
Conductor Alloy Reinforced (AACSR). In a few special cases, for instance in extremely
corrosive environments such as a marine environment, copper conductors may be used. For
these conductors, a number of national and international standards exist. Apart from the
“standard” conductor designs, there are also a number of special designs, such as conductors
with high steel content for very long spans (river crossings), smooth bodied conductors,
expanded conductors etc. Recently, there has been an increased use of so-called high
temperature conductors with special designs and materials, which are used for increasing
(uprating) the transmission capacity of a line.
It is helpful to understand the geometric properties of conductors, such as the lay ratio and the
lay angle. These are explained briefly with the help of some figures. Also the mechanical
and electrical properties of the basic conductor materials are shown with some tables. Last
but not least, a section of the chapter will be devoted to the bending stiffness of conductors,
which plays a pre-eminent role in the vibration assessment.
This chapter will also include the (updated) tables of the Orange book (see Orange book 1.5.
Conductor Tables, pp. 26).
8
2.3.2 Inner Conductor Mechanics
“Inner conductor mechanics” is the calculation of the stresses and strains in the individual
conductor wires because of external loads/deformations of the conductor due to vibration,
which often leads to conductor fatigue damage. This will be treated extensively in Chapter 3
of this book. The fatigue mechanism of vibrating conductors is a complicated chemo-
mechanical process called fretting fatigue. Fretting fatigue depends on many factors, such as
the macroscopic or bulk stresses in the individual wires of the conductor, the relative
movement between the wires, the forces acting between two adjacent wires and the resulting
contact stresses at the crossing “points”, Figure 2.3-2. A better understanding of the inner
conductor mechanics should lead to a reasonably accurate prediction of the above parameters,
which in turn may enable a quantitative approach to conductor fatigue to be developed.
Aeolian vibration causes the tensioned conductor to undergo lateral movements, i.e. to bend.
Prior to bending, the conductor obviously has to sustain an external tensile load. This load is
distributed in the individual conductor wires (strands), causing tensile stresses. Even this
apparently simple loading case (i.e. conductor under pure tension) is a complicated
mechanical problem, in particular where temperature effects, manufacturing process effects,
creep etc have to be considered. In order not to further complicate matters, simplified
formulae are used to calculate these tensile stresses in the individual wires, which are given in
Appendix A. The tensile loads in the wires cause normal loads at the crossing points of two
wires in adjacent layers, Figure 2.3-3, which, besides leading to contact stresses, determine
the stick-slip behaviour of the wires during cyclic bending caused by aeolian vibration.
Qualitatively, when a conductor is bent, the movement of its wires is suppressed by the
friction forces acting between the wires and mainly between the wires of two adjacent layers.
Mechanically, this situation is described by the axial force equilibrium of a differential wire
element, Figure 2.3-4. This process leads to a variation of the conductor bending stiffness
during bending. At small bending amplitudes, the bending stiffness can be calculated as
though the wires are "welded" together and is called EImax. At large bending amplitudes, the
bending stiffness can be calculated as though the wires are loose and do not interact with each
other at all and is called EImin. In between these two extremes, a more or less smooth
transition takes place as indicated in Figure 2.3-5.
Because of the complexity of the bending process of a conductor under tension as described
above, a simplified model was developed in 1965 (Poffenberger and Swart) and since then,
has been almost exclusively and extensively used in order to calculate “idealized” conductor
stresses. These are regarded as “figure-of-merit” or reference stresses, in order to compare
the vibration intensity of different conductors based on bending amplitude measurements in
the field. Comparisons can also be made with the so-called safe stress limits or fatigue
endurance limits (accumulated stress or S/N (Wöhler) curves) which are then indicative of
conductor endurance capability. The Poffenberger-Swart formula, which ultimately relates
(measured) bending amplitudes with (calculated) wire stresses in the outer conductor layer, is
given in Appendix A. As this formula is derived using a crude approximation of the actual
bending mechanism in the conductor, deviations are often found between measured and
calculated stresses. These deviations will be explained using the most elaborate conductor
bending models available today.
There is an abundance of literature on the mechanical modelling of stranded ropes, but only
few papers have been presented specifically for bending of overhead line conductors. A.
Cardou and C. Jolicoeur have published an excellent and extensive review and so in this
chapter, only the papers specifically covering conductor bending will be referenced.
9
2.3.3 Conductor self-damping
Dissipation Mechanisms
To some extent, all conductors are able to dissipate a portion of the mechanical energy input
by the wind. A span composed of a single strand of a wire, rod, or tube possesses a small
amount of self-dissipation in the form of material damping, which exists as frictional
dissipation at a molecular level. This type of self-damping is normally quite low, so vibration
problems may be readily anticipated on single strand systems. Conductors having higher than
normal self-damping properties are called self-damping conductors. Their designs use
trapezoidal-shaped aluminum strands, spun into a tubular construction, forming one or more
lays of the conductor.
With stranded conductors, the damping is considerably greater, since the losses induced by
relative motion between strands are added to the material damping. Conductor self-damping is
non-linear, appearing as a curve if input power or energy is plotted against resulting conductor
strain or amplitude. Plotting of these relationships on log-log paper will usually result in a
fairly straight line for tests run at a given frequency. If tests are made at various frequencies
on a particular conductor at a fixed tension, a series of parallel straight lines will normally be
observed, each line representing a result from a particular frequency.
Due to the low values of self-damping, there are several measurement problems present in
such tests, such as the frequency response and the end loop dissipation. Presence of the
vibration exciter in the test span can introduce loop shape distortions, which alter the normal
conductor dissipation. Specimen preparation and termination introduce additional unknown
factors.
Test Methods
Force-Velocity Testing
This method measures the transfer of power between the shaker and the test span. This is done
by coupling the shaker and the test span through a force transducer and also determining the
sinusoidal velocity of the shaker system at its point of attachment. The power may then be
calculated as the product of force, velocity, and the cosine of the phase angle between force
and velocity.
Standing Wave Testing

This method is based on the measurement of nodal and anti-nodal amplitudes along the test
span. The ratio between nodal amplitude and anti-nodal amplitude is indicative of the
dissipation within the system. The method has particular application to the determination of
damper effectiveness since it avoids some of the waveform distortion problems that may be
encountered in other measurement systems.
Decay Testing
In this method, the test span is brought into resonance and then disconnecting the shaker using
a fuse mechanism in the shaker/span connecting linkage. The rate of decay is a function of the
system losses. The decay rate is recorded and expressed in terms of logarithmic decrement,
which is defined as the natural log of the amplitude ratio of two successive cycles of
vibration.
10
2.4 DAMPING DEVICES
2.4.1 Vibration Dampers
Stockbridge-type Dampers
Original Stockbridge damper (few lines with historical information)

Modern Stockbridge dampers (4R dampers, few lines for Asahi torsional, Dogbone)
Dynamic response (resonances,- force/phase, power, impedance vs. frequency, etc.)
Design characteristics (materials, clamp types, messenger cables, mass shapes)
Technology (methods for attachment of clamp and masses to messenger cable)
Standard and recommendations (IEC 61897, IEEE 664, etc)
Laboratory tests (particularly performance, effectiveness and fatigue)
Outdoor Testing (basic criteria for the field tests)
Other Damper Types
Torsional dampers (more complete description, as they are still used)

Impact dampers (reduce the existing text and remove fig.3-12)
Bretelle dampers (reduce text and eliminate design analysis and fig. 3-14 )
Festoon dampers (remove fig.3-16)
Spiral impact dampers (remove fig.3-18 and 3-20 and relevant text)
The Application Criteria for Dampers
Location in the span (vs span length, tension, extremity clamp type, etc.)
Proximity of grounding connections on shield wires (how to locate the dampers)
Installation procedure of Stockbridge (hook clamp, orientation, torque wrench, etc.)
In-span Damping
Introduction (what does it means, when it is necessary)

Long crossing spans (examples)
Spans with warning devices (warning spheres and night warning devices)
Spans with interphase spacers (examples)
2.4.2 Other Protection Methods
Armour Rods
General (with just few lines for the tapered armour rods)
Factory formed armour rods (advantages)
Design criteria (materials, dimensions, pitch, grip, end termination, sets, etc.)
Armour rods performance (stiffness, damping contribution, etc.)
Installation procedure
Long Radius Clamps (for long spans. Provide a recent photo)
Rubber-lined Clamps (discuss suspension clamps and few lines for some fittings clamps)
11
Armour Grip Suspension Clamps
Armour Grip Tension Clamps
2.4.3 Conductors with Enhanced Damping Capacity
Compact Conductors (information needed)
Thermal-resistant Conductors
Gap conductors (remind the similarity with the old self-damping conductors)
ACSS and ACCR conductors (information needed)
Other thermal resistant conductors (information needed)
2.4.4 Conductors with Reduced Vibration Sensitivity
Oval Conductors
T-2 Conductors
Low-noise Conductors (Japan)
2.4.5 Vibration of Other Cables and Busbars
Vibration of Ground Wires (audible noises, high frequencies, use of spiral dampers, etc)
Vibration of ADSS and OPGW Cables (requirements, effect on optical fibres, fittings, etc.)
Vibration of Substation Bus bars (just few lines on the phenomenon and typical dampers)
Hoarfrost (are some real cases known?)
2.4.6 Spacers and Spacer Dampers

(To be integrated /coordinated with the section relevant to bundle response to wind action of
sections 2.2 and 2.5)
Type of Spacers
Rigid and semi rigid spacers (photo available)

Articulated spacers (photo needed)
Flexible spacers (photo available)
Spacer dampers (photo available)
Material Used in Spacers (refer to CIGRE documents)
Material requirements and selection criteria

Metallic materials
Non-metallic materials
Corrosion resistance
12
Design Criteria for Spacers and Spacer Dampers
Mechanical characteristics
Dynamic characteristics
Electrical characteristics (Conductivity, Corona and RIV performance)
Characteristics and performance of elastomer components
Clamping Systems
Introduction (requirements and design criteria)

Cantilever clamp
Opposed hinge clamp (nut cracker clamps)
Comparison between cantilever and opposed hinge clamps
Elastomer-lined cantilever or hinged clamp
Helically-attached clamp (open clamps rubber lined, armour rods set)
Fasteners (bolts, latches, springs)
Clamp grip requirements and energy storing elements (Belleville washers)
Breakaway bolts (advantages and disadvantages, correct design)
Spacer Damper Articulations
Introduction (requirements and design criteria)

Elastic and damping characteristics
Energy absorption mechanism (elastomer deformation by compression, torsion, etc.)
Flexibility (capacity to accommodate displacements in all directions)
Fatigue endurance (both aeolian vibration and subspan oscillation)
Electrical resistance (conductivity to avoid RIV and electrical discharges)
Spacer Damper Main Frame
Introduction (shapes, articulation housings and arm rotation stops)

Mechanical strength (short circuit and other dynamic load resistance)
Dynamic characteristics (inertial effects)
Standard and Recommendations for Spacers
IEC 61854, CIGRE and main Utility’s specifications
Test Methods for Spacers
Laboratory tests (test procedure and test devices)

Test on elastomers (test to characterize elastomer and performance tests)
Outdoor testing (vibration field tests, actual short circuit tests, etc.)
Damping Systems
Spacer plus vibration dampers (discuss typical applications esp. on twin bundles)
Spacer dampers only
Spacer dampers plus vibration dampers (long spans, critical spans especially twin)
Twin spacers in “Russian” configuration (for triple and quad bundles)
13
Criteria for Spacer Distribution Along the Spans
Aeolian vibration (discuss limited influence of spacer damper positioning)

Bundle torsional stability (discuss distribution to increase torsional stability)
Sub-span oscillation (few lines and reference to Chapter 5)
Galloping (few lines and reference to Chapter 4)
Proximity of joints, warning devices, interphase spacers (min. distance, etc.)
Spacer Damper Installation
Introduction ( installation instructions, problem arising from incorrect installation)

Crew training (installation instructions and trial installation at ground level)
Installation procedure (use of cable car, installation survey, etc.)
Tools (use and verification of torque wrench, special tools, etc.)
Damping Systems for Expanded Bundles
Introduction (refer to recent Brazilian projects and old Russian ones)

Bundle characteristics (asymmetrical bundles, reduction of bundle at towers, etc.)
Type of spacers (refer to recent Brazilian projects)
Distribution (considering the absence of wake induced oscillations)
Spacers for Jumper Loops
General (type of jumpers, counterweights, bundle reductions)

Type of spacers (rigid spacers or the same spacers of the line spans)
Distribution (discuss sticking problem and protection of span end fittings)
Current Practice and Field Experience (refer to CIGRE survey)
Survey of Field Experience (refer to CIGRE survey)
14
2.5 SYSTEM RESPONSE
2.5.1 Introduction
Aeolian vibration occurs when the vortex shedding frequency becomes equal to that of a
natural mode of the system, i.e. when a resonance condition occurs. When the vibration
amplitude increases, lock-in effects occur and a self-excited mechanism is generated. The
resonance condition excites one of the vibration modes of the system under consideration, i.e.:
single conductor, bundle conductor plus devices etc.
The amplitudes of vibration for each of the excited vibration modes are obtained through a
balance between the wind energy input and the energy dissipated by the system. In the case of
single conductors, the energy dissipated by the conductor and system components for each
mode of vibration can be readily identified, as will be shown in Section 2.5.2.
For a single conductor plus dampers and other devices, the task is more difficult and this will
be explained in Section 2.5.3.
Finally, for the case of bundle conductor plus spacer-dampers and other devices, the
identification of modes of vibration must be achieved by suitable numerical computation
models, as will be explained in Section 2.5.4.
Once the system vibration modes have been identified, the conductor vibration amplitudes can
be defined all along the span as a function of a reference amplitude, which then enables the
wind energy input to be computed. Knowing of the mode of vibration, the motion of the
dampers, the spacer dampers and any other device present on the conductor can be determined
as a function of the reference amplitude and the energy dissipated may then be computed.
Aeolian vibration control is achieved if the system damping, defined as the energy dissipated
by conductors and damping devices for all the system vibration modes, is high enough to limit
vibration amplitudes to within acceptable levels.
In other fields of engineering, such as the vortex-induced vibrations of risers and stay cables
of bridges or other structures, the vortex induced vibration severity is identified through the
Scruton number value:
Sc = δ m/(D2 ρ),
Where:-
m is the cable mass per unit length,
D is its diameter, δ is the non dimensional damping of the considered mode
and
ρ is the fluid density.
Once the Sc number is defined, the amplitude of vibration can be identified through Figure
2.5-1.
For the case of a single conductor this approach can be readily applied, being u/D the in-span
antinode amplitude.
In case of bundle conductors, reference can be made to the maximum amplitude along the
span.
15
In Section 2.5.2, 2.5.3, and 2.5.4 some examples will be given to demonstrate the validity of
this simple approach.
Figure 2.5-1 The Scruton Number.
2.5.2 EBP Models to Simulate the Aeolian Vibration Behaviour of Single Conductors
Reference Cigre TF1 paper and previous chapter paragraphs

State of the art of modelling
Comparison: analytical vs analytical
Comparison: analytical vs experimental
Uncertainties
2.5.3 EBP Models to Simulate the Aeolian Vibration Behaviour of Single Conductors
Plus Dampers and/or other Devices
Reference Cigre TF1 paper and previous chapter paragraphs

Uncertainties
The main facts to be highlighted in this section are as follows:-:
If the simulation of the aeolian vibration behaviour of the single conductor indicates the need
for additional damping, this has to be generally provided through dampers.
The maximum energy that can be dissipated by a damper on a certain single conductor at a
certain tensile load is known [xx][xx] and from this the optimum damper dynamic stiffness
can be defined:
Fopt = ………. , fopt = ………….
16
This information can be used to select the damper to be used through comparison of the
optimum values with the dynamic stiffness of real dampers evaluated by shaker tests.
There is a physical limit to the amount of damping that can be added locally, i.e. through
dampers at the span extremities and this can be a problem for very long spans (crossings),
which may require in-span damping.
Once a damper is chosen and a first approximate position of the damper on the conductor is
selected, the EBP method requires the definition of the dissipated energy, or the damping, for
all the system vibration modes, then the vibration modes themselves have to be determined -
i.e. the vibration amplitudes distribution all along the system.
The determination of the system modes of vibration (with or without damping devices) is
therefore the preliminary step of the computation procedure based on the EBP.
In particular, the vibration mode distortions caused by the damper presence have to be
evaluated to correctly define the energy dissipated by the dampers in the field of frequencies
involved in the aeolian vibration phenomenon.
2.5.4 EBP Models to Simulate the Aeolian Vibration Behaviour of Bundled

Conductors Eventually Equipped with Dampers and/or other Devices
Reference Cigre TF1 work and previous chapter paragraphs

Uncertainties
17
2.6 EFFECTS ON LINE DESIGN
It is well known that stranded conductors are more susceptible to Aeolian vibrations as
tension is increased. This is true for all conductor systems, whether they are used as single
conductors or in bundles and whether or not they are fitted with damping and/or spacing
devices. Therefore, there is a need to set an upper limit to conductor unloaded tension that
may prevail for a significant period of time.
Unarmoured, unprotected single conductors of the most common types are considered in the
first part, starting with a critical examination of the so-called `EDS concept’ (% of the
Ultimate Tensile Strength), which was put forward in 1962 by CIGRÉ SC 6 with the intent to
provide guidance on conductor safe design tensions with respect to aeolian vibration. It is
noted, for example, that the 18% EDS value which was proposed as safe for ACSR
conductors led to fatigue failures in a significant number of cases, thus calling into question
the relevance of the `EDS concept’) as a suitable conductor tension parameter.
This question has been addressed recently by CIGRÉ WG11-TF4, which proposed H/w, the
ratio between the initial horizontal tensile load H and conductor weight w per unit length, as
limiting parameter. Another parameter of prime importance is wind turbulence, which relates
to the roughness of the terrain crossed by the lines. Wind turbulence has considerable
influence on the power imparted to vibrating conductors. By using the various analytical
models, recommendations are presented for safe design tensions of unarmored, unprotected
single conductors. These recommendations are ratified by comparison with field experience,
which provides a `reality check’.
In a second part, single conductor lines protected by means of Stockbridge-type vibration

dampers installed at span ends are examined. The addition of dampers requires the
introduction of another parameter to define the protective capacities of the damping system.
The parameter that was selected by CIGRÉ WG11-TF4 is LD/m, the ratio of the product of
span length L and conductor diameter D to conductor mass m per unit length.
(Comment by G Diana - This is not a non dimensional parameter and its relationship to the
physics of the phenomenon is questionable. Making reference to the Scruton number, it seems
more appropriate to introduce another parameter defined as LD2ρ/m, ρ being the fluid
density)
The second part describes the analytical models that were used to predict safe design tensions
by making reference to Section 2.5. Comparison is then made with all available test line and
field experiences, again as a `reality check’. The recommendations are provided both
graphically and algebraically.
The last part deals with bundled conductor lines, particularly twin horizontal bundles, triple
apex-down bundles and quad horizontal bundles made up of conventional stranded conductors
fitted with damping spacers, non-damping spacers or a combination of non-damping spacers
and span-end Stockbridge-type dampers.
Firstly, a thorough review of the literature describing previous field tests was carried out. This
referred to dedicated test lines where bundled conductors were set up in parallel with identical
single conductors at the same tension. Field experience gathered on 91 bundled conductor
lines erected mainly in North America was also reviewed. This is followed by a description of
18
the methodologies that were used to arrive at safe design tension for each one of a number of
bundled conductor systems. In this case, these methodologies are purely empirical, relying on
field experience and full-scale test line data. The safe design tension recommendations thus
derived are summarised in a table in the form of simple algebraic expressions, each one
associated to a specific conductor system and one out of four terrain categories.
(Comment by G Diana - It can be observed that the data base used to set these
recommendations is quite specific (only bundles in North America) and no analytical support
is given. Other experimental data will be added and analytical support will be included to
check the validity of the recommendations)
19
2.7 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
The aim of field vibration measurements on conductors and earth wires is to obtain data on
their vibration behaviour and to assess the risk of fatigue failure. The main objectives of such
measurements include:
• Quantitative evaluation of the severity of the vibration and the danger it poses to the line.
• Acceptance tests and assessment of the performance of a damping system installed on the
line.
• Establishment of inspection plans.
• Comparison of the theoretically predicted and actual vibration behaviour of a line.
In order to carry out field tests, vibration recorders or live-line recorders have been developed.
These recorders have progressed from the predominantly mechanical devices of the fifties to
today’s sophisticated digital recorders, which have large memory and powerful signal analysis
processors etc. Using an IEEE recommendation from 1966, practically all recorders measure a
physical parameter called bending amplitude, which is the deflection of the vibrating
conductor at a certain distance (89 mm) from the last point of conductor contact with the
suspension clamp, this being the most common location of attachment of these recorders.
Based on long-term experience and laboratory fatigue tests, this can then be related to the
fatigue endurance of the conductor in question.
It is common practice to record a sample of the bending amplitude for a few seconds at
regular intervals (commonly 10 seconds every 15 minutes), the underlying assumption being
that the vibration pattern does not change significantly during this period. This signal sample
is analysed by the recorder software and “reduced” to frequency/amplitude data pairs, which
are then stored in a matrix (up to 64 x 64 cells). It is recommended that the measurement
duration is at least 3 months because the data obtained during this period are deemed to be
typical for the projected lifetime of a line, which can be well above 50 years. As with any
kind of measurements, there are possibilities of errors, such as:
• Systematic and random errors of the instrumentation: - linearity, offset, EMF-effects, etc.
• Installation errors causing the incorrect location of the bending amplitude sensor.
• Errors caused by the influence of the mass and the rotational inertia of the recorder on the
vibration pattern.
• Errors caused by inadequacies in the devices used to attach the recorder to the hardware.
For the purposes of evaluation, the measured bending amplitudes are often converted to
bending strain/stress values by using the Poffenberger/Swart formula explained elsewhere in
this book. These latter values are then compared to well-accepted endurance limits. Another
approach is to compare the so-called accumulated stress curve gained from the measurements
with the S/N (Wöhler) curve of the conductor/clamp combination in question or with the so-
called safe border line developed by CIGRE. A linear damage accumulation theory (Miner’s
law) is sometimes used to try to get a rough estimate of the life expectancy of the conductor.
Both approaches have arguments for and against their use, which will be explained in detail
and which also provide scope for future work.
Worked examples will be given to assist understanding of this procedure as well as tables of
the endurance limits of the most common conductors and earthwires, which have been already
included in the first edition of the Orange Book.
20
(U Cosmai noted that the existing paragraph can be updated and enlarged by using the
content of the following documents:
1. Guide to vibration measurements on overhead lines CIGRE TF 22.11.2 1995

2. Assessment of vibration severity on actual lines (Brochure) CIGRE TF B2.11.7 2005
3. Draft guide for aeolian vibration field measurements of overhead conductors IEEE 2005)
21
E
CHAPTER 3, FATIGUE OF OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS
E-1
3
FATIGUE OF OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS
3.1 Introduction
Fatigue failure of strands in overhead conductors is the most common form of damage resulting
from aeolian vibration. Conductor fatigue may also result from galloping and from wake-induced
oscillation, but is not the primary penalty associated with those motions. Aeolian vibration may
cause fatigue of other line components such as armor rods, dampers, ties, insulators, and tower
members.
Fatigue of conductor strands occurs at points where motion of the conductor is constrained
against transverse vibration, such as the vertical motion of aeolian vibration. These points
include: support locations, suspension clamps, clamp-top and pin insulators, goatheads, and
deadends. They also include damper and bundle conductor spacer clamps, hot-line taps, splices,
and armor rod end clamps. Fatigue failures have occurred on occasion at each of these locations.
The incidence of fatigue relative to the above locations is directly associated with the rigidity
with which conductor motion is restrained. The vast majority of fatigued strands are found at
tangent supports where structural stiffness in the vertical direction is required to support the load
associated with the weight span. At the other locations listed above, there is some vertical
mobility of the clamp or compression device that seizes the conductor. This mobility is often
reduced by resonances of the parts involved. For example, fatigue at deadends often involves a
resonance of the insulator string and jumper system. Fatigue at damper locations usually is
associated with a poorly-damped resonance of the damper, or resonance of the segment of
conductor between the damper and the adjacent support.
Fatigue failures of strands have occurred in all basic conductor types: ACSR, all-aluminum
whether EC or alloy, copper, copperweld, and steel, whether galvanized or aluminum-clad.
Fatigue of conductor strands is caused by the cyclic bending of the conductors where their
motion is restrained. However, that fatigue is not a bending fatigue situation, as found in
standard fatigue tests on smooth specimens. Rather, it is a case of fretting fatigue occurring at
strand surfaces because of the cyclic microslip induced by the conductor motion. While fretting
fatigue life decreases with increasing bending amplitude, beyond a certain amplitude, fretting
fatigue gives way to fretting wear which is generally less critical.. Yet, if fretting wear is
occurring at some points in a particular conductor, restrained by a particular clamp, fretting
fatigue is certainly occurring at other points where relative slip is more restrained (closer to the
clamp, or deeper in the conductor). Thus, in a conductor, fretting wear, with the corresponding
3-1
debris (black powder), is a good indicator of fretting fatigue, a crack propagation phenomenon
which is otherwise difficult to detect.
More importantly, for a given conductor-clamp system, there is apparently an amplitude of

bending which, if not exceeded, can be endured almost indefinitely. This amplitude corresponds
to an endurance limit for the clamp-conductor combination. Because of the complex stress state
in a contact area at which microslip occurs, there is no direct relationship between the endurance
limit of the material, as found in material handbooks, and that of the clamp-conductor system
(Cloutier et al. 2003). A good example of that can be found in (EPRI 1987) where fatigue tests
on an ACAR conductor are reported. In that conductor, the outer layer is made of 1350-H19
aluminum, while inner strands are made of 6201-T81 alloy, whose reported fatigue limit (at 500
million cycles) is almost double the outer one. Yet, 80% of strand failures have been found to be
inner strand failures.
If the endurance limit is exceeded in a particular line, the rapidity with which failures appear is
determined by the degree to which that limit is exceeded, and by the rate at which cycles of high-
amplitude accumulate. In some cases, fatigue has appeared within a few months of stringing,
while in others failures have been discovered only after years of service. Figure 3.1-1 shows the
distribution of the times for discovery of fatigue, based on a study of U.S. experience made by
Alcoa Laboratories in 1962 (EPRI 1979).
Figure 3.1-1 Elapsed years between date of construction and date when damage
discovered.
Severity of damage, in terms of number of broken strands at any location, is also determined by
the amplitudes of bending experienced, and their accumulated cycles. Fatigue, once initiated at a
location, often spreads to more and more strands if the vibration continues unabated, and can
eventually result in fracture of all strands of the same material as that which failed first. Then, if
the conductor is an ACSR, fatigue may halt when only the steel core is left. In most cases,
however, line current is great enough to heat the steel core and anneal it at the location where it
is the only remaining current path. When that happens, the steel core may fail in tension.
3-2
The progress of fatigue through the aluminum strands under continued vibration is illustrated in
Figure 3.1-2. The figure is based upon data from a laboratory fatigue test of 795 kcmil ACSR
(45/7) (Silva 1976). Conductor tension was 26% of rated strength, and the severity of bending, as
measured by the amplitude of the conductor relative to the clamp at a distance of 89 mm from it,
was 0.61 mm (24 mils). The nearly linear accumulation of conductor damage with cycles of
vibration, shown in the figure, is just an example of that found in such test and should not be
generalized.
In multilayer ACSR's, those having more than one layer of aluminum strands, the first strands to
break may be in the outer layer or in a layer below it. An example of a line in which initial
failure in the outer layer predominated is represented in Table 3.1-1 (EPRI 1979). The table is
based upon inspection of all support points at the time the line was reconditioned after about 25
years of service, and shows the number of support points having various combinations of inner -
and outer-layer strand failures. The conductor had two aluminum layers, the outer with 18
strands and the inner with 12. Note that there were no instances in which failures were found in
the inner layer when the outer layer was intact. There were no complete conductor failures in the
line.
Figure 3.1-2. Progress of fatigue in 795 kcrnil ACSR (45/7). (Silva 1976).
In contrast, there have been cases in other lines where inner-layer strands failed before outer-
layer strands. This sequence of failure has been reproduced in laboratory fatigue tests of ACSR.
For example, Table 3.1.2 shows the sequence of failure by layer in a test on 954 kcmil ACSR
(45/7) at Alcoa Laboratories (EPRI 1979). Conductor tension was 25% of Rated Strength, and
the bending amplitude was 0.88 mm (34.5 mils), a rather high amplitude for that size of a
conductor. In general, on multi-layer conductors, bending amplitudes slightly above the
endurance limit generate failures on the outer layer or on the next one. Inner layer failures only
occur at higher amplitudes.
3-3
Table 3.1-1
( )
RELATIVE OCCURRENCE OF BROKEN STRANDS IN INNER AND OUTER LAYERS OF ACSR CABLE *
CONDUCTOR: 397.5 kcmil ACSR (30/7)
Broken Inner-Layer Strands
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0 117
1 55 1 1
2 66 4
3 53 19 3 1
4 16 21 13 3
Broken Outer Strands
5 14 8 14 6 2
6 10 8 17 12 3 1
7 7 6 15 14 3
8 7 5 6 7 7 3 1
9 4 1 4 8 5 1
10 1 4 1 1 1
11 3 1 1 1
12 2 1 1 1 1
13 2
14 1 1 1 1
15 1 1
16
17
18
*All strand breaks were found at support clamps after line had been in service for approximately 25 years.
Table 3.1-2
SEQUENCE OF STRAND FAILURE IN MULTI-LAYER ACSR
Megacycles Layer in Which
of Vibration Failure Occurred
5.29
Middle
6.99 Middle
7.56 Middle
8.47 Middle
8.62 Middle
8.81 Middle
9.03 Inner
9.05 Inner
9.25 Inner
11.00 Middle
11.49 Middle
11.79 Middle
11.87 Inner
11.96 Outer
The lag between first inner-layer failure and first outer-layer failure, and the number of inner
strands that break before outer-layer failure occurs, are important relative to inspection of
operating lines. Visual inspections detect only outer-layer damage and thus may overlook
evidence of inadequate vibration protection until significant damage has already occurred.
In the series of tests from which Table 3.1-2 is taken, there were five in which the first outer-
layer failure followed inner-1ayer failure. For those tests the ratio of cycles required to cause
outer-layer failure to cycles to cause first inner-layer failure averaged 3.8. The maximum
3-4
number of inner failures preceding outer failures was 13, as represented in Table 3.1-2. The
average for the five tests was 5.4, or about 12% of the aluminum strands.
In a series of twenty-three fatigue tests on 397.5 kcmil ACSR (26/ 7) reported by Seppä (Seppä
1969) outer-layer failure followed inner-layer failure in seven tests. In these seven tests, the
average ratio of cycles at first outer-layer failure to cycles at first inner-layer failure was 2.4, and
the average number of inner breaks preceding outer failure was 1.86 or about 7% of the aluminum
strands. There were three additional tests in this series that were terminated before outer-layer
failure occurred. Had it occurred just at the time each of these tests was terminated, then the
average ratio of outer-to inner-layer cycles to failure, in the tests where inner failure occurred
first, would have been 3.2, and the average number of inner strands broken before outer-strand
failure would have been 2.7, or 10% of the aluminum strands. Based on these data, the average
time lag between first fatigue and first visible evidence of it may be by a ratio on the order of 3 or 4,
and the average loss of aluminum area preceding first outer-layer failure may be about 10 or 15%.
The maximum lag in any test was by a ratio of 12 to 1, and the maximum aluminum area loss
preceding outer visible evidence was 29%. These figures pertain to conductor-clamp combinations
and amplitudes that favor inner-layer failure. In a significant fraction of cases, when amplitude is
not too far above the conductor-clamp system endurance limit, outer-layer failures occur first.
Transmission engineers are faced with several practical questions with respect to fatigue damage
in existing lines.
a. Are failures likely to occur?
b. Have they occurred yet?
c. If so, what should be done?
These questions are discussed in the following sections. Section 3.2 will deal with endurance of
conductors to constant amplitude vibration in terms of parameters that can be measured in an
operating line. Measurement methods described in Appendix xmay then be applied to assess the
likelihood of damage occurring in a particular line.
Section 3.3 will examine how constant amplitude results can be used in the variable amplitude
case. Section 3.4 will discuss testing and inspection of operating lines. Section 3.5 will discuss
remedial measures.
3.2 Fatigue Endurance of Conductors
Relating the measurable vibration of an overhead span of conductor to the likelihood of fatigue
of its strands is a complicated matter. The complications arise primarily from two facts. First, the
stresses that cause the failures are complex and not related in a simple way to the gross motions
of the conductor involved. Second, the failures originate at locations where there is surface
contact and fretting between components.
Inspection and failure analysis of a large number of fatigue breaks from field and laboratory
spans indicate that fatigue cracks always originate at places where the strand that broke was in
3-5
contact with another strand, with an armor rod, or with the clamping device (Fricke and Rawlins
1968; Seppä 1969; Möcks 1970, Silva 1976, Cardou et al. 1994). The stresses at these locations
are combinations of static stresses due to conductor tension, bending, and the compressive force
between the members, and of dynamic stresses due to bending, fluctuation of tension, and
traction between the contacting members. Models are available to evaluate a conductor global
bending behavior (Papailiou 1997). Also, cyclic stresses at points of contact between the outer
layer and the next have been obtained, under purely elastic behaviour hypothesis, and with
simple boundary conditions (Leblond and Hardy 2005). Yet, a realistic analysis relating all these
stresses, including contact stresses and microslip for a specific conductor-clamp system to the
vibration of the conductor has yet to be published.
The endurance of metals to combined stresses has received considerable attention in recent
decades, and several criteria for rating such stresses relative to fatigue have been developed and
are in use. A similar effort has been made to obtain criteria for fretting damage to the contacting
surfaces (Hills.and Nowell 1994; Fouvry et al. 2000). Application of these criteria is generally
restricted to specific materials, contact conditions and loadings.
No satisfactory criterion is available yet to evaluate analytically the fatigue behavior of

conductors from the fatigue properties of the materials used in their construction and the stresses
that occur in them. Thus, fatigue characteristics of conductors must be determined by fatigue
tests of conductors themselves. These tests should be performed on conductor-clamp systems
reproducing as closely as possible the field loading conditions. In such tests, the fatigue life of
the conductor must be determined as a function of some measure of vibration intensity, rather
than of the stress or stress combination that causes the failure, since that stress is not accessible
to measurement.
Several measures of vibration intensity have been employed:
a. Free-loop amplitude of vibration, Ymax (Little et al. 1950; Overhead Conductor Vibration
1961; Hondalus 1964; Smollinger and Sitter 1965)
b. Angle through which the conductor is bent at the clamp by the vibration β (Seppä 1969;
Bolser and Kanouse 1948; Helms 1964)
c. Bending amplitude (amplitude of conductor relative to clamp, measured a short distance
from the clamp), Yb (Tebo 1941; IEEE 1966; Josiki et al. 1976, Cloutier et al. 1999)
d. Dynamic strain in an outer-layer strand in the vicinity of the clamp, ε (Yamagata et al. 1969;
Nakayama et al. 1970)
Fatigue curves have been developed through tests in laboratory spans using each of these
parameters as the measure of vibration intensity.
Four problems arise in applying such fatigue curves in assessing vibration of field spans. One is
that the parameter expressing vibration intensity may be inconvenient to measure reliably in the
field (a, b, d) or doesn't do justice to the complicated behavior found there (a) (Hard 1958;
Rawlins and Harvey 1959). It is because of this problem that bending amplitude (c) is the most
widely used parameter for measurement of vibration of operating lines (IEEE 1966).
3-6
The second problem is that vibration fatigue test data are available for only a small fraction of
the conductor sizes and types that are in use, and such data are expensive to acquire. Since none
of the above parameters is simply related to the fatigue-initiating stresses, results from tests on
one conductor size are not necessarily applicable to others.
The third problem is that fatigue tests have to be performed with a particular clamp, which may
differ from the one at hand. And it has been found that different types of clamps may yield quite
different fatigue test results.
Finally, the fourth problem arises when field vibration amplitude is not a constant, while
available fatigue tests are performed keeping the selected amplitude parameter constant.
The second problem has been dealt with in practice by assuming that there is some idealized
strain or stress that can be calculated from vibration amplitude, and that correlates well enough
with conductor fatigue life to permit its use in establishing a single endurance limit for a range of
conductor sizes. To the extent that the approach is valid, fatigue information on one size can be
applied throughout that range, or piecemeal fatigue data scattered over a number of sizes within
the range of validity can be combined by putting them on a common basis: the calculated stress.
Use of such an idealized stress, at present, lacks a fundamental analytical basis. However, ranges
of conductor size and support arrangement have been found where its use gives results that are
reliable enough to be usefully applied.
There is no solution yet to the third problem. The general hypothesis is that within a given type,
clamp geometry is not a primary factor. Some tests, however, have shown that this is not quite
the case (McGill and Ramey 1986; EPRI 1987). The best solution is of course to have fatigue
tests performed with the same clamp as the one considered in the application.
The fourth problem, variable amplitude, or spectrum loading, will be dealt with in Section 3.3
3.2.1 Conductor Fatigue Mechanisms
Before taking up the calculation of idealized stress and its correlation with fatigue, some
discussion of actual fatigue mechanisms is worthwhile.
Standard overhead conductors are comprised of concentric layers of helically-laid strands. The
tensions of the strands of each layer cause them to embrace the layer or core below with a certain
amount of pressure. This pressure lends structural stability to the conductor. It also results in
friction between strands, and thus impedes their sliding motion relative to one another during
vibration.
Were there no interstrand friction, there would be no possibility of variation in the tension in a
strand along its length. If a conductor having frictionless strands were flexed, the strand tensions
in a layer might or might not change. For example, the strand represented at a in Figure 3.2-1
would undergo no tension change because its arc length would not be affected by the bending.
The arc length of the strand represented at b would change however, resulting in a change in its
tension. Were the conductor many lay lengths long, the change in arc length would be dissipated
3-7
over a great length of strand, and the change in tension would be slight. Thus, for long
conductor lengths, in a frictionless conductor, individual strand tensions would not be changed
by flexure of the conductor at its ends. In the absence of tension changes in the strands, the
flexural rigidity of the conductor would simply be the sum of individual strand flexural
rigidities. Dynamic stresses would be only those associated with bending of each strand about its
own neutral axis.
Note that when the cable of Figure 3.2-1 (a) is bent, the strand slides along the core in the
direction indicated by the small arrow. Sliding also occurs in the cable at b, indicated by the
arrows.
Figure 3.2-1. Effects of conductor bending upon movement of outer strand.
Real conductors do not have frictionless strands, and, for the small amounts of flexure
experienced due to vibration waves out in the span, the friction present between strands is
normally great enough to prevent gross sliding between them. The relative axial movements of
the strands are absorbed in largely-elastic shear strains around the small areas of inter-strand
contact indicated in Figure 3.2-2.However, very small amounts of sliding, called microslip, do
take place at the peripheries of the interstrand contacts where the contact pressure tapers to zero.
Figure 3.2-2. Area of inter-layer strand contact.
Near supporting clamps, conductor curvatures caused by vibration are much larger than in the
free span. The attendant sliding forces there overcome frictional restraint much more readily.
Microslip amplidude increases and even gross sliding may occur, as indicated by the arrow in
Figure 3.2-3.
3-8
Figure 3.2-3. Strand motion adjacent to clamp.
A noteworthy situation arises when the interstrand tractions are almost large enough to cause
sliding. The interstrand contacts are nominally line contacts between the core and the innermost
layer of strands, and point contacts between strands of adjacent layers. Actually, the line contacts
expand into strip contacts, and the point contacts into ellipses of finite size because of the
bearing forces acting upon them. The sizes of the contact areas expand, mainly through plastic
deformation of the strands. Contact pressure distribution is more or less uniform at a value
corresponding to the bearing yield strength of the strand material, between two and three times
the material yield strength, of about 170 MPa (25 ksi) for conductor-grade aluminum. That
pressure decreases to zero on the boundary of the contact region. The tangential surface traction
required to cause sliding is this normal stress multiplied by the static coefficient of friction,
which is about 0.7 between aluminum strands. Under tangential surface traction, there always is
a microslip region near the contact zone boundary (for a circular region, it would be an annulus).
That region increases when bending amplitude increases. Then, the dynamic shear stresses at the
threshold of sliding may become quite high. Because of the cyclic bending of the conductor,
microslip direction is reversed as does the shear stress in the contact region. This cycling will
often generate small cracks which will propagate up to a certain point. Because of the contact
pressure many cracks are stabilized. However, if the vibration amplitude is large enough, some
cracks grow beyond the compression zone and enter in the region where the dominating stress is
the tensile stress from the conductor axial load. The small variation of that stress will then suffice
to grow the crack up to complete strand fracture. The process is easily observed on the broken
wire: a crack starts at a small angle with the strand surface (mode II, or normal shear, cracking).
Then it will rotate and become normal to the strand axis (mode I, or opening mode, cracking).
Shear stresses are reduced when amplitudes are large enough to cause gross sliding at a contact.
One gets fretting wear instead of fretting fatigue. Wear expands the area of contact, and the
tangential tractions are further reduced by the lubricating effect of wear products. In such cases,
strand fracture will occur at inner layers where sliding is impeded by the higher contact
pressures. Thus, in a conductor-clamp system, occurrence of fretting wear is a definite sign that
fretting fatigue is also occurring, if not at the same points of contact.
As noted earlier, all fatigue breaks of conductor strands appear to originate at strand contacts
where fretting has occurred. There are numerous such contacts in the vicinity of a clamp,
between the various strands and between the outer-layer strands and the clamp or armor rods, if
any. Figure 3.2-4 shows the second layer of strands in a sample of 795 kcmil ACSR (54/7)
3-9
fatigue tested in the laboratory (Overhead Conductor Vibration 1961). The region shown was
adjacent to a fixed clamp, and numerous fretted contact points and several fatigue failures are
visible.
Figure 3.2-4. Fretting and fatigue of second layer of strands 795 kcmil ACSR (54/7). (Overhead
Conductor Vibration 1961).
Closer examination of the breaks permits identification of the origins of the cracks. For example,
the pattern of radiating ridges and the texture variation in the failure surface of Figure 3.2-5
identify the fretted region as the origin of the crack.
Figure 3.2-5. Failure surface of fatigued strand (EPRI 1979).
Microscopic examination of cross-sections of fretted zones, such as that of Figure 3.2-6, shows a
surface layer of highly disordered structure containing a fine lacework of cracks, heavily loaded
with aluminum oxide. This layer is created by repeated welding of the high points or asperities of
the contacting surfaces, and breaking of virgin metal adjacent to the welds, under repeated small
tangential movements of the two surfaces relative to each other. Eventually, a crack may be
formed as in the figure. Depending on the vibration amplitude it may remain stable in the
compression zone, or it may grow beyond that region and become the origin of a fatigue break
(Ouaki et al. 2003).
As a matter of observation, fatigue breaks in conductor favor those strand locations where
movements have caused crack initiation and propagation (fretting fatigue) but not gross wear
(fretting wear). The reason for this is that the latter removes material from the strand surface
faster than young cracks can propagate, so that the stress raisers are destroyed at inception.
Besides, wear debris may act as a lubricant, leading to a decrease in the coefficient of friction,
and consequently to smaller contact tangential stresses (Zhou et al. 1992).
3-10
The cracks created from the zone of fretting drastically reduce the fatigue strength of the strand
relative to its unfretted strength. Some tests on individual strands have shown a decrease by a
factor of two (Lanteigne et al. 1986). The magnitude of the effect is not the same in all aluminum
alloys. In fact, because of the difference in crack propagation properties, the reduction in fatigue
strength is greater the stronger the alloy. Differences in fatigue resistance among aluminum
conductors of different alloy do appear in fatigue tests, as will be noted in the Section
“Comparison of Calculated with Measured Stress.”
Figure 3.2-6. Microscopic cross section of fretted strand (EPRI 1979).
3.2.2 Calculation Of Idealized Stress
The mechanisms described above are complex enough that any analysis of the vibration stresses
in a conductor has to be approximate. It is generally sufficient, however, to determine one
indicator which can be used in conjunction with fatigue tests. The following one, which is based
upon convenient assumptions has been employed to arrive at a nominal stress for rating the
fatigue-inducing intensity of vibration. The particular stress that is customarily nominated for
this purpose is the alternating stress in the topmost outer-layer strand, at the point where the
conductor enters, or becomes restrained by, the clamp. As we shall see, the stress calculation is
based on the hypothesis of complete strand independence, which implies that, actually, all
strands are supposed to undergo the same alternating stress as the topmost outer-layer strand.
There are several ways to assess this stress. One is measurement by strain-gage. Figure 3.2-7
shows fatigue curves for 25.3 mm diameter ACSR (26/7) at three levels of conductor tension,
when the conductor was supported by a rigid, square-faced aluminum bushing (Yamagata et al.
1969). The dynamic stresses shown were determined from measured strains on outer layer
strands.
3-11
Figure 3.2-7. Results of fatigue tests on 25.3 mm diameter ACSR (26/7) based on measured outer-
layer dynamic strain (Yamagata et al. 1969).
Because of the inconvenience of strain measurements (and because it has been found to vary
vary a lot from one strand to the other), it is more common to use a value of the nominal stress
that is calculated from an easily-measured vibration amplitude, a characteristic of the whole
conductor. In such calculations, the conductor is treated as a solid rod under tension for purposes
of determining the alternating curvature of the conductor at the clamp caused by vibration, i.e.
the variation in curvature about the static curvature associated with sag. Some value of flexural
rigidity, constant along the conductor, is assumed in the calculations. Dynamic strain is estimated
from the alternating curvature
The value customarily used for flexural rigidity is the sum of the flexural rigidities of the
individual strands, where each strand is assumed to be straight (lay angle is neglected) and to
bend about its own neutral axis. Thus, all strands are assumed to undergo the same alternating
stress, independently of their distance from the conductor effective neutral axis, a rather drastic
assumption.
Several similar analyses of the shape of a vibrating stiff wire, rigidly clamped at its ends, have
been published (Morse 1948, p. 166 et seq.; Steidel 1959; Scanlan and Swart 1968; Seppä 1969;
Claren and Diana 1969). A concise analysis is presented in Appendix 3.1. The following
simplified analysis takes advantage of several approximations that introduce errors that are
generally small enough to be neglected.
Assume that the conductor is straight and vibrates in standing waves as in Figure 3.2-8, and that
the supporting clamp is rigidly fixed. Assume further that the region adjacent to the clamp where
the shape of the conductor departs significantly from that of a sine-shaped loop is short
compared with the loop length, as indicated by a in the figure. The shape in this region is shown
in more detail in Figure 3.2-9, in which a dashed line represents the end of the sine-shape loop,
from which the conductor departs. The dashed line is almost straight in this region. The
conductor axis, which is assumed to be horizontal at the clamp, becomes asymptotic to the sine-
shaped loop with increasing distance from the clamp.
3-12
Figure 3.2-8. Standing wave vibration, with rigidly fixed supporting clamp at left end of section a.
Figure 3.2-9. Enlargement of section a (from Figure 3.2-8).
If the dashed locus is taken to be indeed straight, and the amplitudes of motion are small enough
in region a that inertia forces can be neglected, then the dashed line may be taken as the line-of-
action of the conductor tension. If this is the case, the bending moment acting at any cross-
section is equal to the tension H multiplied by the departure yt of the conductor's axis from that
line of action, as in Figure 3.2-10.
Figure 3.2-10. Departure (yt) of conductor centerline from sine-shaped loop, as conductor
approaches fixed supporting clamp.
Now, the curvature of the conductor is given by:
d 2 yt M
= (rad/m) (3.2-1)
dx 2 EI
3-13
where M is local bending moment and EI is flexural rigidity.
Since M = Hyt,
d 2 yt H
= yt (rad/m) (3.2-2)
dx 2 EI
and yt = Ae ± px + C1 x + C2 where p = H / EI , and A, C1 and C2 are constants of integration to
be determined by boundary conditions. Since yt approaches zero for large x, yt = Ae − px is the
admissible solution.
The slope of the conductor axis relative to the line of action of the tension is:
dyt
= − pAe− px (dimensionless) (3.2-
dx
3)
From Figure 3.2-9, the value of the slope at x = 0 (at the clamp, with respect to the line of action)
is equal to the angle β and the curvature of the conductor as it emerges from the clamp is:
⎛ d 2 yt ⎞ H
⎜ 2 ⎟ = pβ = β (rad/m) (3.2-4)
⎝ dx ⎠ x=0 EI
The angle β may be determined from the frequency and amplitude of motion of the span. For
standing wave vibration, the amplitude y at any location in the span remote from region a is:
2π f
y = ymax sin ( x − x1 ) (m) (3.2-5)
VT
in which V T = H / m is the velocity of traveling waves on the conductor, and x1 is the distance
from the clamp to the point where the line of action of conductor tension intercepts the x axis.
The node angle β is equal to the maximum of dy/dx, and this turns out to be:
2π fymax
β= (rad) (3.2-6)
H /m
Thus the conductor curvature at the clamp becomes:
⎛ d2yt ⎞ m
⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2π fy max (rad/m) (3.2-7)
⎝ dx ⎠ x =0 EI
3-14
and the bending moment at that location is:
⎛ d2y ⎞
M o = EI ⎜ 2 t ⎟ = 2π mEI fy max (N.m) (3.2-8)
⎝ dx ⎠ x =0
It is interesting to note in this equation that the bending moment Mo is independent of conductor
tension H. The reason is that, referring to Figure 3.2-9, Mo = Hya, but the greater the tension the
more sharply the conductor is curved as it emerges from the clamp, so the smallery ya is. In fact,
they vary in inverse production, so their effects upon Mo cancel.
Now the curvature and bending moment at the clamp may be calculated on the basis of an
amplitude other than ymax. If that amplitude is measured within region a of Figure 3.2-8 the
calculation is particularly simple. It can be seen from Figures 3.2-9 and 3.2-10 that this y of the
conductor relative to the x axis, assuming a small angle β, is:
y = − ya + β x + yt (m) (3.2-9)
Now, from Equation (3.2-4):
1 ⎛ d2yt ⎞
β= ⎜ ⎟ = pA (rad) (3.2-10)
p ⎝ dx 2 ⎠ x =0
Also, ya = A, so:
y = − A + pAx + Ae − px (m) (3.2-11)
and:
⎛ d2yt ⎞ 2 p2 y
⎜ 2 ⎟ = p A = (rad/m) (3.2-12)
⎝ dx ⎠ x =0 e( − px ) − 1 + px
While the general principle of the calculation of yt(x) is due to Isaachsen (Isaachsen 1907),
Equation (3.2-12) was first reported by J. C. Poffenberger and R. L. Swart (Poffenberger and
Swart 1965) and is called the Poffenberger-Swart Formula.
The industry standard position for measuring y is at x = 89 mm (3.5 in.) (IEEE 1966) and, when
measured at that position, its peak-to-peak value is called “bending amplitude,” Yb. ( Yb = 2 y .)
Equations (3.2-4), (3.2-7) and (3.2-12) provide three means for calculating conductor curvature
at the clamp, based upon node point vibration angle, frequency, and free-loop amplitude or
3-15
bending amplitude respectively. In practice, the vibration angle β is usually calculated from
measured values of f and ymax according to Equation (3.2-6).
Estimated dynamic strain in the conductor strands at the clamp is calculated by multiplying the
dynamic curvature there by an assumed distance from the neutral plane of bending to the
outermost fiber. Half of strand diameter, or d/2 is the value usually assumed. Again, this is
equivalent to assuming that a strand bends with respect to its own neutral axis. Thus the three
bases for estimating curvature at the clamp lead to the following three equations for estimating
the alternating stress in the top surface of the conductor at the clamp:
dE a H
σa = β (Pa) (3.2-13)
2 EI
m
σ a = π dEa fymax (Pa) (3.2-14)
EI
dEa p 2 / 4
σa = Yb (Pa) (3.2-15)
e− px − 1 + px
in which Ea is Young's modulus for the outer-layer strand material.
3.2.3 Comparison Of Calculated With Measured Stress
The correlation of calculated with measured values of σ a may appear to be somewhat academic,
since the stresses that initiate fatigue failures are located at metal-to-metal contacts, and σ a is a
free-surface stress. The comparisons do, however, provide some measure of the sensitivity of the
analysis to the degree of idealization involved in the assumptions employed. For example, the
nominal value of EI used here, and by many workers, is the sum of the flexural rigidities of the
individual strands, which is its minimum theoretical value (EI)min (if one neglects the strand lay
angle). However, dynamically-derived values of EI are sometimes 10 to 50 times as great
(Scanlan and Swart 1968). Indeed, in small amplitude vibration, there is practically no interlayer
slip. Thus, one would expect EI to take a value near its maximum (EI)max, when the section
behaves as in a solid beam, plane sections remaining plane. However, micro-slip does occur at
points of contact. Besides, elastic tangential compliance at these points also plays a role in
lowering the flexural rigidity (Hardy and Leblond 2003). Thus, (EI)max is never obtained.
In view of these departures from reality, there is a surprising degree of correlation between
measurement and prediction. For example, Figure 3.2-11 shows the alternating stress determined
by strain gage measurement versus fymax from a series of tests of 1/0 ACSR performed at Alcoa
Laboratories (EPRI 1979). The conductor was supported in a square-faced aluminum bushing.
The measurements cover tensions of 15%, 25%, and 35% of rated conductor strength, and
frequencies ranging from 10 to about 115 Hz. There is a clear one-to-one correspondence
between σ a and fymax. The factor of proportionality is 0.147 MPa per mm/s, which compares well
with the calculated value of 0.171. The ratio of measured to calculated σ a /fymax is 0.86. If one
3-16
assumes some degree of restraint between the strands, EI increases and calculated values can be
made to coincide with the measured values. Here, it should be slightly more than 1.35(EI)min ,
taking into account the fact that strand radius d has also to be replaced by some equivalent
distance comprised between d and 1.5 d. Note that in the 6/1 case, assuming identical strands and
neglecting the lay angle(EI)max = 7.86 (EI)min .
Similar measurements on multi-layer conductors show some scatter in this ratio, but the scatter is
small, considering the crudeness of the assumptions noted above. Table 3.2-1 shows this ratio for
several published series of measurements.
In the tests by Helms, the clamp was allowed to rock, and an effective bending angle,
corresponding to the sum of β and the angle of rocking, was reported. For Table 3.2-1, this
angle was treated as β in Equation (3.2-6) to obtain the equivalent fymax.
Good correlation is also found between measured σ a and that calculated on the basis of bending
amplitude Yb using Equation (3.2-15). Comparison between theory and experiment found in the
experiments of Poffenberger and Swart (Poffenberger and Swart 1965) is shown in Figure 3.2-
12, in which solid points pertain to high conductor tensions, and open points to low tensions.
Agreement is excellent, with measured stresses generally being slightly smaller than predicted by
theory, except for one “wild” point. However, in a separate series of measurements, Claren and
Diana (Claren and Diana 1969) obtained experimentally-determined stresses averaging 30%
higher than predicted by Equation (3.2-15), with the total range, found in tests on 13
combinations of conductor size and tension, running from 14% low to 73% high. They also
found that strain measurements varied a lot from one wire to the other. In either event,
correlation with experiment is rather good considering the assumptions under which theoretical
stress is calculated and because of these assumptions, the calculated stress level should be
considered as an indicator of conductor vibration severity rather than the actual dynamic bending
stress in the strands.
3-17
Figure 3.2-11. Dynamic bending stress based on strain gage measurement as function of fymax. 1/0
ACSR (6/1) supported by square-faced bushing. Tensions 15, 25 and 35% of rated strength.
Table 3.2-1
RATIO OF MEASURED TO CALCULATED VALUES OF σa/fymax
Conductor σ a ⎛ Meas. ⎞
References Diamater Type Stranding Clamp ⎜ ⎟
(mm) fy max ⎝ Calc. ⎠
Hard 1958 28.14 ACSR 26/7 Susp. 0.43
Seppä 1969 28.14 ACSR 26/7 Sq. Bushing 1.00
Helms 1964 28.0 AACSR 28/19 Deadend 0.43
Claren and Diana 1969 30.45 ACSR 18/19 Sq. Bushing 0.61
30.45 ACSR 18/19 Sq. Bushing 0.65
30.51 ACSR 42/7 Sq. Bushing 0.59
31.5 AACSR 54/19 Sq. Bushing 0.51
3-18
Figure 3.2-12. Comparison of theory and measurement for Poffenberger-Swart Formula
(Poffenberger and Swart 1965).
3.2.4 Use of Conductor Fatigue Test Data

The two following sections will present data from fatigue tests of various conductors in the form
of σ a -N curves, in which σ a is calculated from free-loop amplitude, using Equation (3.2-14) in
the Section “Fatigue Performance Relative to fymax” and on the basis of bending amplitude using
Equation (3.2-15), in the section “Fatigue Performance Relative to Bending Amplitude.” In both
sections, the σ a -N curves will be used to estimate endurance limits in terms of σ a , applicable to
certain ranges of conductors. These endurance limits will then be used to calculate the
corresponding amplitudes which can be endured “indefinitely” which is usually understood as
equivalent to being a life of 500x106 cycles without a strand failure These will be expressed in
the respective sections as fymax, and as Yb.
The data of these two Sections will pertain to unarmored conductor. In the Section “Effect of
Armor Rods,” data from fatigue tests of armored conductor will be presented. These data
indicate that the relationship between fatigue life and bending amplitude is not greatly changed
by the presence of armor rods. It will be suggested that bending amplitude endurance limits for
unarmored conductor be applied where armor rods are present.
The results of the Section “Fatigue Performance Relative to fymax” based on fymax as the measure
of vibration, cannot be directly applied in determining whether the vibration of a particular field
span is safe, since one of the assumptions underlying Equation (3.2-14) is that the clamp is
rigidly supported, and this is seldom the case in the field. That assumption is not inherent in
Equation (3.2-15), which is keyed to bending amplitude Yb. Furthermore, ymax is somewhat more
difficult to measure on operating lines than is Yb. The curves of the Section “Fatigue
Performance Relative to fymax” are included in spite of these limitations because endurance limits
in terms of fymax are available for some conductor types for which endurance limits in terms of Yb
are not. These fymax endurance limits may be converted to Yb endurance limits through laboratory
determination of the relationship between fymax and Yb as the need arises. That determination
entails a cost that is only a very small fraction of the cost of running a new series of fatigue tests.
3-19
One should also note that, for some types of suspension clamps, bending amplitude Yb cannot be
measured accurately as the last point of contact is not well defined. It is preferable to use
parameter fymax even if assumptions underlying Equation (3.2-14) are not fully met.
One should not combine equations (3.2-14) and (3.2-15) to arrive at a theoretical relationship
between fymax and Yb, to convert the fymax endurance limit because, in these equations, bending
stiffness EI is given a value a priori, which yields different values for the maximum curvature,
using Equation (3.2-14) or (3.2-15). Ratio Yb /fymax should be obtained experimentally for a
given axial load. In fact, it may be found that it also depends on vibration amplitude.
As a corollary, the σ a endurance limits estimated in the Section “Fatigue Performance Relative
to fymax” through use of Equation (3.2-14) should not be used to establish Yb endurance limits
Equation (3.2-15). The values of σ a obtained from the two equations are different surrogates for
the actual fatigue-initiating stress at the strand contacts where failures originate. The effects of
the simplifying assumptions in the Section “Calculation of Idealized Stress” can be expected to
cancel only if the same equation is used to take endurance limit information out of a σ a vs N
curve as was used to put fatigue test information in.
3.2.5 Fatigue Performance Relative To fymax
Data for the fatigue curves of this Section derive from tests in which ymax was measured or could
be determined from reported information. The idealized dynamic stress was thus calculated using
Equation (3.2-14).
m
σ a = π dEa fymax All of the data
EI
employed derive from laboratory vibration fatigue tests of conductors supported by rigid clamps.
The tests were run with constant amplitude.
Analysis of σ a -N curves employing available data indicates several things that will be brought
out in graphs below. First, the level of tension in the conductor seems to have little effect upon
the σ a -N relationship, given the conductor and its supporting clamp. Second, number of layers
appears to have some influence upon the σ a -N relationship within broad ranges of strandings,
given the conductor material and the supporting clamp. Third, the general σ a -N relationship is
relatively insensitive to clamp contour. However, no conclusion can be drawn from this set of
data with respect to the endurance limit, as no run-outs were obtained with the square-faced
bushings.
In the figures that follow, the tests are grouped according to:
a. Conductor material.
b. Stranding class.
c. Clamp type.
3-20
S-N DIAGRAM (Figure 3-16a) Tw o-layer ACSR
Preliminary version October 14
80 EPRI(1979)
EPRI(1979); run out
70 Ramey
Ramey run out
60 Drake
Drake run out
50
40
30
σa fct (fymax) [MPa]

20
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000
N at the first w ire break [Mc]
3-21
1000
Crow run out [ 2 pt s at (500,24)]
EPRI(1979) run out
Bersf ort run out

EPRI(1979)
Bersf ort
S-N DIAGRAM (Figure 3-16b) Three-layer ACSR
100
Crow

10
1
0.1
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
σa fct (fymax) [MPa]
Figure 3.2-13 Fatigue tests of two-layer ACSR.
Figure 3.2-14 Fatigue tests of three-layer ACSR.
The cycles to failure N is intended to refer to failure of the first strand. Even when such failure
occurs inside the conductor, several techniques are available to record it. However, in some tests,
detection of failures was made by periodic visual inspection of the conductor outer surface, and
in some tests, involving multi-layer ACSR, failures were found in inner-layer strands when the
conductors were inspected upon discovery of outer-layer fatigue. The multi-layer sizes in which
this occurred were 397.5 kcmil ACSR (30/7), and 795 kcmil ACSR (54/7). The values of N for
these sizes are thus biased on the high side relative to failure of the first strand
Multi-Layer ACSR
Figures 3.2-13 and 3.2-14 shows calculated σ a versus cycles to failure (N) for several sizes of
two- and three-layer ACSR, respectively. Two-layer data lie slightly above those for three-layer
ACSR, indicating that the connection between calculated σ a and the actual fatigue-inducing
stresses is different for the two types of stranding. The conductor sizes and the clamps used are
indicated. The suspension clamps were common commercial, short-radius clamps, generally with
5° tilt to simulate sag angle. The clamps identified as “BM” were aluminum bell-mouthed
clamps. The BM clamps are somewhat like cylinders whose internal bore is a surface of
revolution with a profile that closely fits the conductors and has generous radii at the exits. It
separates into two similar shells which are bolted together once the conductor is in place.
3-22
In Figure 3.2-13, the groups of points at the same stress represent groups of tests made under
identical conditions : clamp, clamping pressure, axial load, sag angle. This holds true except for
the set at 39 MPa. That set (Seppä 1969), containing 15 tests encompassed variations in sag
angle from 0° to 10° and variations in clamp bolt torque from 0 to 54 N-m. It also included tests
with the clamp keeper removed.
As noted previously, in the tests of 397.5 kcmil ACSR (30/7) and 795 kcmil ACSR (54/7),
failures were detected by visual inspection, so the fatigue lives N are biased on the high side,
probably by a factor less than 2. In the other tests, failure was detected by distortions of the
conductor in the vicinity of the clamp. Seppä (Seppä 1969) used strain gages attached to several
strands to reveal the shift of tensions among strands that follows each strand break. Other
laboratories monitored rotation of the conductor, at the node nearest the clamp, that resulted from
loss of torque in a layer due to strand failure. Silva (Silva 1976) also used this method. (Silva
1976; EPRI 1979 and 1981, Cardou et al. 1994)
Figures 3.2-13 and 3.2-14 indicate the scatter among identical tests and shows a generally
consistent pattern for the several conductors and clamp combinations involved. At high
amplitude, for a given conductor, scatter is rather small, lives to first strand failure being in a
maximum ratio of about three, at a given amplitude. At lower amplitudes, scatter is much larger,
that ratio reaching 25 in some cases. It also shows, for Seppä's data at the 39 MPa stress level, a
rather small influence by the variations in clamp tilt and bolt torque. It will be noted, however,
that, for data encompassing several conductors, scatter is even larger.
In Figure 3.2-14 (three-layer ACSR’s), three 500 million cycles run-outs have been obtained at
amplitude σa ≈ 23 MPa , showing that endurance limit is not far from this value. In Figure 3.2-13
(two-layer ACSR’s), several run-outs have also been obtained for 100 Mc tests and beyond :
• Two 500 Mc run-outs with the Drake ACSR for σa ≈ 33 MPa
• One 400 Mc run-out with the Lark ACSR for σa ≈ 26 MPa (EPRI 1979)
• Several 100 Mc run-outs with the Drake ACSR for σa in the [29 MPa 33 MPa] domain
Moreover, in the same stress range, several tests (EPRI 1979) gave first strand failure between
20 and 130 Mc. All these results indicate that two-layer ACSR endurance limit is in the region of
σa ≈ 30 MPa.
The data from (EPRI 1979) are shown again in Figure 3.2-15 with each group of tests
represented by a single point at the logarithmic mean cycles to failure. The number beside each
point is the conductor tension, in percent of rated strength, used in the tests of that group. It is
evident that the σ a -N relationship is influenced slightly, if at all, by conductor tension.
Figure 3.2-16 shows results of fatigue tests in which square-faced aluminum or steel bushings
were used as clamps. The points for suspension and bell-mouthed clamps are included in the
figure for comparison. The conductors that were tested in the square-faced bushings were as
shown in Table 3.2-2.
3-23
Table 3.2-2 Conductors in Square-Faced Bushings
Size Bushing material References
397.5 kcmil 30/7 Aluminum EPRI 1979
477 kcmil 30/7 Aluminum EPRI 1979
566.5 kcmil 26/7 Aluminum EPRI 1979
1780 kcmil 84/19 Steel Hondalus 1964
Tensions ranged from 18 to 63% of rated strength.
A small but consistent difference between the two groups of data is evident in Figure 3.2-16. The
stress required to cause failure at a given number of cycles is slightly less with the square-faced
aluminum bushings. In addition, one “sport” occurred at a stress of 28 MPa, failing at about one
million cycles. At levels down to 28 MPa, Figure 3.2-16 indicates that clamp characteristics have
relatively small influence upon the σ a versus N relationship. However, while suspension and
BM clamps show an endurance limit around 26 MPa, no such conclusion can be drawn for
square-faced bushings for lack of data points. Other preliminary fatigue tests reported in (EPRI
1987), using three generic clamps, tend to show some influence of clamp geometry.
In the (EPRI 1987) report, specimens were cycled at a given midloop amplitude of 17.8 mm (0.7
in) for about 8.2 million cycles. Four clamps were used, each having a different longitudinal
radius of curvature: 152 mm (6 in), 305 mm (12 in), 610 mm (24 in). Three of them had deep
grooves conforming closely to the conductor, while a 305 mm (12 in) radius clamp was also
tested with a shallow groove. Two specimens were tested with each clamp, under the same
conditions. At the end of the test the specimen was examined. Shorter radius clamp showed more
strand breaks than larger radius one. The 305 mm (12 in) clamps, with deep and shallow
grooves did not show a marked difference in the average number of breaks.
Nevertheless, considering :
• the practical case of suspension and BM clamps,
• that fatigue data from two-layer ACSR tests do not show a clear endurance limit value
• that no data are available for four-layer ACSR
it is suggested that the three-layer endurance limit of 22 MPa be taken (Figure 3.2-14) for
multilayer ACSR when calculated on the basis of Equation (3.2-14).
3-24
Figure 3.2-15. Fatigue tests of multi-layer ACSR. 68 tests represented. σa calculated from
Equation (3.2-14). Numbers indicate tension in percent of rated strength.
3.2.7 Single-Layer ACSR
Figure 3.2-17 presents fatigue data (EPRI 1979) for single-layer ACSR, i.e. the 6/1 and 7/1
strandings, supported in bell-mouthed clamps and suspension clamps. The sizes tested in bell-
mouthed clamps were No.4 (6/1), No.4 (7/1), and 3/0 (6/1). Log mean cycles to failure are
shown for groups of identical tests. Tensions ranged from 20% to 70% of rated strength. Only
1/0 ACSR (6/1) was tested in suspension clamps, and the tension in those tests was 25% of rated
strength. For the 1/0 ACSR. a point is shown for each individual test.
3-25
Figure 3.2-16. Fatigue tests of multi-layer ACSR. σa calculated from Equation (3.2-14).
3-26
1000
EPRI (1979) Susp run out
EPRI (1979) Susp
EPRI (1979) BM
LOG MEAN N at the first wire break [Mc]

100
S-N DIAGRAM Single-layer ACSR (Figure 3-19)
10
1
0.1
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
σa fct(fymax) [Mpa]
Figure 3.2-17. Fatigue tests of single-layer ACSR in bell-mouthed or suspension clamps. σa

calculated from Equation (3.2-14).
As in the tests of multi-layer ACSR, the bell-mouthed clamps were well-fitted to the conductors
involved, and the clamp exits were generously radiused. The suspension clamp used with the 1/0
ACSR was not well-fitting. Its seat was designed to accommodate conductors up to 18.3 mm in
diameter, substantially larger than the 10.1 mm diameter of 1/0 ACSR. Clamping pressure
caused noticeable distortion of the conductor strands.
It is evident from Figure 3.2-17 that all of the data are encompassed by a single σ a -N
relationship, and a curve has been drawn to represent it. This curve lies slightly above those for
two-layer ACSR, again indicating that the connection between calculated σ a and the actual
fatigue-inducing stresses is different for different types of stranding. The two σ a relationships
appear to converge at large values of N, and the same endurance limit, 22 MPa seems suitable to
both.
Figure 3.2-18 compares the curve of Figure 3.2-17 with results of several tests of single-layer
ACSR supported in square faced bushings (EPRI 1979). The conductor sizes represented are
those in Figure 3.2-17 plus a special 28.6 mm diameter 6/1 ACSR. Use of square-faced clamps
with single-layer ACSR markedly shortened fatigue life in a number of tests, especially those
with the lower levels of σ a .
3-27
Figure 3.2-18. Fatigue tests of single-layer ACSR in square-faced bushings. σ a calculated from
Equation (3.2-14).
3.2.8 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Conductors
Little data are available on stranded aluminum conductors of conductor-grade metal (1350
alloy), from tests in which failure of the first strand, or first few strands were detected. What data
there are correlate best with the multi-layer ACSR pattern of Figures 3.2-13 and 3.2-14, even
though they pertain to a seven-strand conductor. Multi-layer all-aluminum conductors would be
expected to follow the same multi-layer ACSR pattern. Thus, it seems reasonable to assign the
same σ a endurance limit to all stranded aluminum conductors: 22 MPa.
Aluminum alloy 5005 has been used to a limited extent in overhead conductors. Fatigue data on
multi-layer 5005 suitable for construction of a σ a -N curve are not available. However, conductor
fatigue tests comparing severity of damage after equal numbers of cycles of vibration indicated
little difference between 61strand 5005 alloy conductor and 1780 kcmil ACSR 84/19 of about
equal diameter (Hondalus 1964). This result is consistent with vibration fatigue test data (EPRI
1979) on single-layer 123.3 kcmil 5005 alloy 7-strand conductor shown in Figure 3.2-19, where
the ACSR curve from Figure 3.2-17 is based on Log mean N values. The tests were made at a
tension of 25% of ultimate strength, and utilized the same ill-fitting suspension clamp used in the
3-28
tests of 1/0 ACSR discussed above. It thus appears reasonable to apply the σ a endurance limit for
ACSR to the 5005 alloy conductor.
Figure 3.2-19. Fatigue tests of 5005 alloy conductor (7-strand) in suspension clamps, 12 tests
represented (EPRI 1979). σ a calculated from Equation (3.2-14).
Few data appear to be available on ACAR conductors utilizing heat-treatable aluminum alloys
such as 6201 and Aldrey. Aldrey has the same alloying constituents as 6201, but in smaller
concentrations. Available data on these two types are collected in Figure 3.2-20 for comparison
with the multi-layer ACSR curve of Figure 3.2-16. All points represent individual tests. The data
for 7-strand 6201 alloy conductor indicate greater dispersion in fatigue behavior found in other
conductor types, and a lower endurance limit, than for ACSR or 5005 alloy conductor. Only a
rough estimate of that endurance limit is possible. Taking a margin of safety, a value of 15MPa
(2.2 ksi) is suggested.
The data are not extensive enough to clarify whether Aldrey and 6201 conform to the same σ a -N
relationship. It is nevertheless suggested that the same endurance limit be applied to both.
Fatigue tests on an ACAR 18/19 are reported in (EPRI 1987). The controlling amplitude being Yb
, first strand failure data points cannot be included in Figure 3.2-16. Besides, amplitude levels are
quite high and yield very short lives, thus giving no indication on endurance limit, which was not
the objective of the tests.
3-29
Figure 3.2-20. Fatigue tests of Aldrey and 6201 alloy conductors. σa calculated from Equation
(3.2-14).
3.2.9 Steel and Alumoweld Ground Wires (being revised)
Figure 3.2-21 shows data from tests of 5/16" (7.94 mm) diameter extra-high strength galvanized
steel ground wire (Little et al. 1950), 5/16” (7.94 mm) diameter aluminum-coated steel (“Beth-
alume”) (Smollinger and Siter 1965), and 7 No. 8 Alumoweld (EPRI 1979). The conductors were
supported in standard suspension clamps in all cases.
The σ a endurance limit for the EHS steel appears to be about 192 MPa (28 ksi). It is of interest
that shorter fatigue life would be inferred for lower conductor tension, based upon Figure 3.2.21,
for equal values of σ a as calculated by means of Equation (3.2-14). The difference is not great
enough to justify assignment of different σ a endurance limits for different tensions, however.
The points representing aluminum-coated steel and Alumoweld are based upon the calculated
stress in the steel component of the strand. The two groups of data seem to conform to the same
σ a -N relationship when plotted on that basis. A common σ a endurance limit of about 135 MPa
(19.5 Ksi) is suggested
3-30
Figure 3.2-21. Fatigue tests of steel and conductors. σ a calculated from Equation (3.2-14).
3.2.10 Copper, Copperweld, and Copper-Copperweld (being revised)
Figure 3.2-22 summarizes results of vibration fatigue test (EPRI 1979) on No. 6A Copper-
Copperweld (2/1), 3 No. 12 Copperweld 4/0 HD copper (7 strand), 1/0 F Copper-Copperweld -
6/1), and 500 kcmil MHD copper (37) strand). Bell-mouthed clamps were used in all tests. Test
tension were 25, 30, 45, and 60% of rated strength.
In the test of No.6A Cu/Cw, which has two copper strands and one Copperweld strand, fatigue
behavior was largely determined by the copper strands. In a series of 49 tests, the Copperweld
strand failed first in only 6.
The test series represented in Figure 3.2-22 did not extend to low enough values of σ a to
establish knees in the σ a -N relationships, so endurance limits are difficult to estimate. However,
35 MPa (5 ksi) is suggested for both 3 strand and 7 and more strand groups.
3-31
Figure 3.2-22. Fatigue tests of copper, Copperweld, and Copper-Copperweld conductors. σa
calculated from Equation (3.2-14).
3.2.11 Endurance Limits Expressed as fymax
In the equation used for calculating the idealized dynamic stress,
m
σ a = π dEa fymax
EI
the factor preceding fymax on the right is nearly constant within each conductor type. In fact, for
homogeneous conductors of a given material in which all strands are of equal size, the calculated
ratio σ a /fymax, is constant, regardless of the number of strands and their size. This constancy
arises from the simplified assumption that each strand bends independently with respect to its
own neutral axis. Thus, EI is proportional to nd4 while m is proportional to nd2, n being the
number of strands and the ratio σ a /fymax, only depends on material parameters.
For ACSR, σ a /fymax ranges from 0.171 to 0.200 MPa.s/mm for the standard strandings, except
for 7/1. That range of variation is small within the context of the assumptions used in deriving
the equation, and of the indirect connection between σ a and the actual fatigue-inducing stresses.
It is therefore reasonable to represent all ACSR’s except the 7/1 strandings by a single value of
σ a /fymax.
3-32
Table 3.2-3 lists, for various conductor types, their σ a /fymax factors and the resulting fymax
endurance limits.
Note that σ a pertains to the material of the conductor surface except in the cases of EHS steel
and Alumoweld, where σ a pertains to the steel component.
The endurance limits listed in the table should be treated with a caution commensurate with the
weight of data and inference leading to them. For example, data on Aldrey and 6201 alloy
conductor are quite thin. Also, application of the steel and Alumoweld endurance limits to multi-
layer strandings rests primarily upon evidence in the ACSR data that the single- and multi-layer
strandings have about the same endurance limit.
It should be emphasized that fymax is preferred over σ a for expressing endurance limits, since
both frequency and amplitude were measured in the fatigue tests. In contrast, the stress σ a is a
derived parameter.
Table 3.2-3
ENDURANCE LIMITS
FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONDUCTORS*
SI Units
Endurance Limit
σ a /fymax
Conductor Type σa fymax
MPa.sec/mm mm/s
MPa
All-Aluminum 0.172 22 128
All-5005 Alloy 0.172 22 128
All-Aldrey or 6201 0.172 15 87
ACSR (Except 7 / 1) 0.186 22 118
ACSR (7 / 1 ) 0.148 22 149
Copper (Cu) 0.409 35 86
Copperweld (Cw) 0.299 35 117
6 Cu/1 Cw 0.377 35 93
2 Cu/1 Cw 0.359 35 97
EHS Steel (Galv.) 0.499 192 385
(Aluminized) 0.497 135 272
Alumoweld 0.498 135 276
ENGLISH UNITS
Endurance Limit
Conductor Type
σ a /fymax
fymax
ksi.s/in σa in.s
All-Aluminum 0.633 3.19 5.04
All-5005 Alloy 0.633 3.19 5.04
All-Aldrey or 6201 0.635 2.18 3.43
ACSR (Except 7 / 1) 0.687 3.19 4.65
ACSR (7 / 1 ) 0.544 3.19 5.87
Copper (Cu) 1.499 5.08 3.39
Copperweld (Cw) 1.102 5.08 4.61
6 Cu/l Cw 1.386 5.08 3.66
2 Cu/l Cw 1.329 5.08 3.82
EHS Steel (Galv.) 1.837 27.85 15.16
(Aluminized) 1.828 19.58 10.71
3-33
Alumoweld 1.802 19.58 10.87
* Conductor supported by rigid clamps
3.2.12 Fatigue Performance Relative to Bending Amplitude
The idealized bending stress is calculated from bending amplitude by means of the Poffenberger-
Swart Formula:
dEa p 2 / 4
σa = Yb (3.2-15)
e − px − 1 + px
in which Yb is measured 89 mm (3.5 inches) from the last point of contact of conductor with
supporting clamp. Since p = H / EI , the calculated σ a / Yb is a function of conductor tension.
Data from vibration fatigue tests in which Yb was measured are available for four ACSR
(GREMCA 2006, EPRI 1987). However, several tests in which f and ymax were measured can
also be used. Such previously-run fatigue tests have been reconstructed and run long enough to
permit measurement of Yb, and this has made several blocks of data (EPRI 1979) available for
construction of σ a -N relationships. The procedure introduces an additional source of scatter,
since no test configuration can be reproduced with absolute precision.
3.2.13 Fatigue Characteristics of ACSR
Data are available in sufficient quantity to construct σ a -N curves, only for ACSR. These data are
shown in Figures 3.2-23, 3.2-24, and 3.2-25. Most data are drawn with respect to N cycles to
strand failure, while data from (EPRI 1979) are drawn with respect to Log Mean N. The data
indicate that the single-layer, two-layer and three-layer ACSR constructions have different σ a -N
relationships, when σ a is calculated from bending amplitudes according to Equation (3.15).
Within each of these groups, however, there appears to be no significant influence of stranding
upon the σ a -N relationship. The tests represented in the figure had tensions ranging from 16% to
70% of rated strength. The quality of the correlations within each group indicates that Equation
(3.15) takes tension effects into account adequately.
In Figure 3.2-23 (single-layer ACSR’s), many tests at the stress σa ≈ 29 MPa gave first strand
failure; these tests are regrouped in 4 points at the Log Mean N value higher than 130 Mc. It is
suggested that the single-layer endurance limit of 22.5 MPa be taken when calculated on the
basis of Equation (3.15).
In Figure 3.2-25 (three-layer ACSR’s) several run-outs have been obtained for 320 Mc and
beyond:
• Three 500 Mc run-outs with the Crow ACSR (ref ?) for σa ≈ 13 MPa
• One 500 Mc run-out with the Tern ACSR (EPRI 1979), for σa ≈ 12 MPa
3-34
• One 320 Mc run-out with the Rail ACSR (EPRI 1979) for σa ≈ 10 MPa
Moreover, in the same stress range, several tests (EPRI 1979) gave first strand failure; these tests
are regrouped in one point of Log Mean N equal to 190 Mc. All these results indicate that the
three-layer ACSR endurance limit is in the region of σa ≈ 10 MPa
In Figure 3.2-24 (two-layer ACSR’s), several run-outs have also been obtained for 100 Mc tests
and beyond:
• Two 500 Mc run-outs with the Drake ACSR (ref ?) for σa ≈ 19 MPa
• One 400 Mc run-out with the Lark ACSR (EPRI 1979) for σa ≈ 13 MPa
• Several 100 Mc run-outs with the Drake ACSR (ref ?) for σa in the [22 MPa, 26 MPa ]
domain
Moreover, in the range of σa ≈ 15 MPa, several tests (EPRI 1979) gave first strand failure at the
Log Mean N values of 52 Mc and 79 Mc. All these results do not permit to establish an accurate
endurance limit but tend to show that the two-layer endurance limit is higher than the three-layer
one.
Nevertheless, considering
• the practical case of suspension and BM clamps
• that fatigue data from the two-layer ACSR tests do not show a clear endurance limit value
• that no data are available for four-layer ACSR
it is suggested that the three-layer endurance limit of 8.5 MPa be taken (Figure 3.2-25) for multi-
layer when calculated on the basis of Equation (3.2-15).
It should be pointed out that results of a few tests performed in Poland (Josiki et al. 1976)
conflict with the multi-layer data of Figure 3.2-25. The tested conductor was similar to a three-
layer Curlew ACSR. While the applied tensile load was not specified, if one assumes a 25% UTS
load to determine their three data points plotting position in Figure 3.2-25, they yield failure
points located above the single-layer region (Figure 3.2-23) . The cause of this conflict is not
known.
3-35
S-N DIAGRAM (Figure 3-25a) Single-layer ACSR
80 EPRI (1979) 1/ 0 ( 6/ 1) Susp

EPRI (1979) 1/ 0 ( 6/ 1) Susp r un out
70 EPRI (1979) No.4 (6/ 1) BM

EPRI(1979) No.4 (7/ 1) BM
EPRI(1979) 3/ 0 ( 6/ 1) BM
60
Figure 3.2-23 Fatigue tests of single-layer

50
40
30
σa fct(Yb) [MPa]
20
10
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
LOG MEAN N at the first w ire break ][Mc]
3-36
ACSR.
S-N DIAGRAM (Figure 3-25b) Tw o-layer ACSR
45 Ramey
Ramey run out
40 EPRI(1979); log mean N
EPRI(1979) run out
35 Drake
Drake run out [ 2 pt s at (500,19) ]
30
25
20
σ a fct(Yb) [Mpa]
15
Figure 3.2-24 Fatigue tests of two-layer ACSR.

10
5
0.1 1 10 100 1000
3-37
1000
Crow run out [ 3 pt s at (500,12)]
EPRI(1979); log mean N
EPRI(1979) run out
Bersf ort run out

Bersf ort
Crow
S-N DIAGRAM (Figure 3-25c) Three layer ACSR
100
10
1
0.1
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
σ a fct(Yb) [Mpa]
Figure 3.2-25 Fatigue tests of three-layer ACSR.
3.2.14 Bending Amplitude Endurance Limits for ACSR
The above estimated endurance limits are convertible to Yb by means of Equation (3.2-15). When
this is done, the Yb endurance limits turn out to fall generally in the range 0.5 to 1.0 mm
endurance limits (20 to 40 mils) for single-layer ACSR's, and 0.2 to 0.3 mm (8 to 12 mils) for
multi-layer ACSR's. In the latter case, the precision with which the σ a endurance limit can be
estimated, and the quality of correlation in the σ a -N relationship, do not justify an inference of
great precision in the calculated Yb endurance limits. This is why only two uniform conservative
values of σa = 22.5 MPa and 8.5 MPa have been selected for single-layer and all standard
multi-layer ACSR’s, respectively and the corresponding calculated Yb endurance limits are
included in Table 3.2-4. If, in a given application, a more realistic value is available, the Yb
endurance limit given in the table should be multiplied by the appropriate factor, which is simply
the ratio between the adopted σa value and the table value (22.5 or 8.5 MPa).
Table 3.2-4
Maximum Safe Bending Amplitudes For ACSR
Tension in Percent of Rated Strength*
3-38
Conductor 15% 25% 35%
Name Size Stranding Yb Yb Yb
(kcmils)
mm mils mm mils mm mils
Turkey #6 6/1 0.97 38. 0.79 31. 0.69 27.
Swan 4 6/1 0.92 36. 0.76 30. 0.67 26.
Swanate 4 7/1 1.01 40. 0.84 33. 0.74 29.
Sparrow 2 6/1 0.86 34. 0.73 29. 0.64 25.
Sparate #2 7/1 0.94 37. 0.80 31. 0.71 28.
Robin #1 6/1 0.82 32. 0.70 28. 0.63 25.
Raven # 1/0 6/1 0.79 31. 0.68 27. 0.61 24.
Quail 2/0 6/1 0.75 30. 0.66 26. 0.59 23.
Pigeon 3/0 6/1 0.71 28. 0.63 25. 0.57 22.
Penguin # 4/0 6/1 0.67 26. 0.59 23. 0.54 21.
Waxwing 266.8 18 / 1 0.33 13. 0.28 11. 0.26 10.
Owl 266.8 6/7 0.22 9. 0.20 8. 0.18 7.
Partridge 266.8 26 / 7 0.32 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9.
Merlin 336.4 18 / 1 0.31 12. 0.27 11. 0.24 10.
Linnet 336.4 26 / 7 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9.
Oriole 336.4 30 / 7 0.32 13. 0.27 11. 0.24 9.
Chickadee 397.5 18 / 1 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.24 9.
Brant 397.5 24 / 7 0.29 11. 0.25 10. 0.22 9.
Ibis 397.5 26 / 7 0.30 12. 0.25 10. 0.22 9.
Lark 397.5 30 / 7 0.31 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9.
Pelican 477.O 18 / 1 0.29 11. 0.25 10. 0.23 9.
Flicker 477.0 24 / 7 0.28 11. 0.24 10. 0.22 9.
Hawk 477.0 26 / 7 0.28 11. 0.24 10. 0.22 9.
Hen 477.0 30 / 7 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9.
Osprey 556.5 18 / 1 0.27 11. 0.24 10. 0.22 9.
Parakeet 556.5 24 / 7 0.27 11. 0.24 9. 0.21 8.
Dove 556.5 26 / 7 0.28 11. 0.24 9. 0.21 8.
Eagle 556.5 30 / 7 0.29 11. 0.25 10. 0.22 9.
Peacock 605.0 24 / 7 0.27 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Squab 605.0 26 / 7 0.27 11. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Teal 605.0 30 / 19 0.26 10. 0.22 9 0.20 8.
Swift 636.0 36 / 1 0.32 13. 0.28 11. 0.26 10.
Kingbird 636.0 18/ 1 0.26 10. 0.24 9. 0.22 9.
Rook 636.0 24 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Grosbeak 636.0 26 / 7 0.27 11. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Egret 636 .O 30/ 19 0.26 10. 0.22 9. 0.20 8.
- 653.9 18/3 0.26 10 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Flamingo 666.6 24 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Gannet 666.6 26 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Starling 71 5.5 26 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8.
Redwing 71 5.5 30/ 19 0.25 10. 0.22 9 0.20 8.
Coot 795.0 36 / 1 0.31 12. 0.27 11. 0.25 10.
Tern 795.0 45 / 7 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.24 9.
Cuckoo 795.0 24 1 7 0.25 10. 0.22 9. 0.20 8.
Condor 795.0 54 / 7 0.32 12. 0.27 11. 0.24 10.
*For other tensions, interpolate between values given.
Table 3.2-4 (Cont.)

Maximum Safe Bending Amplitudes For ACSR
Tension in Percent of Rated Strength *
Conductor 15% 25% 35%

Name Size Stranding yb yb yb
(kcmils)
mm mils mm mils mm mils
3-39
Drake 795.0 26 / 7 0.25 10. 0.22 9. 0.20 8
Mallard 795.0 30 / 19 0.25 10. 0.21 8. 0.19 8
Ruddy 900.0 45 / 7 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9
Canary 900.0 54 / 7 0.31 12. 0.27 10. 0.24 9
Catbird 954.0 36 / 1 0.29 11. 0.26 10. 0.24 9
Rail 954.0 45 / 7 0.29 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9
Cardinal 954.0 54 / 7 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.24 9
Ortolan 1033.5 45 / 7 0.29 11. 0.25 10. 0.23 9
Curlew 1033.5 54 / 7 0.30 12. 0.26 10. 0.23 9
Bluejay 1113.0 45 / 7 0.28 11. 0.25 10. 0.22 9
Finch 1113.0 54 / 19 0.28 11. 0.24 9. 0.22 9
Bunting 1192.0 45 / 7 0.28 11. 0.24 10. 0.22 9
Grackle 1192.0 54 / 19 0.27 11. 0.24 9. 0.21 8
Bittern 1272.0 45 / 7 0.27 11. 0.24 9. 0.22 9
Pheasant 1272.0 54 / 19 0.27 11. 0.24 9. 0.21 8
Dipper 1351.5 45 / 7 0.27 11. 0.24 9. 0.22 9
Martin 1351.0 54 / 19 0.27 11. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
Bobolink 1431.0 45 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
Plover 1431.0 54 / 19 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
Nuthatch 1510.5 45 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
Parrot 1510.5 54 / 19 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
Lapwing 1590.0 45 / 7 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
Falcon 1590.0 54 / 19 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.20 8
Chukar 1780.0 84 / 19 0.29 11. 0.25 10. 0.23 9
— 2034.0 72 / 7 0.28 11. 0.25 10. 0.23 9
Bluebird 2156.0 84 / 19 0.28 11. 0.24 10. 0.22 9
Kiwi 2167.0 72 / 7 0.27 11. 0.24 10. 0.22 9
Thrasher 2312.0 76 / 19 0.27 11. 0.24 9. 0.22 9
Joree 2515.0 76 / 19 0.26 10. 0.23 9. 0.21 8
*For other tensions, interpolate between values given.
3.2.15 Conversion of fymax to Yb Endurance Limits
As noted above, endurance limits that have been established in terms of fymax may be converted
to Yb endurance limits by experimental determination in a laboratory span of the value of Yb that
corresponds to the fymax endurance limit. This should be done at the fymax endurance limit. It may
not be sufficient to determine the ratio Yb/fymax at some arbitrary combination of f and ymax since
Yb does not always vary linearly with fymax.
Several determinations of this kind, resulting in the Yb endurance limit values, are shown in
Table 3.2-5 (EPRI 1979). They are considered applicable where conventional suspension clamps
are employed.
Table 3.2-5
Estimated Bending Amplitude Endurance Limits For Various Types
Of Conductor
Yb Endurance Limit
Conductor Tension
mm mils
7 No. 8 Alumoweld 25% 0.96 38
7 No. 6Alumoweld 25% 0.96 38
123.3 kcmil 5005 (7 str) 25% 0.59 23
3-40
123.3 kcmil 6201 (7str) 25% 0.40 16
¾" EHS Steel (7 str) 25% 1.96 77
½" EHS Steel (7 str) 25% 1.67 66
3.2.16 Effects of Armor Rods (being revised)
Application of armor rods to conductors at tangent supports imparts a small but useful amount of
additional damping to vibrating spans. The original intent in use of armor rods, however, was to
reinforce the conductor against the dynamic bending caused by aeolian vibration. Their
effectiveness as reinforcements has turned out to be small except for small conductors, and not
consistently realized, even there. In general, the same fymax and Yb endurance limits as determined
for bare conductors may be applied to armored conductors without serious risk of significantly
overestimating or under-estimating the likelihood of fatigue occurring in a particular span.
Under laboratory conditions, substantial increases in the number of cycles required to cause
strand failure may be realized by application of armor rods. The basis for viewing these increases
as having minor importance is that they are greatly overshadowed by those that result from
amplitude reductions that may be achieved by the damping action of the rods.
This point is illustrated in Figure 3.2-26, in which data on multi-layer ACSR with and without
armor rods are collected. Although some superiority in fatigue resistance for armored conductor
is evident, fymax endurance with rods cannot be assigned a value more than 15% greater than that
for un-armored conductors. In contrast, reductions in amplitude, and thus in fymax by a factor less
than 0.5 are sometimes achieved in spans of moderate tension by application of armor rods,
through damping effects.
3-41
1000
EPRI(1979) BM with armor rods;
EPRI(1979) Susp without armor
EPRI(1979) Susp without armor

Hawk with armor rods (dia. 6.4
Hawk with armor rods (dia. 6.4
EPRI(1979) BM without armor
EPRI(1979) BM without armor

rods; log mean N
rods; log mean N

rods; run out
rods; run out

mm); run out
log mean N
mm)
100
N at the first wire break [Mc]
fymax -N Diagram (Figure 3-26)
1
0.1 10
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
fymax [mm/sec]
Figure 3.2-26. Effect of armor rods on fatigue of multi-layer ACSR (fymax basis).
Figure 3.2-27 shows a corresponding plot for ACSR having 6/1 stranding and supported in bell-
mouthed or suspension clamps (EPRI 1979). Although use of rods introduces additional scatter
that is always in the direction of increased fatigue life, no differences in the fymax endurance limit
can be discerned between armored and unarmored cases.
Both wrench-formed and preformed are represented in Figures 3.2-26 and 3.2-27. There appears
to be no significant difference in their effects upon fatigue resistance for equal values fymax.
In the fatigue tests with armor rods discussed in this section, conductor strand breaks were
detected by different means. In some tests involving multi-layer conductors, failures were
detected by periodically stopping each test and laying the rods for visual inspection of the
conductor surface. In the GREMCA tests (2006), they were detected by recording conductor
rotation.
3-42
If failures were not found, the rods were re-laid and the test resumed. In most of the tests of
single-layer conductor, failures were detected without disturbing the armor rod assembly, for
example, by monitoring conductor resistance across the supporting clamp, or by detecting the
transfer of tension to armor rods when a strand fails, by strain gages attached to the rods.
Figure 3.2-28 presents results by Little et al. (Little et al. 1950) on effects of steel preformed
armor when applied to 5/16” (7.9 mm) EHS steel (7 strand). These data indicate a small but
consistent improvement in fatigue resistance, caused by the rods. The armor rod data do not
extend to a great enough fatigue life to indicate whether the fymax endurance limit with rods is
significantly different from that without.
Figure 3.2-27. Effect of armor rods on fatigue of single-layer ACSR (fymax basis).
3-43
Figure 3.2-28. Effect of armor rods on fatigue of steel conductor (fymax basis)
Figures 3.2-26 to 3.2-28 showed effects of armor rods for equal values of fymax . Those effects
may also be assessed for equal values of bending amplitude Yb. These comparisons indicate little
or no improvement in fatigue resistance through use of armor rods. For example, Figure 3.2-29
compares armored data for 397.5 kcmil ACSR (30/7) and 795 and 954 kcmil ACSR (45/7), with
unarmored data for those sizes plus 795 and ACSR (45/7) with conductors supported by mouthed
or suspension clamps. All of these sizes have about the same Yb endurance limits without rods.
All data of Figure 3.2-29 derive from tests in which conductor tension was between 25 and 35%
of ultimate. There is little to distinguish the armored and unarmored groups. Comparisons for
other size groupings for which data are available gave the same indication. Unfortunately, these
data did not extend beyond ACSR.
Evidently, Equations (3.2-13) to (3.2-15) for calculation of σ a cannot be applied to armored

conductor since two regions should be considered in the analysis, each having its own flexural
rigidity. Besides, armor rod diameter, with its corresponding bending stiffness, should have an
influence on test results. Unfortunately, that parameter was never specified in available data, and
a systematic study of that influence has yet to be published.
3-44
3.2.17 Other Supporting Devices ( being revised)
Several special devices for supporting conductors are available that are said to permit higher
vibration levels without fatigue than do conventional suspension clamps. Armor-Grip
suspensions, long-radius clamps, and “Formula” clamps are among these devices. Information on
maximum safe vibration levels, when these devices are employed, should be obtained from their
suppliers. A review of various supporting devices has been published by Cloutier and Hardy
(1987).
EPRI(1979) w ith armor rods;

Haw k w ith armor rods (dia.
Haw k w ith armor rods (dia.
EPRI (1979) w ithout armor
EPRI(1979) w ithout armor

rods; log mean N
1000
6.4 mm); run out
rods; run out
log mean N
6.4 mm)
Yb-N Diagram (Figure 3-29)
N at the first wire break [Mc]

100
10
1
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Yb [mm]
Figure 3.2-29. Effect of armor rods on fatigue of multi-layer ACSR (bending amplitude basis)
3-45
3.3 Variable Amplitudes
Section will include a summary of corresponding problem: Miner’s Law, available test data
(EPRI, GREMCA). A more detailed treatment will be given in Appendix 3.2).
3-46
3.4 Tests and Inspections (Revision to be completed)
Three general procedures are available that are suitable for assessing the likelihood of the
occurrence of damage from conductor fatigue serious enough to threaten the security of a line
during its economic life. The different procedures have strengths and weaknesses that help
determine when each is appropriate. The procedures are:
a. Recording vibration of the line.
b. Visual inspection of the conductor surface.
c. Radiographic inspection.
The need to apply one of these procedures may be indicated by certain “early warnings.”
3.4.1 Early Warnings
There are several types of information that can indicate that the safety of an existing line against
fatigue should be questioned.
One source of information is past experience with lines of similar design as represented in the
field experience plots of Chapter x or Appendix x. If a line falls in a region of the plot where
damage has not been experienced previously in similar lines, then that line is almost certainly
safe. If it falls in a region of the plot where damage has been experienced, then it may or may not
be in danger, depending primarily upon local terrain conditions, and an investigation may be
appropriate.
Another source of early-warning information is reports by line patrols of visible vibration of the
line. A line may display amplitudes large enough to be visible even from the ground, especially
at the low frequencies that occur in light winds. Mere visibility does not indicate danger to the
line. A rough measure of the potential for damage can be obtained, however, if the frequency of
the observed vibration can be inferred from the wind velocity or from observed loop lengths, and
multiplied by the observed free loop amplitude to obtain fymax Reference to Table 3.2-3 can then
permit a quite approximate estimate of whether dangerous amplitudes are being experienced.
The fact that the fymax endurance limits of Table 3.2-3 pertain to conductors supported by rigid
clamps tends to exaggerate the estimate of danger, especially where armor rods are the sole
means of vibration protection in the line. The fact that the observed fymax is based upon spot
observations tends to cause underestimates of danger.
A third source of information derives from simple recording instruments such as Zenith and
Servis recorders and Jacquet counters. (See Chapter x or Appendix x). These devices do not
respond in a manner that is directly related to bending amplitude. They do, however, provide a
quite rough, relative index of vibration activity, an index that has been used for early warning
purposes.
Evidence of possibly damaging vibration sometimes appears in components of the line other than
the conductor. Loss of cotter pins, loosening of tower bolts, fatigue of redundant tower members,
and loss of damper weights are among warning signs, although damper weights are dropped
3-47
more often as a result of galloping or of aeolian vibration of conductors when they are covered
with hoarfrost.
3.4.2 Measurement of Vibration Intensity
Testing methods described in Chapter x or Appendixx. may be employed to determine the levels
of bending amplitude that occur in a line. The estimated endurance limits given in Section 3.2
may then be used to estimate whether fatigue of strands in the conductor may eventually occur.
This procedure has one major advantage. It permits an assessment of the likelihood of damage
before any damage has occurred. The procedure may be applied any time after the line is sagged
and clipped. It affords the greatest lead time during which any needed remedial action may be
decided and scheduled.
The procedure has several disadvantages. First, it may be economically applied only at a limited
number of points in the line. There is considerable dispersion in the vibration activity among the
spans of most lines. There is thus a risk that the most active span will not be among those tested,
and that the “weak link” in the line will be overlooked. Judgment and experience are important
in minimizing this risk.
The second disadvantage is that the wind and temperature conditions that cause the most severe
vibration will not always occur during the period of recording. For example, in a study of a series
of two-week recording periods from a 230-kV line in North Dakota, Poffenberger and Komenda
found considerable variation in the maximum alternating stress σ a recorded period-to-period
(Poffenberger and Komenda 1971). The average of these maxima over 24 two-week periods was
10.3 MPa (1.49 ksi), as calculated from Yb using Equation (3.2-15). However, the maxima ranged
from 7.7 to 15.2 MPa (1.12 to 2.17 ksi) over the 24 periods, with standard deviation of 2.2 MPa
(0.33 ksi). A similar evaluation reported by Rawlins illustrates the seasonal variation of
maximum Yb during 15 successive two-week recording periods, as shown in Figure 3.3-1
(Rawlins 1971). Judgment and experience are required in deciding when and for how long to
conduct field measurements.
The other significant disadvantage of vibration measurement as a means for assessing likelihood
of fatigue failures is the limited precision of the estimated endurance limits that must be used in
interpreting the measurements. That precision is probably great enough in the case of ACSR, for
example, that errors associated with estimation of its endurance limit are small compared with
those likely to arise from choice of test location in the line, or choice of test period. The
confidence that can be assigned the estimated endurance limits for some other conductors, such
as ACAR and multi-layer steel and Alumoweld, is substantially less, and that lower confidence
must reflect upon the reliability assumed for this procedure, where those conductors are
involved.
Each of these disadvantages affects the precision involved in comparison of actual vibration
amplitude with that which can initiate failure of a conductor. The smaller the measured
amplitude is with respect to the estimated endurance limit, the more confidently the future safety
3-48
of the line can be viewed. Prolonged recordings on ACSR and single-layer ground wires at
selected line locations may permit reasonable confidence in long-term safety of a line, when
maximum recorded amplitudes are only about 20% below the estimated endurance limit of ACSR
given in Section 3.2. In other situations, substantially larger margins of safety are appropriate.
No general rules can be given. However, study of data contained in (Poffenberger and Komenda
1971; Ruhlman and Poffenberger 1957), and of the data of Section 3.2 is useful in dealing with
this problem.
Figure 3.3-1. Maximum bending amplitudes recorded during 15 successive two-week periods. 477
kcmil ACSR (26/7) in a 457 m span (Rawlins 1971).
3.4.3 Visual Inspections
In all but a few cases, a climbing inspection is required to detect fatigue of outer-surface strands
or of armor rods or Armor Grips. Reliability of detection for unarmored conductors is about
doubled if the conductor can be bare-handed. Fully reliable inspection requires that the conductor
be lifted from the clamp. If armor is present, it must be laid back, after the clamp has been
removed. If the clamp cannot be removed, the keeper should be.
Visual inspection has several advantages. First, it lends itself to wholesale inspection of support
points more readily than the other procedures. Second, the condition of the conductor reflects all
of its service to date, not merely a sample acquired during a limited recording period. Third, it
provides information that is useful in deciding which corrective measures are appropriate, tower-
by-tower. In fact, if a repair policy has been formulated, it is often possible to carry it out
concurrent with the inspection.
There are several disadvantages. First, the cost of the procedure is generally high, and it entails
an extended period of scheduled outages. Second, information on the extent of damage is
3-49
incomplete and somewhat speculative relative to damage to inner layers, since only the outer
layer can be thoroughly inspected.
Finally, the most useful inspections require fortuitous timing. The period between first
appearance of visible damage and the first serious threat to the line's integrity due to extensive
damage may be viewed as an inspection “window.” An inspection is most valuable when it falls
near the beginning of this window. If no damage is found, reliable operation of the line extends
at least for the duration of the window. If damage is found, the full period of the window is
available for taking corrective action.
The duration of this window is not known, but it certainly is influenced by the likelihood of core
annealing by line current, and by whether or not the conductor is armored. It is thought to vary
from two to ten times the period of service preceding the first occurrence of fatigue in the outer
layer.
The actual timing of visual inspections is determined in almost all cases by evidence that the line
is experiencing excessive levels of vibration. The evidence may be chance discovery of damage
in the line or in a similar line, records of high bending amplitudes from a test at some location in
the line, or line crew reports of visual observations of excessive vibration. The timing of the
inspection may be viewed as fortunate if this evidence comes to light early in the inspection
window, when damage is still small.
3.4.4 Radiographic Inspections
Radiographic inspections (Ruhlman and Poffenberger 1957; Elton 1961) may be made using X-
ray or gamma-ray sources, and have been successfully conducted on energized lines (Elton and
Batiste 1965). A sample X-ray of a support point is shown in Figure 3.3-2 (Elton 1961). An
inner-layer strand failure is indicated by the arrow.
Radiographic inspections are normally conducted by companies having special capabilities in

that area. This type of inspection has several advantages. First, it is capable of revealing damage
that would not be detected by visual inspection: failures of inner-layer strands. As noted in
Section 3.1, inner- layer failure may precede outer-layer failure by a substantial margin in some
lines. In those lines, use of radiographic inspection moves the leading edge of the inspection
window forward, thereby improving the chances of early detection of danger to the line. The
opportunity to use the most economical remedial measures is less likely to have been foreclosed
in such a case.
3-50
Figure 3.3-2. Radiograph of conductor having inner-layer strand failure. (Courtesy Bonneville
Power Administration)
Another advantage of radiographic inspection is the opportunity, in many cases, to conduct the
inspection with the line energized. Figure 3.3-3 shows such an inspection in progress.
Finally, as with visual inspection, the condition of the conductor reflects all of its service, not
merely that occurring during a limited period of recording.
Figure 3.3-3. Radiographic inspection procedure. (Courtesy Bonneville Power Administration)
There are three disadvantages. First, the cost is too great to permit inspection of large numbers of
supports. Second, processing of films introduces a time lag between their exposure and actual
detection of damage. Unless films are processed and read in the field, inspection and repair
cannot be done concurrently. Finally, failure detection is not completely reliable, due to the
difficulty of interpreting the radiographs. Failures are sometimes overlooked. In other cases,
films indicate failures that, in fact, are not present.
3.4.5 Discussion
Generally speaking, the above procedures are applied only when existing evidence (or lack of it)
raises a question with regard to vulnerability of a line or span to fatigue caused by aeolian
vibration. The urgency of that evidence tends to determine which procedure is viewed as most
3-51
appropriate in any particular case. Recording vibration amplitude is preferred when the evidence
is speculative, or when the line has been in operation for only a short time. Radiographic
inspection appears to be favored for intermediate levels of urgency, perhaps in response to
results of vibration recordings indicating large bending amplitudes. Visual inspection is
appropriate when there is strong or specific evidence that damage has occurred. Such evidence
may stem from radiographic inspections or from discovery of actual damage in the line or in a
similar line.
3.5 Remedial Measures (Revision to be completed)
Remedial measures encompass repairs of damage already experienced, and changes in vibration
arrangements. Conductor damage may be repaired by addition of suitably chosen armor rods, or
by cutting out the damaged area and splicing in a segment of new conductor. In certain cases,
armor rods or compression repair sleeves are placed over damaged areas, and the conductor is
shifted several metres along the line to bring undamaged conductor into the supporting clamps.
The extent of damage that may be repaired using particular armor rod or compression sleeve
devices may be determined through enquiry directed to their suppliers.
Control of the vibration that occurs may be improved through reductions in conductor tensions,
if clearances permit; through addition of vibration dampers; by substitution of damping spacers
for non-damping types; or by replacing conventional conductor with self-damping conductor.
Ordinarily, one of these steps must be taken if fatigue has already been experienced, or is
anticipated. Exceptions occur when the extent of damage is small and the line is scheduled for
retirement or reconductoring in a few years.
Timeliness in taking remedial action can have a strong influence upon the cost involved, since
the cost of repair increase rapidly with the extent of damage. For example, it may be sufficient to
apply or retain standard armor rods over conductor having a few broken strands, and to prevent
continued breakage, except where cracks have already formed, by reducing vibration levels
experienced through application of dampers. Laboratory high-low fatigue tests bear on this
procedure (Silva 1976; EPRI 1981; EPRI 1987), which consists in cycling at high amplitude till
one or more strand failures are obtained, then reducing sharply the amplitude, generally below
the endurance limit, and continuing the fatigue test up to a predetermined number of cycles,
unless a maximum number of new strand failures is observed.
Silva tested 795 kcmil ACSR (47/7) supported by a rigid suspension clamp and tensioned at 26%
of rated strength. In one test the conductor was vibrated at Yb of 0.61 mm until one strand broke
at 1.7 million cycles. Yb was then reduced to 0.18 mm, or about 70% of the estimated endurance
limit given in Table 3.2-4, and vibration was continued for another 30.3 million cycles. No
further failures occurred, and none were discovered in subsequent visual inspection. In a second
test, vibration at 0.61 mm was maintained until, at 5 million cycles, four strand failures had
accumulated. Bending amplitude was then again reduced to 0.18 mm, and vibration continued
for an additional 29 million cycles. Three additional strands failed after 9, 10, and 11 million
additional cycles, respectively, but none failed thereafter, nor were cracked strands discovered
3-52
when the sample was dismantled. The three breaks that occurred after amplitude was reduced
are thought to have resulted from cracks that were formed prior to the amplitude reduction.
Similar high-low tests on three different ACSR’s (EPRI 1981) and one ACAR (EPRI 1987) are
found in the EPRI reports yielding similar results. These tests suggest that, where damage is
slight, and effective damping can be applied, armoring of the damaged areas can be foregone. In
a majority of cases the damage is not discovered at such an early stage, and repair, in the form of
armoring, is required, along with addition or improvement of damping. In a significant number
of cases, damage has progressed to the point where splicing of new conductor is required at some
supports. Attentiveness to early warnings, and use of vibration recording appear to be the best
defense against such experience, even if their use to obtain a complete overhead line damage
evaluation is still quite limited (Rawlins 2004).
References
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3-57
Appendix 3.1
Vibration of a Rigidly Supported Stiff Wire Under Tension
Assume that a wire having mass per unit length m and flexural rigidity EI is held under tension H
by a rigid horizontal clamp at location s = 0 , and that the wire extends to infinity in the positive
s direction. Let the wire vibrate in standing waves in the vertical y plane at circular frequency
ω = 2π f
The differential equation for free vibration of the wire is (Morse 1948)
∂2 y ∂2 y ∂2 y
H − EI − m =0 A3.1-1
∂s 2 ∂s 4 ∂t 2
The instantaneous shape of the wire is (Morse 1948)
⎡μ ⎤
y = A ⎢ 1 sin 2πμ 2 s − cos 2πμ 2 s + e −2πμ 1 s ⎥ sin ω t A3.1-2
⎣μ 2 ⎦
in which μ 12 = β 4 + ρ 4 + β 4
μ 22 = β 4 + ρ 4 − β 4
β 2 = H /[8π 2 EI ] = p 2 /[8π 2 ]
f m fp
ρ2 = =
2π EI 2π Vt
The influence of the exponential term approaches zero with increasing distance from the clamp,
so the free-loop amplitude remote from the clamp is
μ12
ymax = A 2 +1
μ2
and Equation (A3.1-2) becomes
ymax
y= ⎡⎣ μ 1 sin 2πμ 2 s − μ 2 cos 2πμ 2 s + μ 2 e −2πμ 1 s ⎤⎦ sin ω t A3.1-3
μ +μ
2
1
2
2
The curvature is y” which, if evaluated at s = 0 yields
3-58
yo′′ = 4π 2 ymax ρ 4 + μ24 sin ωt A3.1-4
If, by definition,
ρ 4 + μ 24
K=
ρ2
yo '' = 2π Kymax f m / EI sin ω t A3.1-5
β2 H
The factor K is a function of = as shown in Figure A3.1-1
ρ 2
4π f mEI
For values of β 2 / ρ 2 found in overhead conductors, K is approximately unity. Departure from

unity is greatest for low tension, high frequency and large flexural rigidity. For example, for a
solid aluminum rod under 160 MPa (2300 psi) tensile stress, which is about 10% of its ultimate
strength, and vibrating at a frequency corresponding to 7 m/s (15.7 mph) wind speed, K = 1.22.
At the higher tensions normally found in overhead lines and with the reduced EI that results from
the stranded construction of overhead conductors, K is normally within a few percent, or less, of
unity.
Equation (3.2-7) of Section 3.2 is Equation (A3.1-5) with K= 1.
If the bending amplitude is measured at a distance s = s(b) from the clamp, then from Equation
(A3.1-3),
ymax
y (b) = × ⎡⎣ μ 1 sin 2πμ 2 s (b) − μ 2 cos 2πμ 2 s (b) + μ 2 e −2πμ 1 s ( b ) ⎤⎦
μ +μ
2
1
2
2
This equation may be used to eliminate ymax from Equation (A3.1-4) with the result
4π 2 ( μ12 + μ 22 ) y (b)
yo′′ = A3.1-6
μ1
sin 2πμ 2 s (b) − cos 2πμ 2 s (b) + e −2πμ 1 s (b )
μ2
In actual conductors, ρ 2 >> β 2 and μ 2 s << 1 for s(b) = 89 mm, the industry standard position
for measuring bending amplitude. Under those conditions,
p 2 y (b)
yo′′ = A3.1-7
e − ps (b ) − 1 + ps (b)
3-59
Equation (A3.1-7) is the same as Equation (3.2-12) of Section 3.2.
Figure A3.1-1. Factor K as function of β 2 / ρ2.
3-60
Appendix 3.2
Conductor fatigue life prediction under variable bending amplitude
3-61
F
CHAPTER 4 GALLOPING CONDUCTORS
F-1
Chapter 4 Galloping Conductors
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Galloping of iced conductors has been a design and operating problem since early 1900’s. The earliest
occurrences of galloping cannot be pinpointed, since a connection between the observed low-
frequency, high-amplitude motions and the aerodynamic effects of ice deposits on conductors was not
recognized until the late 1920s and did not achieve general credibility until 1932 when Den Hartog
presented his classic analysis of the mechanisms involved (Den Hartog 1932).
Since that time, numerous research programs throughout the world have been mounted, aimed at
solving the problem, and various devices and techniques have been proposed for preventing galloping
or at least minimizing its effects. Some of these methods have been tested and many have been
applied in operating lines with mixed feeling.
Despite significant improvement in galloping understanding from our previous draft of 1979, no
practical protection method has been developed that is recognized as fully-reliable for all kind of
galloping at any wind speed.
Progress, both in analytical attack on the problem and in development of countermeasures, has been
slow until 1980’s but has received more support afterwards due to rapid growth of computer
availability to quickly solve numerous non-linear equations. About 75 years after publication of Den
Hartog’s analysis, important questions remain. If variables have been found out (they will be
presented in this book), there are still some concerns as to which mechanisms (which are truly
established) are significant on actual locations, and validation of some theories of galloping is still not
fully satisfactory concerning fluid model.
The progress has resulted from several things: (i) Quantitative data were obtained during long
campaign of observations, many test sites analysed and some full scale test spans results obtained
(with natural or artificial ice), particularly in Japan and Canada. (ii) International cooperation has
strongly been favoured inside CIGRE, IEEE facilitating experts data exchanges (iii)
analytical/numerical models have been confronted to dynamic wind tunnel tests as well to actual
observations on tests line with artificial ice of different shapes or, more rarely with natural icing (iv)
numerous aerodynamic properties of conductor with ice have been obtained.
It has been clearly demonstrated that galloping, in particular its analytical and numerical analysis have
to consider a full section (from dead-end to dead-end towers), inside which many different modes of
vibrations may occur, with coupling between spans owing to suspension insulator movement. Tension
variations during galloping (which is a design load for both dead-end and suspension towers) have
been deeply investigated and comparison between model and observations are quite in good
agreement, both in amplitudes and frequency content.
One major problem is related to the varied character of ice deposits from one occasion (or one
location) to another makes generalization of a few observations chancy. Questions remain, regarding
how well artificial ice sections represent natural ice (D-shape clearly not valid), and regarding how
broadly tests with only a few artificial ice shapes can be generalized with respect to the great variety
of natural ice shapes. But data bank of ice shapes aerodynamic characteristics have been obtained in a
large range of ice eccentricity and their effects evaluated by numerical simulation and the result
compared with actual on site observation on several hundreds of events. Moreover some significant
studies have been performed to evaluate the processes of ice accretion on conductors on real span
taking into account conductor torsional stiffness as well as wind speed action.
There is no general agreement as to whether a fully-reliable yet practical method for controlling
galloping eventually can be used. It is extremely difficult to assess the effectiveness of such
countermeasures on a probability basis as numerous cases need to be obtained, only one device
1
(eccentric massa) has received enough support to get some trends based on large scale observations
results. These observations could be extrapolated to a range of devices based on similar principle of
use. It must be noted nevertheless that, even for such devices, some (rare) cases of completely
unefficiencies have been observed, even creating some galloping on treated lines in the vicinity of
completely still untreated phases. Also some devices have introduced side effects, like conductor
damages related to unexpected strong aeolian vibrations.
Experts, to-day, may evaluate the efficiencies of anti-galloping devices by simulation tools. If some
consensus appears on bundle line protection methods, there is less common opinion on single line
protection methods as the mechanism of galloping is not the same in most of the cases.
Conductor manufacturers also tried to implement some changes to decrease galloping risk by
changing conductor cross sectional shape, changing wire shape, changing conductor characteristics
(torsional stiffness, self damping). Generally designed to control Aeolian vibrations some of these
new conductors may have some effects on galloping but not necessarily in the good way in all cases.
Galloping is also observed on CATV cables, on lashed fiber optics cables and other types of cables, in
these cases the ice is of course not necessary as asymmetrical shape is existing at the design stage,
some information will be given about these cases.
Interphase spacers are actually proposed and tested on some lines which is another way to attack the
problem by limiting interphase flashovers.
At present, line designers have available to them a menu of protection schemes that differ widely in
cost, effectiveness, degree of evaluation, and level of usage. Several of these schemes will be
discussed in some detail in Section 4.5, and they will also be sketched briefly in the following Section
4.2. None of these schemes has been validated as fully effective; some are known to be partly
effective; some are thought to be promising.
This chapter attempts to do four things:
1. Provide insight into the mechanics of galloping of iced conductors and the factors that influence
its occurrence, type and severity;
2. Overview of galloping observation
3. Give a survey of protection methods
4. Provide new rules of anti-galloping design without protection, giving access to maximum
amplitudes and tension variations in both dead-ends and suspension towers.
Successful design to control galloping will involve considerable good fortune, and it may involve
capital expenditures.
Last but not least, some vibrations similar to galloping (significant but not very large amplitude, low
frequency) have been observed on round wires without any ice (temperature was high). Cases are
known on quad bundle and on single conductor with air craft warning markers. These cases are most
probably related to wake induced galloping due to specific obstacles in the vicinity (subconductors of
the same bundle may be these wake inducers), there are generally of limited amplitudes and with
limited consequences on the line. These cases are not discussed here.
In rare case (there is a famous one on the crossing of river “Severn” in UK) a quasi parallel wind to
the cable may also induce significant amplitude at low frequencies in case of round wires cable which
are presenting to the oblique wind a slightly non symmetrical cross section which is inducing
instabilities. Such cases may be easily solved by using appropriate cables with outer surface close to a
circle (using trapezoidal or Z-shape conductors).
A CD-ROM of galloping events has been recollected by international experts and made available to
both CIGRE and EPRI members.
2
In parallel to this publication, CIGRE will publish a thematic brochure on galloping which will be
complementary to this book.
3
4.2 OVERVIEW (UNDER REVISION)
4.2.1 Galloping Definition
Galloping is a low frequency (from 0.1 to 1 Hz), large amplitude (from ± 0.1 to ± 1 times the sag of
the span, some cases up to 4 times the sag on distribution lines), wind induced vibration of both
single and bundle conductors, with a single or a few loops of standing waves per span. It is always
caused by moderately strong, steady crosswind acting upon an asymmetrically iced conductor surface.
The large amplitudes are generally - but not always - in a vertical plane, while frequencies are
dependant of the type of line construction and the oscillation mode excited. Winds approximately
normal to the line with a speed above 7 m/s are usually required and it can not be assumed that there is
necessarily an upper speed limit.
Most of galloping are due to icing of lines, which may be ice, glaze, rime, wet snow deposit.
Galloping has major impact on the design of overhead lines, both for clearances and tower load design
as large load variations may occur between phases and even between each side of a given tower,
causing horizontal, vertical, bending as well as torsional load on towers and crossarms. Due to large
amplitudes, breaking bending loads may be reached at conductor attachment (see § on damage and
other penalties), tower bolts failure have also been observed and at least wearing are created at some
location (yoke plate, pin of insulator,…) which may be discovered or at the origin of more severe
consequences much later, eventually during other seasons).
Torsional motion of the phase or earthwire conductor (single or bundle) may occur with very
significant amplitude (up to bundle collapse in some cases) causing troubles in suspension
arrangement.
It must be understood that protection methods against Aeolian vibration (chapter 3 of this book), like
Stockbridge or dogbone dampers have absolutely no effect against galloping as this one occur mainly
in range of frequencies very far from Aeolian vibrations and also due to the fact that the amount of
energy in galloping is much bigger than the amount related to Aeolian vibrations. The wind energy
input during a galloping of a few meters amplitude peak-to-peak is typically in the range of thousand
of Joules in one cycle (means a power near several hundreds of Watts). By comparison, the maximum
wind power input during Aeolian vibration of amplitude close to conductor diameter on a similar
span (a few hundreds of meters) is a very few Watts, between two and three order of amplitudes less.
On the opposite site, Aeolian vibration dampers may be subject to damages during galloping, despite
the very low response of these dampers at the galloping frequencies, the response may be affected by
snow accretion pushing down frequencies of the dampers, coupled with large amplitudes.
As galloping is a low frequency, high power phenomenon, the control of it will force the use of heavy
material as we will see in preventive methods (over 10% of the full span conductor mass). The
overhead line designers have to be cautious about side effects that could be induced by antigalloping
devices. Indeed a heavy located mass on conductor span is a fixed point at high frequencies, which
may have dramatic impact on Aeolian vibration severities so that it will be strongly recommended to
take care of such considerations.
4.2.2 Galloping without Ice

Galloping motions do occur under other conditions, however, and it is useful to distinguish these other
phenomena at this point.
4
Galloping of iced conductors is associated with their altered aerodynamic characteristics, relative to
those of nominally-cylindrical bare conductors. However, even bare conductors can display the
aerodynamic characteristics required for galloping. For example, single conductors with a large
number of outer-layer strands, say 42, may experience aerodynamic lift and a coefficient of drag that
varies rapidly with wind speed, when exposed to quite steady wind having a speed within a certain
critical range and a direction of about 15°-25° from perpendicular to the conductor. These peculiar
aerodynamic characteristics result from the differences in the conductor’s apparent roughness
presented to the air flow over the top and bottom surfaces. The flow is more nearly parallel to the
strands on one of those surfaces than on the other. Galloping may result.(4-5) There appear to be few
documented cases, however. The phenomenon is often termed “bare-wire galloping.”
Bundled conductors may acquire aerodynamic characteristics that permit galloping in the absence of
ice. The characteristics result from the aerodynamic shielding of leeward subconductors by windward
ones. The phenomenon is called “wake-induced galloping” and is dealt with in Chapter 5.
Special cable or cable manufacturing or specific arrangement, like CATV cable (figure 8 cable),
lashed fiber optic cables can also display the aerodynamic characteristics required for galloping in the
absence of ice.
4.2.3 Effects of Terrain on Propensity of Galloping

It is certain that galloping only occur in specific locations. That is because of the necessity, for the
power line to be located in region where:
• having cold temperature (most of galloping occurred near 0°C, some have been observed at much
lower values, even at -45°C in Siberia and some others have been observed at ground level
temperature close to +3°C). The temperature must be negative on the surface of the conductor,
which must be able to accrete ice/snow/rime. Ice may easily transfer calories, so that small winds
are able to evacuate significant amount of calories from the conductor heat losses. Of course high
electrical loads will limit the risk, evaluation can be done based on conductor, wind data and load
profile.
140
The Field Nearest Tower Utilitiy's Facility AMeDAS
120
100
Number of Incident
80
60
40
20
0
< -4deg C -4deg C to -2deg C -2deg C to 0deg C 0deg C to 2deg C 2deg C to 4deg C 4deg C to 6deg C
Temperature (deg C)
Figure 4.2-1 Number of galloping events Vs temperature in Japan. AMeDAS (Automated Meteorological Data
Acquisition System) is observed air temperature, wind direction/speed and sunshine duration at more than
1,300 locations in Japan
5
• the power line must be more or less perpendicular to dominant wind speed (range over 5 m/s)
during winter time
80
The Field Nearest Tower Utilitiy's Facility AMeDAS
70
60
Number of Incident
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 deg 22.5 deg 45 deg 67.5 deg 90 deg
Wind Direction with the Line (deg)
Figure 4.2-2 Number of galloping events Vs wind direction in Japan.
• to have a wind acting similarly on most of the span(s) of the same section (in the same direction)
with no significant obstacle in the close vicinity (which would induce turbulence in a part of the
span). Of course very flat area like desert, rice field, large river crossing, tundra are very sensitive.
• Of course a "section" may be reduced to one span (especially for distribution line), in that case a
span by span risk analysis may be necessary
• environment which favours wind acceleration and/or driving wind in a direction close to
perpendicular of the power lines may be very sensitive, like fjords, power lines down a hill from
which transverse wind may arrive from the top of the hill over a forest for example, power lines on
a top of hills subject to transverse wind are one of the worst conditions, plateau in mountainous
area with enough distance (several hundreds of meters) for the wind to "re-arrange" before
arriving on the power lines
• never forget that winter conditions may drastically change from summer conditions as some
obstacles may be hidden by the snow
• near water lines (lakes, rivers, seas, oceans) perpendicular to dominant winds, which are locations
very prone to power lines icing together with significant wind coming from the see or the ground
depending on the season.
• it must be noted that turbulence intensity may be nevertheless quite high (20%) during galloping
events as has been observed at least in Belgium with a total certainty (visual and tension recording
during that event on both wind speed and conductor movement).
Of course the observation is depending on power lines cable altitudes, a power lines in a city may be
subject to galloping if conductors are over the boundary layer of high turbulence created by buildings,
etc.
Some moving power lines cable in strange location, not prone to galloping, may be induced by a real
galloping in other spans of the section. SO that a galloping risk evaluation must look for all section
length.
6
All these typical observations on some actual site of galloping cannot be considered as absolute rules.
But those which are in these kind of arrangement have to consider seriously the risk of galloping.
4.2.4 Causes of Galloping: The Forces in Action

The Drag Force
Figure 4.2-3 Wind force on bare conductor.
The drag is a force induced by the wind on any structure, it is oriented in the direction of the wind
(more exactly in the direction of the relative wind speed in case of conductor movement). Fluid
consideration, in particular air pressure repartition around the conductor is at the origin of that force.
Drag force in its static effect is just pushing conductor until the wind force will be balanced by
internal tension (due to conductor swing, a tension component appeared in the wind direction). Drag
force in its dynamic action (imagine to push a little bit the conductor around an equilibrium position in
the presence of wind) has always a damping action (see later). It means that any disturbance caused
will disappear after a while. That is because the drag force is oriented in the direction of the relative
wind speed, which has always an active component opposite to the movement of the conductor. There
is no way, at constant drag force, to get any instability based only on that force.
Drag force is given by the formula:
1
FD = ρ air .φ .CD .Vr2 (N/m)
2
where ρair is the density of air (about 1,2 kg/m3 at standard conditions of temperature, pressure), φ, the
conductor diameter (m) , Vr the relative wind speed (m/s).
CD, the drag coefficient, is in fact not a constant and depends on the wind speed and “rugosity” (k/h
on figure 4-2) of apparent surface. Moreover if the surface has eccentricity due to asymmetrical
deposit (e.g. ice), CD will become dependent of the angle of attack which would refer to ice position
relative to wind direction (see later).
7
k
Aster 570
Aero-Z
Figure 4.2-4 CD vs. Ρe curves for smooth and classical stranded conductors, compared to the pure cylinder. To the
right the conductors’ cross-sections are shown. Equivalent wind speed, shown beneath, corresponds to conductor
diameters about 31 mm. For Aero-Z k/h ~ 0.005, and for Aster k/h ~ 0.02. Aero-Z: 31.5 mm and Aster: 31.05 mm.
(courtesy Nexans and EDF)
Under turbulent wind, drag force are able to impose dynamic movement of the conductor in three
dimensional place as the cable react to drag force by its stiffness (related to both its geometry and its
tension or sag/span ratio). This is not an instability, this is a forced movement which may be very
large during thunderstorm. Under strong wind speed (going over the “drag crisis”, the sharp decrease
in drag coefficient over a given wind speed, as we can see on Figure 4.2-4), significant difference of
behaviour may occur between very similar conductor (like the two shown on Figure 4.2-4). The
dynamic movement, imposed by drag only, under turbulent wind is called buffeting and may be
sensitively influenced by the frequency content of the wind. A typical wind spectra is shown on
Figure 4.2-5. A typical power line span response is given on Figure 4.2-6.
(a)
Figure 4.2-5 Frequency spectrum of the energy content in the wind, Von Karman spectrum (for a particular case).
8
Y, m
-8
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-10
U = 30 m/s
-12
ASTER
Z, m
-14
-16
Y, m
Z -8
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Y X -10
-12
Z, m Aero Z
-14
-16
Figure 4.2-6 Wind turbulence effect. This is not a galloping. Mid-point evolutions of the two cable shown on fig.1 on a
500 m span length. Mean wind speed: 30 m/s, alongwind turbulence scale: 200 m, turbulence intensity: 19%.
The Lift Force and the Pitching Moment

To obtain galloping, the conductor (single or bundle) must have something more than the drag which
is purely a dissipative force for typical wind speed of galloping.
That force which would be able to create, in some particular conditions, a negative damping on the
whole system. The lift force needs asymmetrical profile of the conductor to the wind.
Figure 4.2-7 Lift and drag on iced conductor. Lift is a force perpendicular to the wind direction, which may be
nul (a), negative (b) or positive (c) depending on ice position. Air-foil theory is not necessary applicable.
Measurement needed.
9
Once asymmetry exist, a new factor has to be defined : the angle of attack. The angle of attack is the
angle between (relative) wind speed direction and the direction of the asymmetry, generally taken as a
straight line joining the bare conductor center of gravity and the center of gravity of the ice coating
(see details in the explanation box for sign references).
As soon as asymmetric coating is present on a conductor, lift and drag exist. In fact these two
aerodynamic forces are applied on a point inside the conductor which is called “aerodynamic centre”
which is not the centre of the conductor. To facilitate the understanding, measurements and modeling,
the shift of the application point of these forces are replaced by the same forces applied on the shear
centre plus an additional pitching moment which is physically obvious. On Figure 4.2-7, such pitching
moment is obviously clockwise on picture b and anticlockwise on picture c and zero on picture a.
Wind tunnel measurement can easily measured these three components of the wind action on
asymmetrical shapes, curves like Figure 4.2-8 are obtained. So that we have three aerodynamic
coefficients which are all depending of the angle of attack.
Figure 4.2-8 Typical aerodynamic coefficients. Ice (crescent type) thickness 1.1 cm over a subconductor diameter of
32.4 mm (similar as [3]). LIFT positive upwards; Pitching moment and torsional angle positive anti-clockwise. Zero angle
when ice is facing the wind and in horizontal position. The symmetry with angle of attack is not perfect as the curves have
been measured on real ice shape which cannot be purely symmetrical. In this case all coefficients have values of the same
sign as typical air-foil near zero angle of attack.
The two forces and the pitching aerodynamic moment (all per unit of length) have been obtained by
similarity laws to be expressed as follows:
1 1 1
FD = ρ air .φ .Vr2 .CD (ϕ ) FL = ρ air .φ .Vr2 .CL (ϕ ) FM = ρ air .φ 2 .Vr2 .CM (ϕ ) (eq1)
2 2 2
(notice the square exponent of the conductor diameter on the pitching moment)
10
Where CD, CL and CM are the three curves given as an example, for a particular ice shape, on Figure
4.2-8. The abscissa is φ, the angle of attack. Order of amplitudes of these wind actions on power lines
conductors are (wind speed 10 m/s; conductor diameter of 30 mm):
FD = 2 to 3 N/m FL = 0 to 1 N/m and FM = 0 to 0.03 N.m/m
It is amazing that such small amount of forces (moment) are able to generate huge amplitude, it is
obviously related to the fact that power lines have very small self damping at the frequencies of
galloping and that the aerodynamic forces, owing to their derivatives (see later), will be able to change
the system damping to negative value. In such case energy can be inserted in the movement by the
wind at each cycle of oscillation, thus increasing progressively the amplitude to a maximum level that
will be explained later on and which is mainly due to non linearities in aerodynamic coefficients
which are not able to force negative damping on a large range of angle of attack.
It is remarkable to point out that these coefficients are more or less wind speed independent in the
classical range for overhead power lines (this is less true for pitching moment). Of course these
coefficients are considering subcritical range of Reynolds number, where the drag would have been a
constant on bare conductor.
On site wind speed is rarely constant and constant wind speed is not needed for galloping. Figure 4.2-
9 is showing a wind speed (component perpendicular to the line) detailed measurement during one
galloping event on actual 400 kV line in the Ardennes in Belgium in February 1997. The galloping
observed, a typical one of large amplitude, has been recorded under 25% turbulent wind.
Figure 4.2-9 Mean wind speed (one dot every minutes) (m/s) measured at the line location and appropriate height
during all the day of February 13th, 1997. Abscissa in GMT+1, given in minutes. Turbulence was quasi constant around
25%.
Measured galloping with significant amplitudes (around 6 m peak-to-peak on a single loop on a dead-
end span, inducing about 25 kN tension variation peak-to-peak) were observed around abscissa 710
(means 10h30 GMT) and another significant event occurred around abscissa 830. Temperature was
close to 0°C and icing rain occurred during strong wind. One of the two events, for which only tension
recording were available, has been reconstructed as shown on Figure 4.2-10.
11
Figure 4.2-10 Galloping « ellipse » at mid-span , rebuild from actual tension recordings (10 minutes).
Based on quasi-steady theory of fluids, and many observations and simulations, it can be pointed out
that turbulence level has limited influence on galloping which may easily occur during such kind of
wind speed. The mean ten minutes wind speed is a good reference wind to evaluate galloping
amplitude using steady wind.
It is important to notice the reference signs for the forces and angles :
Lift force will be positive upwards
Drag force will be positive in the direction of the wind
Pitching moment : there are two ways to choose the positive moment : clockwise or anticlockwise.
Both are used in the literature unfortunately. It is of dramatic importance to well understand the
chosen case.
Generally and in this book, we will suppose zero angle of attack when ice is facing the actual wind.
An example of aerodynamic forces acting on conductor + ice is shown on the Figure 4.2-11:
In this case the conductor is moving upwards (speed dy/dt) and also rotating in anticlockwise sense (of
an angle θ). The initial position of ice is given by θice. φ is the angle of attack which is composed of
two contributions : rotation + initial position of ice from one side and α the difference angle between
relative wind speed and actual wind speed
Drag force fD is oriented in the relative wind speed direction and lift force fL is perpendicular to the
drag. Both forces are acting on the shear center of the conductor and a pitching moment (positive
anticlockwise) MW exists.
12
Figure 4.2-11 Drag, lift and pitching moment. The conductor is moving up and rotating anticlockwise. ϕ is the actual
angle of attack. It includes two dynamic components : the conductor rotation and α, the part of the angle of attack which is
due to vertical movement only. The cases of single (left) and twin bundle conductors (right).
If the reference choice for angle is clockwise, the angle of attack ϕ is negative on Figure 4.2-11.
If the reference choice for angle of attack is anticlockwise, the angle of attack ϕ is positive
In case of no movement, the angle of attack is limited to θice., the position of ice (zero being (gravity
centre of) ice in front of the wind).
The vertical force acting on conductor arrangement is then given by (α is negative with angle
reference positive anticlockwize) :
f w = f L cos α + f D sin α
In that expression fL and fD are depending on aerodynamic coefficient (see eq 1) of lift and drag
which are depending on the full angle of attack “ϕ” on Figure 4.2-11.
4.2.5 Causes of Galloping: The Mechanisms

Galloping (of iced conductors) occurs when wind is able to “inject” its energy to vertical (more rarely
to horizontal or even to torsion) movement, it means that a mechanism must be found to progressively
(at each cycle of vibration) inject more energy than the one which is dissipated by self damping (in
fact extremely low at low frequency) and by the drag.
But the sole presence of lift is not enough to get galloping (happily for airplanes!). To destabilize the
system (means to get a negative damping) , the lift force must be such that any disturbance (which
always occur in practice) , for example a cable movement going up, would augment the (lift) force
which will be oriented in the same direction as the starting movement : the instability condition is
created. Thus the derivative (= slope) of the lift force (vs angle of attack) is a key factor. A mechanism
by which the periodic motion of a galloping conductor could cause modulation of aerodynamic lift to
sustain the motion was first described by Den Hartog in 1932. A. E. Davison, in an earlier paper,(4-6)
(this will be detailed in chapter 4.3)
The aerodynamic lift on the conductor will be modulated by periodic motion of the conductor.
It is important to distinguish the conductor motions and lift variations here from those involved in
aeolian vibration, discussed in Chapter 3. The frequencies involved in galloping are less than a tenth
of Hz and usually less than one hundred times of those for aeolian vibration for the same wind
velocity. Conductor amplitudes in galloping often exceed a metre, whereas they rarely exceed a few
centimetres in aeolian vibration. The two phenomena are not directly related.
Causes of Galloping: The Mechanisms in Case of Pure Vertical Motion
13
.
Den Hartog(4-1) pointed out that the conductor’s vertical velocity Y could modulate the angle of attack
of the apparent wind, Vr, since, as shown
.
in Figure 4.2-13, the vector Vr is the true wind vector V,
minus the conductor’s velocity vector Y . Figure 4.2-13 shows the effect upon the apparent wind
vector of upward and of downward velocity of the conductor.
Figure 4.2-12 Illustration of variation of lift with angle of attack. Clockwise reference for angles. Zero angle
facing the wind. Lift values opposite to typical airfoil value near zero angle of attack but valid for D-shape
structure, as shown.
Figure 4.2-13 Effect of vertical conductor motion on apparent wind. The sign of the angle of attack is obtained
depending of reference choice.
.
It is apparent that Y modulates both the magnitude and the direction of the apparent wind.
The magnitude variations are small enough that they can be ignored for present purposes. The
modulation in the vertical component of the apparent wind, indicated by V tan ß in
Figure 4.2-13 is significant, however.
Suppose that the iced conductor, when not galloping, has zero angle of attack α and thus experiences
zero lift according to Figure 4.2-12. If that conductor is given an upward velocity as in Figure 4.2-13a,
it experiences an angle of attack with respect to the apparent wind of –ß, and this results in positive lift
corresponding to point a in Figure 4.2-12. The upward velocity thus begets an upward lift force on the
conductor. A downward velocity, as in Figure 4.2-13b, results in a downward lift force, such as at b in
Figure 4.2-12.
If the conductor gallops sinusoidally in the vertical direction, the lift force from the wind assists its
motion during each vertical stroke, imparting energy to the conductor to increase its amplitude of
motion. In fact, if the motion is given by
y = ymax sin ω t
.
so that y = ω ymax cost ω t
. ω ymax
β = − y/ V = − cost ω t, (4.1)
V
.
assuming that | y |<< V .
If the excursions of ß are small enough that α remains on the straight-line part of Figure 4.2-12
between a and b, then the lift is given approximately by
14
Lα .
L = − Lα β = − y
V
where Lα = dL/ dα, the slope of the lift curve of Figure 4.2-12, between points a and b. The slope
illustrated is negative (reference positive clockwise),
. with the result that the lift is proportional to, and
in phase with the conductor’s vertical velocity y . In effect the force L is a negative damping force.
Note that the lift force has the character of negative damping, making self-exciting galloping motions
possible, only when the slope Lα is negative (reference positive clockwise). Were the operating point
not at the origin, but at an angle of attack where Lα, is positive
. (reference positive clockwise), such as
point c in Figure 4.2-12, the variations in L resulting from y would be such as to oppose motions in
the vertical direction and the oscillations would decay.
Lift and drag are defined as the components of aero-dynamic force respectively perpendicular and
parallel to the relative wind velocity Vr. Consequently both the lift L and the drag D forces have
components acting in the vertical and horizontal directions. Thus, when there is vertical velocity, the
directions of lift and drag axe as shown in Figure 4.2-14, where D is the drag vector. The component
of that acts in the vertical direction is L cos ß.
Figure 4.2-14 Lift and drag referred to apparent wind.

.
The other aerodynamic force that influences the conductor’s galloping in they y direction is the
vertical component of drag, D sin ß. This force component always opposes the conductor’s y motion,
and acts as positive damping. The balance between the negative damping, due to Lα and positive
damping, caused by D, determines whether galloping can build up or not. Specifically, if Lα+D is
negative (reference positive clockwise), in the region of the conductor’s at-rest angle of attack, * then
galloping can build up from small amplitudes. If Lα+D is positive (reference positive clockwise), it
cannot build up.
The reader may easily adapt the text to the other reference for angle (positive anticlockwise) and will
found out that the negative damping would only occur for positive slope of lift and a build up of
galloping would only be possible if D-Lα is negative.
The preceding paragraphs sketch the elements of Den Hartog’s analysis. Den Hartog also explained
how the maximum amplitude of galloping is determined by energy balance considerations when large
excursions in ß bring into play parts of the lift versus α curve having positive slopes or, at least, slopes
that are less negative than those responsible for letting the galloping build up. His analysis established
a credible connection between the motions observed in ice-coated conductors and the changed
aerodynamics resulting from the ice deposits.
Den Hartog’s analysis has since been studied, tested, modified and extended, as will be discussed in
Section 4.3.
*
The at-rest angle of attack is the angle of the ice section with respect to the wind arising solely from the ice’s position of
deposit on the conductor. It is measured with respect to convenient in the ice deposit, such as the middle of the ice
crescent, as in the insert to Figure 4.2-12.
15
How Much Den-Hartog Mechanism Could Occur in Practice?
As we just stated out, it needs some relationship between drag and derivative of lift. Many
investigations have been performed in the literature on tentative actual ice shape. These shapes were
obtained during observations (peaces of ice dropped form the line) (ref Tunstall, Koutselos) or in
complex cold wind tunnel experiment. These last were using a piece of conductor fixed in vertical and
horizontal movement but free (with appropriate torsional stiffness) in rotation. Snow or ice were
injected/created in the wind tunnel to observed ice accretion shapes depending on temperature, wind
speed , duration of event and conductor torsional stiffness. Afterwards the ice shape were reproduced
in its shape and aerodynamic forces measured in classical wind tunnel. Most of these complex tests
were performed in Japan.
As a general conclusion based on all such tests performed during last thirty years, we can summarize
the findings as follows:
• ice shape may have kind of air-foil shape with significant eccentricity mainly on bundle
conductors.
• Ice shape on single conductor (able to generate galloping) may be extremely thin, made of glaze
ice.
• D-shape type of ice quasi never occurs
It has been shown by laboratory testing that extremely thin deposit behaves, near zero angle of attack,
completely differently from other ice shape and are showing lift curve with slopes inverse to air-foil
theory, similar to D-shape.
The following aerodynamic curves (Figures 4.2-15 to 4.2-18) have been obtained by the methods
described. Den-Hartog zones are clearly highlighted on the abscissa. All curves presented with
anticlockwise reference sign.
The left hand side is showing lift and drag, and the right hand side is showing drag and derivative of
lift, directly pointed out Den-Hartog zones when both curves are crossing, due to anticlockwise
reference choice. All curves smoothed using high pass band Fourier at 42 harmonic components.
Figure 4.2-15 Aerodynamic lift and drag with ice eccentricity 0.33 (source Buchan OH report 78-205-K, 1978). Only
one small range of Den-Hartog zone near 180°.
16
Figure 4.2-16 Aerodynamic lift and drag with eccentricity 0.82 (source Manitoba Hydro, CEA report N°321, T 672,
1992). Only one small range of Den-Hartog zone near 180°.
Figure 4.2-17 Aerodynamic lift and drag with eccentricity 1.39 (source Fujikura, courtesy T. Oka). Only one small range
of Den-Hartog zone near 180° plus one asymmetric zone near -40°.
Figure 4.2-18 Aerodynamic lift and drag with typical D-Shape (courtesy University of Liège, 1999). Large range of Den-
Hartog zone near zero angle of attack and 90°.
It must be noted :
17
For “classical” shape (air-foil type, like Figures 4.2-15 to 4.2-17), any eccentricity between thin to
thick have similar curves of different amplitudes. There are few or no Den Hartog zone, except for
180°, which needs a reverse wind action (ice shape positioned at the opposite of wind action).
The D-shape (Figure 4.2-18) is showing opposite behaviour near zero angle of attack, which is very
unstable.
Rarely some small area of angle of attack may be unstable (like eccentricity 1.39 around -40°) on a
very small zone. It means that small dissymmetry in ice shape may create such behaviour but the area
of instability (which will be related to amplitude) is generally very small.
Another theory than Den-Hartog has been established (see later). That is because of numerous
observations on bundle conductor with many cases including conductor movement accompanied by a
clear torsional movement at the same frequency of the vertical one.
This is not a pure theoretical theory only needed for scientist to better understand all observed cases,
but it has been a new era of galloping control methods which has been open as we will see.
Many scientist through the world have contributed in these new theories, the first papers on that were
coming from Canada and Japan in early seventies, like (Nigol-Havard, Otsuki, Matsubayashi) and
some others, these theories have been deepened and modelled in the eighties and nineties owing to
increase computer performances and worldwide cooperations through organisms like CIGRE, IEEE,
JAWE. The nineties were particularly fruitful with the works performed by (Shah-Popplewel, Yu,
Havard, Rawlins, Lilien, Wang, Yamaguchi, Diana, etc..).
This new kind of galloping has been called (may be unproperly) “flutter galloping” or “binary flutter”
by similitude with airplane and bridge engineering (domain in which instabilities like that one is very
well known).
It is not the aim of this book to relate these theories which may be found in the literature or in the
CIGRE brochure which will be published in 2006 on the subject. But important is to consider the
major findings which can be summarized as follows.
• torsion movement may be the sole origin of wind energy input into vertical movement
• flutter galloping is strongly related to the initial ratio torsional/vertical frequency and thus
structural parameters (not only aerodynamic as in Den-Hartog) have influences. A ratio close to
one (+/- 30%) is needed on galloping frequencies.
• Flutter galloping is strongly influenced by the phase shift between vertical and torsional
movement
• The coupling between vertical and torsional movement is related to (i) aerodynamic lift and
pitching moment, (ii) torsional stiffness of the system (iii) torsional moment of inertia of the
system (with ice) (iv) rotational inertial forces acting on ice (v) position of ice
• The conductor span (ratio conductor diameter to sag of the span) is a key parameter
• System torsional damping (in particular the conductor/bundle) is playing a major role in energy
transfer (due to Vertical/torsional movement phase shift effect)
A fact is that, in case of Den-Hartog, as soon as the criterion is observed, the system is unstable in all
its modes (one, two, three, .. loops), the amplitudes of which being driven by Den-Hartog area in the
angle of attack, the wind speed and the frequency concerned.
In case of “flutter galloping” this may be not the case as the better tuned modes will grow faster.
18
Last but not least, a galloping mode in movement, due to related tension variation in the cable, may
force other movement (as tension is connecting all modes together).
An example of stability/amplitude analysis for “flutter galloping” is shown on the next Figure 4.2-19.
Obviously we cannot work as for Den-Hartog (which was limited to show aerodynamic curves)
because of the strong interaction with structural parameters.
Figure 4.2-19 The influence (by model) of torsional damping (2 and 4% of critical damping) on “flutter type” galloping
on bundle conductor line. (courtesy University of Liège)
Left hand side : amplitude of galloping vs position of ice (0° is facing the wind, anticlockwise).
Right hand side : amplitude vs wind speed.(ratio vertical/torsion = 0.93, conductor/bundle diameter = 0.072, reduced ice
inertia = 0.007, conductor span = 0.066), aerodynamic curves as on Figure 4.2-15.
Figure 4.2-20 The influence of detuning (by model), same case as before. A 25% detuning is able to suppress or limit at
negligeable value the galloping for wind speed up to 10 m/s. Impact of extra torsional damping is clearly visible as it helps
to suppress galloping or limits its amplitude with less detuning effects.
4.2.6 Types of Motion

Galloping takes one of two basic forms, standing waves and traveling waves, or a combination of
them. The standing waves may occur with one, or as many as ten loops in a span. Data on observed
galloping of operating lines, collected by the by the Galloping Task Force of EEI,(4-7) shows the
following distribution of loops observed:
Table 4.2-1 Title
Cases Reported
No. of Loops Phase Grd. Wire
1 42 2
19
2 26 3
3 34 6
4 or more 2 1
Small numbers of loops are clearly favored.

Traveling waves are often observed in the course of buildup of actual galloping. The waves initially
may be only tens of metres long with amplitudes of a few cm. With repeated passage back and forth
along the span, they grow in length and amplitude and eventually interact with one another to form
standing waves. If the standing waves turn out to have a large number of loops within the span, further
traveling-wave action usually leads to a shift to a smaller number of loops, and eventually the span
settles on three or fewer loops.
On occasion, the shift from traveling waves to standing waves does not occur, and a traveling wave
with a length of the order of 1/4 of the span length will persist as long as wind conditions do not
change. Such waves may incorporate steep wavefronts, causing significant dynamic loads on
supports. There is one such example on our video records.
On other occasions, standing-wave galloping builds up without traveling-wave involvement.
Observed peak-to-peak amplitudes of galloping are often as great as the sag in the span and are
sometimes greater, especially in short spans. Amplitudes approaching in magnitude the sag have been
observed with as many as three loops in the span, but beyond that number the amplitudes become
smaller.
Traveling-wave peak-to-peak amplitudes have magnitudes comparable to standing waves of the same
length, that is, the longest waves may have amplitudes on the order of span sag, but the shorter waves
have smaller amplitudes.
The predominant conductor motions are vertical in galloping, but there is often some horizontal
component of motion transverse to the line. The vertical and horizontal motions are often not in phase,
so that a point on the conductor near mid-loop traces an elliptical orbit. The data collected by the EEI
Task Force indicate that substantially elliptical orbits occur in about 30% of observed cases. Figure
4.2-21 shows the percentage distribution of observed orbit shapes based upon two collections of
galloping reports.(4-7, 4-8)
Figure 4.2-21 Percentage of observations of various galloping ellipse shapes and tilts.
When galloping occurs with one loop in the span, there may be significant movement of the conductor
in the direction of the line. Peak-to-Peak swings on the order of ½ meter have been observed. These
motions are most noticeable in longs spans. Many observations in Japan on large bundle (bundle
diameter larger than 1 m sometimes with many subconductors) showed large horizontal movement.
Twisting motion of single conductors during galloping is difficult to discern from the ground,
but has been detected and measured by means of attachment of suitable targets to the span.
Peak-to-peak rotations greater than 100° have been observed, simultaneous with vertical motion.
Edwards and Madeyski’s analysis(4-9) of films of natural galloping showed significant torsional motion
20
to be present in two out of five cases of natural galloping of single conductors that were analyzed.
Many such movement can be observed on bundle conductor galloping on our videos.
Twisting motion is almost always observed during vertical galloping of bundled conductors.(4-10)
4.2.7 Factors Influencing Galloping

Galloping requires moderate to strong wind at an angle greater than about 45° to the line, a deposit of
ice or rime upon the conductor lending it suitable aerodynamic characteristics, and positioning of that
ice deposit (angle of attack) such as to favor aerodynamic instability.
“Ice” deposits occur in three forms, illustrated in Figure 4.2-22: soft rime, hard rime, and glaze.(4-11)
Soft rime occurs most often in mountainous terrain and has a feathery appearance, a granular structure
and a density usually less than 0.6 g/cm3. It adheres poorly to conductors and is seldom associated
with galloping. On occasion, a cylindrical deposit of soft rime will form on small conductors and
aeolian vibration in light to moderate wind may take place. The vibration has the large amplitudes and
low frequencies appropriate to the diameter of the rime coating, and dampers designed to protect the
small-diameter bare conductor are usually ineffective.
Hard rime is amorphous but may be cloudy due to entrapped air bubbles. Its density is usually
between 0.6 and 0.9 g/cm3 and it adheres strongly to conductors.
Glaze, also called “blue ice,” is smooth and transparent. Its density is 0.90 to 0.92 g/cm3, and its
adherence to conductors is excellent. Hard rime and glaze are responsible for most conductor
galloping.
21
Figure 4.2-22 Types of ice deposits. Reference 4-11.
The three types of “icing” occur under different atmospheric conditions. Glaze forms when
supercooled drops or droplets impinge on the conductor and freeze. When the temperature is
somewhat above freezing, only a small fraction of each drop freezes, due to evaporative cooling, and
the rest runs off as liquid. At and slightly below freezing, part of the runoff freezes in the form of
icicles. At lower temperature, the part that does not freeze on contact does freeze in the form of ridges
toward the leeward side of the conductor. At even lower temperatures, complete freezing occurs on
contact.
Glaze, hard rime or soft rime may occur when freezing fog particles impinge on the conductor. The
particles have diameters on the order of 10μ. Conditions favoring each form of accretion are shown in
Figure 4.2-23.
22
Figure 4.2-23
Relation between types of ice and meteorological conditions. Reference 4-12.
Hard rime and glaze deposits are tenacious enough, and have sufficient strength and elasticity, that
galloping motions do not dislodge them.
Wind-driven wet snow may pack onto the windward sides of conductors, forming a hard, tenacious
deposit with a fairly sharp leading edge. The resulting ice shape may permit galloping.
Figure 4.2-24
Total number of glaze storms observed during the nine year period of the Association of American Railroads
Study. Reference 4-12.
23
The incidence (frequency of occurrence) of glaze icing was studied by Bennett (see Tattelman et al.(4-
12)
) Figure 4.2-24 shows the number of glaze storms that occurred in various parts of the country
during a nine-year period. Almost all states experienced glaze, but the highest incidences were found
in the Northeast, North Central and Central States and certain localized regions in West Coast States.
Corresponding information on incidence of hard rime is not available. It occurs most frequently, but
not exclusively, in hilly or mountainous regions.
The thickness of icing varies from storm to storm. To the nearest 1/4 inch reported ice thicknesses, at
point of maximum thickness, during 69 cases of galloping were as follows:(4-7)
Table 4.2-2 Title
No. of Cases Ice Thickness (Inches)

42 “Very thin,” “Not visible,” etc.
17 1/4
8 1/2
0 3/4
0 1
2 1-1/4
Little ice thickness is needed for galloping. Galloping has occurred with deposits so thin, 1 or 2 mm,
that the contour of the strand surface was not obliterated. It has also been observed with ice thickness
as great as 5 cm.
Apparently, quite a wide variety of shapes provide aerodynamic characteristics capable of causing
galloping for at least some range of angle of attack. A survey by J. J. Ratkowski(4-13) of wind tunnel
data on 18 simulated ice shapes found all but two of them capable of causing galloping, according to
Den Hartog’s theory, when suitably oriented.
The Japan is particularly active in galloping observations from the early seventies. 776 cases have
been recorded with some details in all regions of Japan, of course, most of them occurred in Honshu
and Hokkaido island, particularly in Tokyo, Hokuriku, Tohoku, regions. The global statistics (single
and bundle lines, wind speed and orientation to the line, temperature, altitude, span length,…) is
available in CIGRE brochure. An interesting additional data is also provided about ice shape and its
eccentricity for 125 cases :
• 53 cases were observed with eccentricity 1 less than 1, most of the cases with a crescent shape
windward (23 cases)
• 48 cases were observed with eccentricity in the range 1 to 2,most of the cases with a triangle shape
with round tip windward (34 cases)
• 7 cases were observed with eccentricity in the range 2 to 4, most of the case with triangle with
round tip windward
• 16 cases were observed with eccentricity in the range 4 and over, most of the cases with triangle
with tip round leeward (12 cases).
Wind tunnel testing of actual ice shapes, or of plastic/metal/polymeric replicas of actual iced
conductors, has been largely developed since 1979 all around the world. Examination of ice shapes
1
Eccentricity is defined as the ratio ice thickness over conductor radius
24
involved in actual galloping indicates that numerous naturally-occurring shapes have involved. Figure
4.2-25 shows the percentages of observations when the ice was thickest in each of eight sectors
around the conductor’s girth, based upon two collections of data on galloping transmission and
distribution line span.(4-7, 4-8)
Figure 4.2-25
Percentage of observations in which point of maximum ice thickness fell in various sectors of the conductor
surface. References 4-7, 4-8.
The thickness of ice deposit appears to influence the likelihood of galloping for certain types of span.
Galloping is favored if the ice shape is uniform and of constant angle of attack along the span. Glaze
ice is usually deposited on the upper windward surface of the conductor as illustrated in Figure 4.2-26.
In long single-conductor spans, the eccentric weight of the deposit (see Figure 4.2-27) may be great
enough to significantly twist the conductor. Since the conductor span is fixed against rotation at the
ends, this eccentric ice load will twist the conductor most at midspan, and the angle of twist will
become progressively smaller going from that point toward the supports. The angle of attack will thus
vary along the span.
Figure 4.2-26 Effect of rain impingement angle on location of ice deposits.
Figure 4.2-27 Eccentric ice deposit resulting in torque on conductor.
25
The ice shape will also vary along the span. Near the span extremities, the ice deposit on the top
windward surface will progressively thicken with continued impingement of freezing droplets. Ice
deposited on that quadrant remains in that quadrant. Near midspan, however, continued deposition of
ice causes progressive rotation of the conductor, so that the ice coating is “wrapped on.”(4-14) Because
of this rotation, the first film of ice, which was initially in the upper windward quadrant, may
ultimately face directly to windward, or down, or even directly to leeward, depending upon the
torsional stiffness of the span and the duration of icing conditions. This “wrapped-on” ice shape will
be different from that near span ends where little rotation takes place.
The twisting of the conductor, discussed above, may have the effect of changing its ability to gallop as
the ice storm progresses. Early in the storm, the angle of attack of the ice deposit may be nearly
constant along the span, and its value may be such that galloping may occur or such that it may not.
Subsequent twisting may change the angle of attack, remote from towers, to values where the reverse
is true. Ultimately, ice shape and angle of attack may vary so greatly along the span that galloping
cannot occur. Thus galloping behavior may change substantially during the storm, even when the
wind conditions remain constant. After precipitation ceases, and as long as the ice coating remains
intact, galloping behavior should depend only on wind conditions.
Galloping behavior may be influenced by the electrical load being transmitted by a line, since a small
temperature rise of the conductors can postpone the initiation of deposition, and a large enough
temperature rise may prevent icing altogether.
It must be pointed out also that the position of ice/glaze/rime (we mean the angle of attack), is also
strongly dependent of the wind speed. The combination of torsional stiffness of the span with
aerodynamic pitching moment causes some conductor rotation all along the span. During moderate to
strong wind (say 15 m/s) some positions of ice at mid-span are simply impossible because these are
“statically” unstable (the cable cannot maintain the position due to torque applied by the wind).
Typically large eccentricity cannot be in front of the wind for single conductor in presence of wind.
(see later)
This is pointed out some of complexity of galloping and some imperatives in modeling. We cannot
consider all position of ice as probable, some are simply impossible depending on wind speed. The
integration of appropriate torsional stiffness model is a must and this not a simple think, especially for
bundle conductor as detailed on chapter 7. Such theories (verified by static test on actual span) may
explain bundle collapse in all its aspects (subspan by subspan). The same theory pointed out the major
effect (for bundle conductor) on torsional stiffness of end-span fixation of the bundle on suspension
and anchoring tower (yoke plate).
Torsional stiffness effects are thought to influence the number of loops that occur in natural galloping.
Spans with low torsional stiffness, due to large span length or small conductor diameter, tend to
experience large rotation at midspan resulting in a shape of ice having aerodynamic characteristics
poorly suited to galloping.(4-15) The amount of rotation is less at locations nearer the towers, such as
the quarter points of the span. The distribution of “gallop-prone” ice shape along the span is thus
better able to support two-loop than one loop galloping. It is, in fact, widely thought that single-loop
galloping seldom occurs in long single-conductor spans (we will see later on that such observation is
also related to mechanical behaviour of single span). However, significant conductor rotation during
deposition of ice does not occur in bundled conductors because of much larger torsional stiffness (due
to the effect of the tension in the conductors separated by subconductor spacing) and by torsional
restraint by spacers. Bundle torsional stiffness is 5 to 10 times, sometimes more, higher values
compared to single conductor span. Bundled conductors are widely thought to be more prone to
galloping than single conductors. But the number of kilometers of single lines being much more large,
there are very significant number of observations on such cases too.
In Japan, during the last 30 years, 776 case of galloping were recorded, 326 of them being observed
on single line 66 kV, 231 cases observed on single conductors at voltage over 66 kV to 220 kV and
210 cases on bundle lines of voltage of 220 kV and over (including 53 on 500 kV), which corresponds
26
to galloping occurrences on about 30% of the 66 kV lines route length and 20% of the 275 kV line
route length.
The incidence of one-loop galloping appears to be influenced not only by twisting of the conductor
due to eccentric loading by the ice, as noted above, but also by the sag ratio and the whole section data
(from dead-end to dead end towers). This need some more details to be understood.
The galloping motion may be correlated to some “eigenmodes” of the whole section. EIgenmodes are
the free vibration shape that are possible in structures. Despite its mathematic complexities (which we
will not been explained here), these modes have clear physical sense. And those who viewed
galloping on video (or on the field) have a better understanding of what a mode is. Each mode has a
given frequency. The lowest one is called fundamental, for a violin, the fundamental of a cord (which
is a taut string) has a given frequency and the corresponding modal shape is a pure sine. For cable as
overhead lines, the cable is not a taut string as the sag/span ratio is not negligible (generally 2 to 5%)
compared to taut string structures (like violin, stayed cable in bridges). The full theory of cable
dynamics has been developed first by Irvine (ref). It has introduced the so called “Irvine parameter”
which indicates how far a cable is from taut string theory. Such parameter has been extended to the
overhead lines, including tower stiffness by introducing the following key parameter :
If
K= tower stiffness (both dead-end of the section in series) (N/m)
EA = product of conductor Young modulus by conductor cross section for one phase (thus in case of
bundle, consider n times the cross section of one conductor, n being the number of subconductors) (N)
Ls = span length of the span considered in the section (m)
L = the whole length of the multi-span section, if any (m)
a = the inverse of the catenary parameter (m-1), means the ratio between conductor weight (product of
mass pu length (m in kg/m) by the gravity constant g=9.81 m/s2) and conductor tension T (in
Newtons).
r = the radius of the bundle, if any (m) (all subconductors supposed to be on a circle)
σ = angular position of one subconductor (0° for horizontal twin, 90° for vertical twin e.g.)
h = the longitudinal dimension of the yoke plate at dead-end level as defined on Figure 4.2-29 (m)
Figure 4.2-28 shows two very different arrangements for twin bundle dead-end.
Figure 4.2-28 Yoke plate arrangement, definition of “h” and two typical arrangements for twin bundle, one with h quasi
infinite (on the left) and one with a typical “h” around 0.1 m (on the right). Two cases which would dramatically influence
torsional frequencies.
The following set of definitions will lead to Mv and Mθ factors (this last only for bundle) (Dubois et
al-1991) :
27
1 L 1 1 1 ⎛ (2r ) 2 L ⎞
= s + = ⎜ + ⎟
K v EA K Kϑ ,twin cos 2 σ ⎝ 2hT EA ⎠
Ns Ns
L = ∑ Ls L = ∑ Ls
s =1 s =1
mg mg
a= a=
T T
π T π 1
Ωv2 = ( )2 . Ωϑ2 = ( )2 . 2
(τ + r 2T )
Ls m Ls mr
8 a 2 . K v .L 8a 2 .Kϑ .L
Mv = Mϑ =
π 2 .m.Ωv2 π 2 .m.Ωϑ2
The correcting factor based on “M” factors is the same curve (Figure 4.2-29) for vertical and torsion
but refer to different basic formula (Ωv or Ωθ) and different K factors.
It is amazing to consider the following cases for twin bundle conductors :
Horizontal twin (σ = 0°) compared to vertical twin (σ = 90°) :
For vertical twin, yoke plate has no impact, K˜ is always nul as cos(σ) =0
For horizontal twin, yoke plate has dramatic impact :
The minimum value is obtained for h = 0 (full equilibrium between tension in the two conductors),
then K˜ is nul and we have the same frequencies as for vertical bundle, equal to fundamental theory.
The maximum value id obtained for h = infinity (cases similar as shown in the upper figure) and Kθ is
equal to EA/L which is very large and may induce an increases of the pseudo-one loop in torsion of a
significant factor (more than 2 is possible).
Detuning is thus possible on horizontal twin by simple arrangement of end-span condition. This is less
valid for multi-span section with large number of spans as end-span effects are quickly decreasing.
Comparing the taut string theory with exact theory, as detailed by Irvine, may help to draw the next
curve for the 4 first modes of a single span overhead line, as detailed in (ref)
Figure 4.2-29 Modal shape changes for pseudo-one loop vs Mv factor.
28
Such figure, drawn for levelled span, may become more complex as soon as significant unleveling
occurs.(not detailed here)
It’s amazing to notice that the two-loops mode may have lower frequency than the first mode. This is
particularly true for large span and thus explain simply why a two loop is more prone to gallop in such
span (in fact for span having Mv larger than 2) as the lowest frequency is the first to be unstable as
wind speed is increasing. (see later).
Another amazing observation is that the shape of the so called “one loop” mode is no more a pure sine
wave. But has some “small loops” near the end of the span, this is called the “pseudo-one loop”. In
such span there is no one loop case possible.
Another important fact is the behaviour of a full multi-span section. The “one loop” mode is multifold.
There are interaction between adjacent spans, owing to suspension insulators, which play a major role
in the whole span behaviour. There are possible movement at the suspension points longitudinal to the
line. So that a two spans section has two possibilities of “one loop” modes, one with both span
moving in phase, one with both span moving out of phase. These two modes are completely different ,
even if an observer looking at one span would not see any significant differences. In fact the two
frequencies will not be the same and the tension variation in the conductor is hugely different (for the
same amplitude of course).
It can be shown that a section of “n” spans has “n” different “one loop” mode, one of them only is the
mode with all span moving “in phase”. The relative amplitudes in all span may vary significantly from
one mode to another in multi-span cases (larger than 2 spans).
Some order of magnitudes are given in Table 4.2-3.

Table 4.2-3 Title
ACSR 470 mm2 AAAC 620 mm2 ACSR 550 mm2

Drake
single Twin bundle Quad bundle
Span length (m) 488 360 225

Dead-end span
Tension (kN) 40 2 x 35 4 x 29.25
Stress N/mm2 85 56 53
Mass (kg/m) 1.63 2x 1.7 4x 1.9
Catenary parameter 2500 2100 1570

(m)
Young modulus 7.5 1010 5.9 1010 7.5 1010

N/m2
Conductor diameter 28.2 32.5 30.5
29
mm
Subconductor spacing - 0.45 0.457

(m)
Bundle radius (m) - 0.225 0.323
Orientation - Horizontal Any
Yoke plate “h” - 0.1 0.2
Conductor torsional 170 2x460 4x 292

stiffness τ(Nm2/rad)
Bundle stiffness - 105 (h infinite) 410 (h infinite)

(torque at mid-span) 70 (h=0.1) (true case) 290 (h=0.2) (true case)
Nm/rad 50 (h=0) 240 (h=0)
Moment of inertia 0.00016 0.17 0.80

(for the whole bundle (yes, 0.16 10-3)
if any) (kg.m)
Sag (m) 11.9 7.7 4
Sag/span ratio 2.4% 2.1% 1.8%
Basic pulsation Ωv 2π. 0.16 2π. 0.20 2π.. 0.28

In vertical (rad/s)
Basic pulsation Ωθ 2π.1.07 2π. 0.22 2π. 0.29

In torsion (rad/s)
Calculation of M Mv= 2.2 Mv= 1.4 Mv= 0.6

factors (tower stiffness
=K=2.5 105 N/m) Mθ= 0 Mθ= 0.51 Mθ= 0.25
Vertical Torsion Vertical Torsion Vertical Torsion
Pseudo-one loop 0.28 1.07 0.31 0.27 0.35 0.32

Frequency (Hz)
Two loops frequency 0.32 2.14 0.40 0.45 0.55 0.58

(Hz)
Pseudo-three loops 0.49 3.21 0.60 0.67 0.83 0.87

(Hz)
The same case with 4 spans (equal spans)
30
Bundle stiffness - 57 260
Nm/rad
one loop up and down 0.16 1.07 0.20 0.22 0.28 0.29
(Hz)
Pseudo-one loop (Hz) 0.3 1.07 0.35 0.33 0.42 0.36
Two loops (Hz) 0.32 2.14 0.40 0.44 0.56 0.58
Pseudo-three loops 0.48 3.21 0.61 0.68 0.84 0.87
Figure 4.2-30 illustrates the four lowest-frequency modes for a line section having four suspension
spans of 160, 180, 190 and 195 m between dead ends. Calculations, using a linear analysis of the
motions, show that for the modes at 0.386 and 0.403 Hz, there is only small variation in tension
during galloping. This is because, when one span is at its upward extreme of motion, there is another
span at the downward extreme. The variations in arc length of the two spans compensate each other
by means of swinging of the suspension support between them.
In the mode at 0.516 Hz in Figure 4.2-30, all spans move in phase so there is less ability for arc length
compensation between spans to occur. As a result, this mode displays significant tension variations
during galloping, rather like the pseudo-fundamental in a dead ended span, which we discuss below.
The least common design of overhead transmission line span is that with dead ending at both ends.
When the galloping takes place in such a span, the motions are independent of what is taking place in
adjacent spans. The galloping may display modes with 1, 2, 3, etc, loops. The modes with even
numbers of loops conform in frequency and mode shape to simple taut-string theory. The odd-
numbered modes, however, have higher frequencies than predicted by string theory, and their mode
shapes take the form of sine waves with an offset, as illustrated in Figure 4.2-30. They are called
pseudo-modes because of these differences.
These odd modes, especially the pseudo-fundamental, are marked by significant variations in
conductor tension even for small galloping amplitudes. These variations occur because the galloping
loops are superimposed upon the curvature of the sagged conductor. This results in a difference in the
arc length of the conductor between its upper and lower extremes of motion, as illustrated in the top
panel of Figure 4.2-30. Since the supports of a dead ended span are nominally rigid, this variation in
arc length must be accommodated through conductor strain, with resulting variations in tension. These
tension variations lead to an offset of the sine wave synchronous with its deflection, resulting in loop
shapes such as in the second panel of Figure 4.2-30. The lowest odd mode, the pseudo-fundamental,
may have enough offset that it appears to have three loops, as in the third panel. Dead end spans
experience the highest forces applied to the structures during galloping.
There are certain modes that, even in suspension spans, are autonomous to the span. These are the
modes that have even numbers of loops in the span. These modes cause only slight variations in
conductor tension, and thus produce little motion at suspension supports. Thus, there is no significant
coupling to adjacent spans.
Spans are often observed to gallop in a combination of two or more of the modes that are available to
them. For example, a suspension span may move simultaneously in a mode of the section and in its
own autonomous 2-loop mode. This type of behaviour is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3,
“Galloping Observations by Measurement and Data Analysis.
31
The vertical component of galloping, and the longitudinal motions at suspension supports, are
important relative to violation of electrical clearances, both in spans and at supports. They are also
closely associated with the conductor tension variations, which can be large, and the dynamic forces
transmitted to insulators and supporting structures.
The above discussion neglects the torsional component of galloping motion, as well as motions lateral
to the span. Both of these also have normal modes by span and by line section. Those components
can have important effects in relation to aerodynamic mechanisms that cause galloping, and they are
discussed in the next part of this chapter.
Figure 4.2-30Typical one loop mode shapes (4 span section). The three first ones are “up-and-down” modes (some span
are moving up when others are moving down with a global compensation effect). The fourth one is the “up-
up” mode when all spans are synchronously going up or down. This last is related to large tension variation
and its shape may be non purely sinusoidal, as detailed by Irvine and shown on Figure 4.2-29.
These kind of analysis may be obtained by any finite element codes having non-linear cable element
or by less sophisticated software using basic cable equations, but using the appropriate tension
evaluation.
Of course these frequencies will be back in the galloping observation analysis. More complex will be
the frequency content in the tension oscillogram or in the suspension set tension variation.
A specific subchapter will be devoted to tension variations.
Last but not least, If the ice formations in adjacent spans are not at an unstable angle of attack, these
spans may act as dampers, reducing the amplitude or the likelihood of galloping of the span having the
gallop-prone ice formation. Some damping effect may also arise from the varying longitudinal load
applied to the tower.
Figure 4.2-31 Single-loop galloping in span with: a. small sag ratio and b. large sag ratio.
32
As a matter of observation, single-loop galloping of large amplitude is a great deal less frequent in
long spans than in short, probably for both of the reasons cited.
Factors Influencing Galloping, Summary
We may summarize these factors as follows:
• ice accretion type and shape (eccentricity, weight, aerodynamic properties)
• wind speed (with limited effects of turbulence and orientation as detailed)
• conductor self damping (vertical, torsion) in the low frequency range (including end span effects)
• span lengths (including all spans of a section) and section length
• longitudinal stiffness (anchoring tower) at fixation point
• yoke plate assembly (anchoring and suspension tower) (torsional stiffness effect)
• number of subconductors and their arrangement
• subconductor spacing
• sagging conditions (vertical frequencies effect)
• spacers (kind of spacer, location, eccentric weight effect, conductor fixation effect)
• presence of retrofit devices (all kind including interphase methods)
• position of ice in the presence of wind
• ratio vertical/torsional frequency for each mode, in the presence of wind
Many investigations have been performed to extract from these parameters the best candidates to
present a general approach on galloping (Lilien and Dubois 1988, Lilien et al.1989, Rawlins 1981,
Wang 1996).
We are presenting in Table 4.2-4 the actual view on the subject.
Obviously, the conductor self damping and aerodynamic properties are separate important data, but
data on which the designer has no (very few) action, except in using appropriate devices.
The remaining important data may be coupled into 5 (4 for single conductor) dimensionless
parameters:
Table 4.2-4 Galloping Parameters
Single conductor line Bundle conductor line
Px = parameter N°x
Parameter Range Parameter Range
P1 Torsion/vertical frequency ωv/ωθ 0.1 to 0.3 ωv/ωθ 0.8 to 1.2
P2 cond diam/bundle diam None φ /d 0.03 to 0.13
P3 Reduced wind speed U0/(ωv. φ ) 15 to 1000 U0/(ωv. φ ) 15 to 1000
P4 Reduced ice inertia mice.dice/(m. φ) 0.01 to 5 mice.dice/(m. φ) 0.01 to 5
P5 Conductor span parameter 12.5 φ /f 0.01 to 1 12.5 φ /f 0.01 to 0.12
φ is the conductor diameter (m), f the sag (m), d the bundle diameter (m), dice is the distance
between conductor centre and ice gravity centre (m), mice is the mass of ice p.u. length (kg/m), m
the mass of conductor (kg/m) and U0 the wind speed (m/s). ωv and ωφ are the pulsation (rad/s) of
the vertical and torsional mode under analysis (without wind nor ice)
The conductor span parameter has many ways to be expressed, it is (at a constant factor difference)
the product of the catenary parameter (T/mg) and the torsional compliance (φ/L2). These parameters
33
are extracted from the stability criterion deduced from galloping equations. The conductor span
parameter is coming from the inertial coupling. The constant 12.5 has been chosen to fix at 1 the
maximum value.
A good candidate to examine galloping amplitude in a dimensionless form is the ratio

amplitude/(conductor diameter), or by mixing with conductor span parameter, the very well known
reduced amplitude/sag.
4.2.8 Incidence of Galloping

The frequency with which galloping occurs is, of course, closely related to the frequency of icing,
depicted , for USA, in Figure 4.2-24. Incidence is greatest in the central region of the USA, between
the Rockies and the Appalachians, but not including Louisiana and Arkansas and the states to the east
of them. Most utilities that experience galloping at least annually lie in that region. Galloping also
occurs annually in parts of California. Utilities in the Northwest experience galloping about every 2 to
5 years.
The character of the terrain through which a line passes influences the likelihood of galloping.
Smooth-contoured terrain with few large obstacles favors galloping. Broken terrain or a high density
of such obstacles as buildings and coniferous trees seems to prevent galloping, by causing turbulence
in the wind’s flow. A survey by EEI’s Galloping Task Force(4-7) found terrain to be “flat” in 71% of
reported instances of gallop, “rolling” in 22% and “mountainous” in 7%. However, the location was
described as “urban,” as opposed to “rural” in about half of the cases.
Utilities in the Atlantic Seaboard States experience galloping rarely or never, except in New York and
New Jersey, where galloping may occur every 2 to every 10 years.
Certain localized areas, often near lakes or rivers, show a much higher incidence of galloping than do
nearby regions.
Ice storms move with the frontal weather system. Little data appear to be available on the dimensions
of the regions affected. Smith(4-6) reports widths from 40 km (25 miles) to 160 km (100 miles), and
lengths in the direction of storm movement from 160 km (100 miles) to 320 km (200 miles) in South
Dakota. The lengths of line affected by galloping vary from only a single span to as many as 30 km
(18 miles.)
In Japan, Hokkaido Island as well as both west and east coast are very sensible to galloping as can be
seen on the next figures showing events during the last 30 years (776 cases) (Figure 4.2-32).
Obviously related to major wind speed flowing either from the Pacific Ocean either from the China
see depending on the period of the year.
34
Figure 4.2-32 Location of 776 cases of galloping reported in Japan in the last 30 years (courtesy M. Mito).
Figure 4.2-33 In Germany, 570 cases have been reported between 1979 and 1999, some of them being located for the
winter 1998/1999. (courtesy C. Jurdens).
The figure is showing 9 cases on single conductors, 22 cases on twin bundle and 16 events on quad
bundle lines. All these reported cases caused short-circuit, four cases had permanent bundle collapse.
4.2.9 Damage and Other Penalties
Galloping has caused various kinds of structural damage in overhead lines. Some types of damage
result directly from the large forces that galloping waves or loops apply to supports. For example,
crossarms have failed on wood and on metal structures. Ties on pin-type insulators have been broken.
On rare occasions, support hardware has failed. On others, cotter pins have been damaged, permitting
insulator strings to uncouple.
Dynamic loads, such as the shock that occurs when a steep-fronted galloping wave is reflected at a
tower, have damaged vibration dampers, sometimes snapping the weights off and sometimes, with
repeated reflection, fatiguing the damper cables. The number of miles of line affected by galloping in
a particular storm occasionally can be surmised later from assessment of damper damage, Dynamic
loads have also caused loosening of crossarm and bracing bolts in wood structures and loosening of
wood poles themselves in the ground. Jumpers at deadend towers have been tossed up onto crossarms.
Figure 4.2-34 Damage due to galloping. (UK, courtesy M. Tunstall, the galloping occurred in 1986 and is available on our
videos, it lasted four days .)
When galloping amplitudes are great enough to permit flashover between phases or from phase to
ground, arcing damage to conductor surfaces results. The damage has been great enough in some
cases to cause broken strands in conductors, and to result in complete failure of ground wires.
Such severe damage is rare, however, because faults are usually brief and the arcs usually travel,
leaving only a track of pock marks on the conductor surfaces.(4-14)
35
Forced outages caused by galloping result in loss of revenue and sometimes in other costs associated
with reestablishing service. Those penalties are generally considered to be more severe than direct
damage to lines. Published data on their magnitude do not appear to be available, but a survey of
utilities by the T&D Committee of EEI(4-17) developed the following information on effects of the
worst ice and/or galloping conditions each utility had faced. (costs in the seventies).
Table 4.2-5 Title
No. of Customers No. of

Affected Utilities
0-10,000 24
11,000-50,000 9
51,000-100,000 3
More than 100,000 2
Length of Service No. of

Interruption Utilities
1 hour or less 17
1-3 hours 9
3-6 hours 4
6-9 hours 5
9-12 hours 6
12-24 hours 5
1-3-1/2 days 5
4-8 days 4
9-11 days 1
Cost of
Interruption No. of
(thousands of dollars) Utilities
Less than 50 27
51-100 7
101-200 1
201-500 3
501-1000 3
4000 1
Although line failures due to heavy ice loading may be represented in the above tabulations, it is likely
that galloping cases predominate.
Frequency of outages caused by galloping has been reported by few utilities. During a two-year
period, the CEGB in the United Kingdom experienced an outage rate of 0.24 per 100 km per year, on
132 kv and above.(4-18)
Of 48 utilities reporting outages, in EEI’s collection of galloping case,(4-7) none reported phase-to-
ground faults.
A number of utilities design lines with larger phase and phase-to-ground wire clearances than would
other-wise be employed, in order to reduce the frequency with which flashover occurs during
galloping. The added margins of clearance increase tower costs. Representative figures cited in 1966
for the additional cost were: $8000/mile ($5000/km) for double circuit 345 kv, and about the same for
double circuit 230 kV in Canada.(4-19) Current figures for lines of similar design are thought to be in
the $20,000 to $50,000/ mile range. The difference in cost would be
36
(TO BE CERTIFIED)
even greater between conventional lines with clearances increased because of galloping, and compact
lines.(4-20)
When forced outages due to galloping are anticipated, extra transmission is often provided in the
system to make the outages more tolerable. This extra transmission adds to utility costs, and since the
increased clearances usually employed do not eliminate all outages, they do not entirely eliminate
galloping costs.(4-19)
37
4.2.10 Field Observations (Film Analysis of Orbits) and Galloping Ellipse Design
(This section will be transferred to Section 4.5)
A database of 166 observations of galloping on single, twin, triple and quad bundle lines has been
analyzed. The database is sufficiently detailed to define the variation of maximum amplitudes of
galloping motion for single conductors in 50 to 450 m spans, and for twin and quad bundles in 200 to
450 m spans. Conventional design expectations are exceeded, for maximum galloping motions on
short spans, and through the existence of single loop galloping on long spans.
The CIGRE TFG experts have approved the next formulas estimating the maximum galloping
motions for spans without galloping controls. The best fit numerical model for single conductors uses
the peak to peak galloping amplitude over sag, versus “conductor span parameter“, the conductor
diameter over the sag. The best-fit model for bundle conductors uses the peak-to-peak galloping
amplitude over subconductor diameter as a function of the “conductor span parameter”.
The following proposal have been deduced from cases in the following range of data:
• sag/span ratio in the range 1-5%
• conductor diameter 1-5 cm
• single and bundle conductors (two different formulas)
• span length 50-450 m
More details of the database are presented in .
4.2.11 The Conductor Span Parameter
The approach employs the reduced amplitude, which is the ratio of peak-to-peak galloping amplitude
(Apk-pk) over conductor diameter (φ), both in m:
A pk − pk
(5.1)
φ
This reduced amplitude has a range between 0 and 500.
The conductor span parameter is a combination of the catenary parameter with the ratio of conductor
diameter (φ) over the square of the span length (L), which can also be expressed as the ratio of
conductor diameter over the sag (f). The conductor span parameter is dimensionless:
Tφ 100φ
100 2
= (5.2)
mgL 8f
The conductor span has already been defined earlier and has been denominated as P5.
Due to its definition and practical data, the conductor span parameter is in the range
• for single conductor 0 to 1
• for bundle conductor 0 to 0.12
The Case of Single Conductor Lines
38
450
data base
estimated max
400
350
Amplitude pk-pk / diameter

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
cable span parameter
Figure 4.2-35Variation of observed maximum peak-to-peak galloping amplitude/diameter on single conductors as a

function of the conductor span parameter. Only observed data on the field.
This parameter has a range of 0 to 1.1 with tension in N, mass in kg/m, span length, sag and diameter
in m.
For single conductors, the fitted curve to the maximum amplitude over conductor diameter, which is
included in Figure 4.2-35, is given by:
A pk − pk 8f
= 80 ln (5.3)
φ 50φ
This is valid only in the 0-1 range of the conductor span parameter, which corresponds to the data
base range.
The Case of Bundle Conductor Lines
700
data base
gamma=300
gamma=500
600
single conductor curve
500
Amplitude pk-pk / diameter
400
300
200
100
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14
Cable span parameter
Figure 4.2-36Variation of observed maximum peak-to-peak galloping amplitude/diameter on bundle conductors as a

function of the conductor span parameter. Only observed data on the field.
The observed values (all for wind speed lower than 10 m/s) have in fact been completed by many
simulations coming from different aerodynamic curves (4 different) and for wind speed covering up to
39
15 m/s, means bigger than in observed cases. (these dots are not reproduced here but available on the
reference (Lilien and Havard 2001), they have influenced our fit choice.
As the difference (between observed and calculated) is much larger than on single conductor, more
observations would be needed, especially for higher wind speed before coming to a conclusion.
Actually, we will recommend the fitted curve based on observed data only.
For bundle conductors, the corresponding fitted curve, which is reproduced in Figure 4.2-36 as the
estimated maximum, is given by (γ = 500):
A pk − pk 8f
= 170 ln (5.4)
φ 500φ
This is valid in the range 0-0.15 of the conductor span parameter.
It may be noted that the expressions have the same form, but single conductors have up to about 2.5
times larger values of galloping amplitude/diameter for values of the conductor span parameter
between 0.015 and 0.10.
It should be noted that the observed galloping amplitude on single conductors can reach up to 5 times
the unloaded sag. In the context of distribution line conductor spans and sag, this indicates much
larger galloping motions than conventionally considered in design [17]. Also the data show a
significant number of single loop galloping events on long spans, which is at variance with the above
design guide.
The observed galloping amplitude on bundle conductor was limited to the unloaded sag in the
observed cases. More detailed analysis on that database are available on (Lilien, Havard 1998 or 2001
?).
Proposed galloping ellipse for design
Due to observations on these 166 cases, it is recommended to use a vertical ellipse for design.
The new suggested design would use Figure 4.2-37 with amplitude A4 deduced from formula (5.3) or
(5.4) depending on the case.
These formula have been transformed in diagram on Figure 4.2-38.
A1
A4
(single)
DL
Loaded SAG
A1 = 0.7 A4
A2 = 0.3 A4
A2
A5 = 0.4 A4
V ti l lli
A5
Figure 4.2-37 Proposed galloping design ellipse.
40
600
500
400
A4/diameter
A4 bundle
300
A4 single
200
100
0
10 100 1000
sag/diameter
Figure 4.2-38 Proposed curves for galloping maximum peak-to-peak amplitude. (all data in meters)
Range of Application for Given Curves
Span length between 30 m and 500 m

Sag/span ratio between 0.5% and 5%
Diameter of the conductor between 0.01 m and 0.05m
Data obtained from 166 observations and complementary simulations.
Data only based on classical bundle (symmetric 2, 3 and 4 bundle conductor up to 0.6m bundle
diameter)
Maximum design wind speed against galloping taken as 15 m/s.
Only realistic data considered, don’t try a bundle with conductor diameter 0.01 m and 1 m sag.
Comparison with Other Known Methods
This approach cannot be easily compared to BPA curves (former draft of this book) or any other
approach because of the dependence with the diameter and the sag.
Nevertheless we may apply both methods in a given case.
Let’s imagine a multi-span 400 kV line, with span length close to 350 m, and having a twin bundle
(45 cm bundle diameter). Initial loaded sag about 8 meters (sag/span ratio 2.3 %)
Evaluation following BPA curves:

A4 = about 70% of the sag = 5.6 m
Hunt &Richards method (see chapter 4.3, eq 4.32)

Basic frequency of the up and down mode at 0.2 Hz is giving, for wind speed up to 15 m/s a
maximum amplitude of:
0.26 (15/0.2) = 19.5 m
Evaluation following this new method (need diameter data):

A4 = 10 m (diameter 32 mm); 8.5 m (diameter 22 mm), 5.6 m (diameter 11 mm)
41
We do need more observation data which would include diameter as information needed to validate
the new proposal. We do think that the proposed approach is completely valid for single conductor
line but need more information for bundle conductors, as stated in [1].
4.2.12 Galloping Observations by Measurement and Data Analysis

Instrumented test lines and instrumented sections in operating lines are particularly valuable in
advancing understanding of galloping, since they produce numerical records. It was already pointed
out that galloping can occur in a number of different modes, and that these often appear in
combinations. Recorded data on variables that are involved in the galloping can be used to determine
which modes were present in particular galloping events, and can often permit estimates of galloping
amplitudes, even if amplitude was not directly recorded. Doing this requires detailed knowledge of
the modes that can occur in the span or line section involved.
Figure 4.2-39Typical tension variation during actual galloping with untreated and treated phase (anti-galloping device), as
measured on actual 400 kV line under permanent recording. Recording of tension fluctuations at anchoring
level in two phases of the Villeroux test station (Belgium). Only relative changes are important. Upper
oscillogram (±5kN peak-to-peak) for phase with anti-galloping device, the other one detail during the
same period of observation, the tension fluctuation (± 25 kN peak-to-peak) in the reference phase (twin
bundle at the same vertical position).
There are many such oscillograms during several years in the same test station. One of them is treated
here in detail. The FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) of the signal is reproduced on Figure 4.2-40. It was a
section of four spans equipped with twin spacered bundle (horizontal). The twin was made of AAAC
620 mm2 of 32.4 mm diameter. Subconductors paving of 0.45m. Basic tension per subconductor was
about 35 kN at around 0°C.
Simultaneous presence of several modes is shown most clearly in the spectra of recorded variables.
Figure 4.2-40 is a spectrum obtained during a galloping episode at the Belgium test line at Villeroux.
The recorded variable was the conductor tension at one of the dead ends of the four-span section. The
spectrum shows 12 major peaks, suggesting that 12 different modes were active.
42
Analysis of the possible normal modes of the section was carried out using the procedures of
((Rawlins and Pohlman 1988). Several of these modes are pictured in Figure 4.2-41, identified by
their frequencies. It should be noted that the motions that occur in natural galloping are not strictly
identical to the undamped free normal modes obtained from the procedures of (Rawlins 2001) , since
aerodynamic forces are not taken into account. However, those forces are small compared with the
inertial and elastic forces at work in the conductors. Thus, they cause only small perturbations in the
gross features of the normal modes, i.e., the frequencies and amplitudes of motion and tension
variations. The free normal modes provide a good, if imperfect, representation of the major features of
actual galloping.
Table 4.2-6 lists the major spectral peaks of Figure 4.2-40, and associates many of them with
eigenmodes of the section. Some of these peaks reflect the tension variations that are synchronous
with the galloping motion, such as the eigenmode at 0.357 Hz, and those at 1.111, 1.316, 1.406 and
2.072 Hz.
Other peaks reflect tension variation due to nonlinear effects. When galloping amplitude becomes
large enough, stretching of the conductor at its extreme displacements causes increases in tension
twice each cycle. This introduces a tension variation at double the frequency of the eigenmode. For
example, the peaks at 0.66 and 0.74 Hz arise from autonomous two-loop galloping in the 397.3 and
361.4 m spans, which had resonant frequencies of 0.341 and 0.375, respectively. The eigenmode at
1.316 Hz causes a peak at 1.31 Hz directly, and one at 2.63 Hz due to nonlinear effect.
The peak at 0.36 Hz could be due to the 0.357 Hz eigenmode directly, or to nonlinear effect of the
0.1819 Hz eigenmode. It would require additional information, such as from an insulator swing
transducer, to distinguish between the two possibilities.
The peaks at 1.53 and 1.89 Hz are not associated with eigenmodes of the recorded phase. A 1.89 Hz
peak was present in the tension spectrum of another phase, and probably caused motion in the
deadend structure that was reflected in the signal leading to Figure 4.2-40. The 1.53 Hz peak has the
same frequency as subspan resonance in another phase. It also corresponds to the longitudinal
resonance of the four-span section (CIGRE 1989). The peak may be associated with this coincidence.
Detailed knowledge of the eigenmodes associated with the spectral peaks permits calculation of the
galloping amplitudes from the spectrum ordinates. Table 4.2-6 shows these estimated amplitudes
reported as the maximum peak-to-peak amplitude in the section. Note that the source of the 0.36 Hz
peak is ambiguous. That peak may mean either 2.5 m in the 0.182 Hz eigenmode, or 0.19 m in the
0.357 Hz eigenmode. Fortunately, on-site observers were present during the galloping and could not
have failed see the 0.1819 Hz mode. Thus, the tension peak at 0.36 Hz must have been from the 0.357
Hz eigenmode directly. The observers did report seeing, and filming, two-loop galloping in the 361.4
m span with amplitude of 3 m. This is consistent with the 2.91 m calculated from the tension
spectrum.
The combination of recorded data from an instrumented test line, supported by observer reports, with
detailed analysis of the possible galloping modes permits greater insight into the complexity of
galloping in nature. In the example described here, there are three different modes with amplitudes
larger than 2 metres simultaneously present. The picture that emerges highlights the challenge faced
by on-site observers in attempting to describe galloping events verbally.
Table 4.2-6 Correlation of Spectral Peaks with Eigenmodes

Spectrum Effect on Est. max ampl.
Eigenmode frequency
frequency tension (m pk-pk)
0.33 0.167 Hz Nonlinear 2.42
43
0.36 0.182 Hz Nonlinear 2.49
0.36 0.357 Hz Direct 0.19
0.66 2 loops in 397.3 m span Nonlinear 2.38
1.13 1.111 Hz Direct 0.40
1.31 1.316 Hz Direct 0.15
1.38 1.406 Hz Direct 0.014
1.53 Subspan gallop in another phase?
1.89 Transfer from another phase.
2.07 2.072 Hz Direct 0.64
2.63 1.316 Hz Nonlinear 0.27
Figure 4.2-40 Spectrum of conductor tension, Sensor 4, Villeroux, 4 April 1989.
Figure 4.2-41 Eigenmode shapes.
44
4.2.13 Design Dynamic Loads on Towers
The dynamic load on tower is given by the tension variations around the initial value (equilibrium
taking into account wind and ice as static load).
For the sake of simplicity in this demonstration, we will suppose that the tension is the longitudinal
component of a levelled multi-span section, it is supposed constant all along the whole section. (in
practice, this is not true because suspension insulator would not move in such situation). This helps to
define a unique initial tension T0 for the whole section.
N.B. Such hypothesis is NOT used in any simulation method.
Tension variation (ΔT) may be obtained by the Hooke’s law:

(E, the conductor young modulus (N/mm2), A the cross section (mm2), L, Δl are lengths and length
variation and K the stiffness (see later))
EA ⎛ ΔT ⎞
ΔT = ⎜ Δl − ⎟ = K ev Δl (2.6)
L ⎝ K ⎠
The change of length in the Hooke’s is the conductor length change, so that we must subtract the end
span movement, related to tower stiffness K (N/m) (the K here is the equivalent of the two end
stiffness putted in series). The length to consider is the whole length of the section (all spans between
two anchoring tower).
Where
Ns
L = ∑ Ls (2.7a)
s =1
and
1 L 1
= + (2.7b)
K ev EA K
In order to find relationship between tension and galloping amplitudes, we have to express the same
equation using, to write down Δl, the modal decomposition in “k” modes in each span “s” of the
section.
2
Ns
⎛ kπ ⎞ 2
( )
modes
ΔT = K ev ∑ Ls ∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ y s ,k − y s2,ko (2.8)
s =1 k =1 ⎝ 2 Ls ⎠
the ys,k0 is the modal contribution k to the initial sag in the span s.
4mgL2s
ys , ko = − (2.9)
(kπ )3T0
obviously only for k odd (and 0 for k even). The reader may easily verify that for infinite number of k
modes, such formula tends to the classical expression of the sag.
To better feel the content of the formula (3), we will make some example:
Example 1: multi-span of equal length Ls and only one mode is considered.
π 2 Ns
ΔT = K ev
4L
∑ (y
s
2
s − ys20 ) (2.10)
or
45
π 2 Ns
ΔT = K ev
4L
∑ (2 y
s
so )
+ Δys Δys (2.11)
with Δys = ys − ys 0
From such a formula the following evidence may be stated:
- For the “up-and-down” mode we have the following relationship:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ∑ Δys = 0 ⎟ (2.12)
⎝ s ⎠
So that the second order terms remain (so called non-linear) and the frequency content would clearly
be the double frequency of the observed vibration. There will be an offset of the ellipse compared to
loaded sag. The tension variations are proportional to the square of the amplitude.
• For the up-up mode (all spans in phase) both single frequency and double frequency of observed
displacement will be present. Tension variations are very large, even for low amplitudes. They are
proportional to the amplitude and to the initial sag for limited amplitude level.
N.B. Due to non-linear coupling, most of the up-and-down mode are forcing up-up mode (even if
limited in amplitude) which are generating large tension variation. So that most of the case generate
both single and double frequency of the observed displacement.
Example 2: only a two loop galloping is concerned (apparently) and all section has equal span length.
π 2 Ns
ΔT = K ev
L
∑ Δy
span
2
s (2.13)
So that only second order terms remain and the frequency content would be the double frequency of
the observed vibration. The tension variations are proportional to the square of amplitude.
N.B. if tension changes occur, there will be automatic non-linear coupling exciting up-up mode on one
loop also (limited amplitude).
Remark:
• A multi-span section may have gallop in only some spans. Nevertheless all tension variations are
applied to end span anchoring towers. So that observers may not see anything moving
significantly at some location despite huge tension variations measured on the tower.
• The evaluation of tension difference between adjacent spans need to write down equilibrium
equation at suspension span and each Dl of each span would include the displacement of
suspension insulator. This has been done in ref (…) and is obviously automatic in finite element
simulation as insulator is modelled separately. The frequency content of suspension chain
insulator is more complex as it includes the content of both displacement of adjacent spans and
conductor tension.
• It is quite interesting to evaluate the effect of tower stiffness on tension variations. Clearly, all
formulas are showing a direct proportionality of tension variation with Kev. defined in
equation (2.7b). So that tower stiffness (order of amplitude 106 N/m at transmission level) may
have some influence if in the same range as EA/L, L being the section length. Generally tower
stiffness has very limited effect, except for extreme cases (and at least for distribution level).
• Last, but not least, we neglect the dynamic behaviour of the tower (order of amplitude 1 Hz for
transmission level), which may not be discarded in some cases. But we never observed such case.
Order of amplitudes of tension variations
There are some extremely interesting published papers on the subject, including measurement on site.
Obviously we must be cautious about the main differences existing between dead-end cases and multi-
span cases.
46
Equation (2.11) is giving access to the maximum theoretical value reached for one loop in a dead-end
arrangement with amplitude equal to the sag (neglect tower stiffness) (Δys = ys0/2)
π 2 Ns
ΔT = K ev
4L
∑ (2 y
s
so )
+ Δys Δys (2.14)
Which would be equal to 1.2 times the initial static value for amplitude equal to the sag (means
roughly (Δys = ys0/2). Such a value has in fact been observed.
In all summarized cases, the following tension variation has been observed:
Anchoring level: up to 1.2 times the value without wind

Suspension level: up to 1.7 times the value without wind
When the variation is very large, the movement may slightly overpass the sag level, as can be seen on
some joined videos and the tension may be completely relaxed at the upper position. But most of the
times the tension is not relaxed in multi-span arrangement, even during extremely high amplitude,
because up and down exist and the tension in the conductor reflect, as detailed, the whole section
length changes, which is never relaxed for all span together, except may be for some dead-end span.
Concerning suspension insulator, they have to sustain stronger vertical loads, but they are also
submitted to dynamic horizontal loading (due to tension variation in the span). The tensioned insulator
have a specific eigenfrequency which may be excited by these horizontal excitations. Such effects
may lead in dramatic movement. 5some can be seen in the joined videos).
Some corollas of the above evaluations can be stated:
• Is that the longitudinal loads on anchoring towers, during galloping events may reach 2.2 times the
load existing without wind. (but with ice).
• The vertical load on crossarms (an thus existing in the suspension insulators) due to galloping may
reach 2.7 times the load without wind.
• As there is no reason for synchronism or asynchronism of galloping loads in each phases, both
extreme may be reached at different time in the events, so that some anchoring towers with two
circuit in vertical arrangement may be submitted to torsional loads induce by a quasi-relaxation on
one circuit and the maximum values in each phases of the second circuit.
Havard-2005 ("dynamic loads on transmission line structures during galloping") has catched available
measurement in the literature on such tension variation (peak-peak/static) and observed:
On longitudinal loads on anchoring towers: factors up to 2.2 on "classical" high voltage line, but
observed for short span length (80 m long) in Iceland some extreme cases going up to factor 2.8 on
test spans
On vertical loads on crossarms : dynamic peak factor always lower than 2
Recommendations:
As a conclusion on dynamic load factor, we would recommend, in the absence of detailed simulation
able to point out particular cases, to choose the following design values :
• anchoring level : tension variation during galloping : from 0 to 2.2 times the static value (with ice,
no wind)
• suspension level : vertical load: from 0 to 2 times the static value
47
The risk of anchoring tower torsion has to be analysed as well as the risk in suspension tower related
to unbalanced vertical loads between the left and the right hand side of towers (triangle arrangement
or double circuit)
48
4.2.14 Protection Methods
There are three main classes of countermeasure employed against galloping:
1. Removal, or preventing formation, of ice on conductors.
2. Interfering with the galloping mechanisms to prevent galloping from building up or from attaining
high amplitude.
3. Making lines tolerant of galloping through ruggedness in design, provision of increased phase
clearances, or controlling the mode of galloping with interphase ties.
Prevention of ice formation, and melting-off of deposited ice, by electrically heating the conductors,
were applied as early as the1920’s.(4-6) Normal load current is seldom large enough to cause a useful
amount of heating, but larger amounts can be obtained by special procedures. One is to route all load
in a multi-circuit line through one circuit, so as to keep it free of ice. The other circuits may gallop,
but since they are out of service, flashovers cannot occur. Another method is to short-circuit one end
of a line, and energize the other end at reduced voltage. Other heating methods that have been tried
involve insulation of inner and outer portions of conductors from one another, to concentrate current
flow in only part of the conductor and attachment of low Curie-point cylinders at frequent intervals
along conductor cross-section, (4-21 The cylinders become efficient as transformers in the
neighborhood of 0°C, producing large currents in shorted, one-turn secondaries. The heat generated
can prevent ice from forming on the span.
Figure 4.2-42 Low Curie-point Alloy Wires [14]
Sleet prevention or melting by increasing the current in conductors is still practiced by some utilities.
Special preparations are required. Success in any instance depends upon weather conditions and upon
the system load situation. Some systems, where switching options are limited, are not suited to the
practice.
Some recent development suggest to overimpose DC current on power lines during icing events
information.
Preventing deposition of ice requires less heating current than does melting it off, and the required
current levels are better defined since ice thickness is not a variable. The lower required currents entail
less risk of overheating at joints and connections. The possibility of galloping occurring and causing
flashovers while melting is in progress is eliminated.
Some background will be detailed in Section 4.5
Provision of increased phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground wire clearances is the most widely-
practiced countermeasure against galloping. EEI’s T&D Committee survey(4-17) found this approach
employed by 39 out of the 48 utilities that reported taking active measures to offset the effects of
galloping. Vertical clearances are increased the most. Most designers rely upon “galloping ellipses” in
gauging what clearances to use, and feel that very significant reductions in outage rates are achieved.
These ellipses, first proposed by A. E. Davison of Ontario Hydro, will be discussed in Section 4.5.
New trends in that design have been recently proposed by international experts after deep
investigations on more than actual galloping hundreds events analysis.
49
Interphase ties are phase-to-phase insulating struts that are placed at one or more points in a span to
enforce phase separation. Galloping is not prevented, but the motion that occurs is
forced into a mode that reduces the relative motion of the phases, and thus the likelihood of flashover.
Interphase ties have been in use more than 40 years and experience has been quite encouraging. They
have been used by 20 of the 48 utilities noted above that reported taking active measures against
galloping. Nevertheless some reporting exist of interphase insulators breakage as well as (rare) case of
global connected system galloping (in test station). Also some more details are explained in Section
4.5
Figure 4.2-43 Interphase Spacers [15]
Devices that interfere with the galloping mechanisms fall generally into two groups: those that
intervene in the energy balance of a galloping span to damp the motions, in a manner similar to that by
which Stockbridge dampers control aeolian vibration; and those that seek to control torsional
vibrations of the conductors in a manner that prevents large vertical amplitudes from developing.
Table 4.2-7 Title
All these devices are presented in Section 4.5.

All trial to increase drag of the conductor or vertical damping have not succeeded.
50
The three most widely used devices are probably air-flow spoiler for single conductor, AR
Windamper for single conductor and pendulum for bundle conductors.
The earliest, proposed by Richardson,(4-23) was formed essentially of two half cylinders with their
convex sides facing one another, separated by a small space. The arrangement has drag characteristics
able to help conductor to rotate, over a long enough part of the span, of a certain amount to avoid ice
to remain in a Den-Hartog zone of instability. There exists light and heavy device to choose
depending on conductor torsional stiffness. This device, particularly well suited to control Den-Hartog
type of instabilities, has probably no effect on coupled type of galloping.
Figure 4.2-44 A-R Windamper.
Several devices that seek to intervene in galloping mechanisms operate through control of the
conductor’s torsional motion. Extensions of Den Hartog’s analysis to include torsional effects, as well
as other theories, have led to hypotheses that vertical galloping can be controlled by preventing
torsional motion from occurring, or by inducing torsional motion having a certain phase relationship
with the vertical motion. These effects will be discussed further in Section 4.3.
Torsion control devices are of four types: those that seek to limit torsional motion by damping; those
that seek to control the phase relationship between the torsional and vertical motions; those that seek
to control the relationship between the vertical and torsional natural frequencies and more recently
those who mixed all these effects.
Japanese utilities worked a lot on these mechanisms and have tried many ways of dynamic control of
torsion with resonance device (quasi no damping).
Figure 4.2-45Torsionless Galloping Damper Figure 4.2-46 Torsional Control Device (TCD)
Most of the experience gained with static systems (eccentric massa) have been developed by D.
Havard (Canada). An example of detuning type is shown in Figure 4.2-46. It is a simple mass hung as
a pendulum from the conductor (but rigidly fixed on it). As we will see later, such eccentric massa
may drastically influence both torsional stiffness and, in case of single conductor, span moment of
inertia.
Applied on single conductor line, for which basic torsional frequency in the absence of ice is much
higher than the vertical one (about 7 to 10 times), it decreases that ratio (the effect on inertia is
sensibly larger than the effect on torsional stiffness so that torsional frequency will decrease) of a
significant amount but afterwards, that new ratio is supposed to remain more or less constant for
classical wind speed and ice accretion due to much stronger torsional stiffness.
51
Figure 4.2-47 Detuning pendulum incorporated in single ( two on the left) or bundle(right) conductor spacer.
(Photo courtesy of Ontario Hydro).
Applied on bundle conductor, for which basic torsional frequency is very close to vertical frequency
(it is a structural effect which cannot be avoided without eccentric massa, independently of the
number of conductors, the spacing between subconductors and valid for any tension), such pendulum
will also increase both bundle torsional stiffness and bundle moment of inertia, but this last of a very
small ratio. So that the effect is opposite compared to single conductors: the torsional frequency will
increase. Such device may easily help detuning torsional with vertical frequency, which may be very
favorable to suppress some galloping mechanism (if such detuning are larger than about 25%), but
Den-Hartog type instabilities will not be affected.
These devices have shown promise in tests on the field but only systematic observations exist on
pendulums.
Interesting application of eccentric massa has been developed in Japan and USA (AR Twister), using
similar device that seeks to control the phase relationship between vertical and torsional motions is
reported to have shown promise in field tests in Japan. Physically, the device is quite similar to
pendulums, but it is mounted with the mass projecting horizontally (or different positions), rather than
vertically downward, from the conductor.
Figure 4.2-48 AR twister (left) and Eccentric Weights [15](right).
The most recent development, trying to mix detuning, torsional damping and phase shift between
vertical and torsion has been developed by Lilien (1998) and promises have been observed on test
lines but few applications exist on the field (see Section 4.5)
Figure 4.2-49 Torsional Damping Detunder.
52
Air-flow spoiler has been introduced to modify the ice shape by changing conductor surface on a
significant part of the spans (25% recommended to be recovered)
Figure 4.2-50 Air-Flow Spoiler (AFS).
Last but not least, some countries, especially in Europe have investigated, for bundle conductor line,
the despacering (removal of the spacers) for twin conductors with some success for limited diameter
conductor line as will be explained in Section 4.5
Figures 4.2-51 Hoop-spacers and Despacered Bundles.
4.2.15 Survey Report on Galloping Control Device

Recently, CIGRE has published a report on galloping control device which is reproduced in this
section.
The reader who would like to have access to more detailed discussion may go back to a recent
publication published by the CIGRE TFG into ELECTRA (ref…)
We reproduce here the conclusions.
• The complexity of galloping is such that control techniques cannot be adequately tested in the
laboratory and must be evaluated in the field on trial lines. This testing takes years and may be
inconclusive.
• Analytical tools and field test lines with artificial ice are useful in evaluation of galloping risk and
appropriate design methods.
• No control method can guarantee it will prevent galloping under all conditions.
• Interphase spacers virtually ensure galloping faults will not occur, but do not necessarily prevent
galloping. Their usage is growing and their design is undergoing further development.
• Mechanical dampers to stop vertical motion are still being pursued but to only a very limited
extent.
• Torsional devices, which either detune or increase torsional damping or both, are being pursued
and actively evaluated.
53
• Techniques which disrupt either the uniformity of ice accretion by presenting a varying conductor
cross-section or the uniformity of the aerodynamics by inducing conductor rotation are being
actively pursued.
• Methods of ice removal or prevention are not widely used as specific anti-galloping practices.
• Despacering or using rotating-clamp spacers is still used extensively in a number of parts of
Europe subject to wet snow accretions.
• For bundled conductors, the influence of the design of suspension and anchoring dead-end
arrangements on the torsional characteristics of the bundle and on the occurrence of
vertical/torsional flutter type galloping has been recognized.
54
4.2.16 The Particular Case of CATV Cable and Lashed Fiber Optic Cable
Figure 4.2-52 Typical CATV cable (e.g., φ = 40 mm, di=20 mm).
These kind of cable having a messenger cable placed inside a screen and supported by steel cable may
have typical such data :
• torsional stiffness : 140 Nm2/rad
• typical sag on 33 m span length : 1.4 m
• typical traction in the steel conductor : 840 N
• basic pseudo-one loop mode in vertical : 1 Hz
These cable have every day aerodynamic properties like the ones shown on Figure 4.2-53 (courtesy
University of Liège) :
55
Figure 4.2-53 Caption to come.
Such curves may help to analyse potential instability on raw cable (no need of any ice deposit) and
typical Den-Hartog zone exists in many positions like -150°, all area between -30° and +30° and
+150°.
Generally such cable is attached with an angle close to 90° which is not unstable.
But wind speed may force some twisting (sometimes with permanent deformation) pushing cable near
zero angle, a very unstable position.
If such cable is installed in free zone (no obstacle), the danger to get galloping is extremely high and
damages are observed on the sheet (made of copper or aluminium) which, as a consequence, will
introduce losses of the high frequency signal.
It is recommended to install such cable with a twist over the span and if not possible, to install
eccentric massa near the mid span to maintain CATV cable in vertical position.
TO BE ADDED : galloping of lashed fiber optic cable
56
4.3 MECHANISMS OF GALLOPING (UNDER REVISION)
Foreword
4.3.1 The Equations of Galloping
The mechanisms of galloping are hidden in the equations governing the phenomenon. These equations
have now been detailed in the literature.
This foreword will only present two basic equations limited to vertical and torsional movement of
power lines conductor (single or bundle). Moreover these equations will be presented in a form readily
understandable by linearization around a “virtual” equilibrium position. Means that the conductor, in
presence of wind and ice would go to that position if the system would be stable. Any perturbation
from that position will help to understand the possible mechanisms of galloping of power lines.
More complex evaluation is done in the literature referred.
There are many papers dealing with all details in relation with galloping equations. The reader may
found such information in (Kreutgen 1999, Lilien and Ponthot 1988, Lilien and Dubois 1988, Lilien et
al 1989, Lilien and Chabart 1995, Wang 1996, Wang and Lilien 1998, Richardson et al. 1963, Nigol
and Buchan 1981, Nigol and Clarke 1974, EPRI 1979, Hunt and Richard 1969, Nakamura 1980,
Parkinson 19xx, Wang and Lilien 1994) .
If it is relatively easy to write down these equations, it must be emphasized that we cannot neglect:
• Self damping of the conductors, even if very small. These data are relatively close to 0% of critical
for the vertical and horizontal movement and 2% for torsional movement.
• Aerodynamic damping is automatically included in the aerodynamic coefficient (drag mainly
(always positive) but also the derivative of lift and pitching moment, these last could be negative
values), no more is needed
• Inertial coupling (the eccentricity of ice induce rotational inertial term in the vertical movement
(readily negligible for most of ice shape) and vertical inertial coupling in torsional equation (not
negligible), as the rotation is around the shear centre
• So called “inverse pendulum effect” which is a static effect on torsional stiffness due to ice
eccentricity weight (= mi.g)
• The aerodynamic effects, which induce some important coupling (due to the derivative of lift and
the derivative of the pitching moment) and seriously affect the torsional stiffness too.
• The vertical frequency is strongly affected by tension variation (thus by amplitude of vibration),
which cannot be considered as a constant (taut string model is not valid), as already explained in
other chapter. This effect is only active for odd modes (1 and 3 mainly).
• The torsional frequency is dependent on the torsional stiffness, which is very complex in case of
bundle conductor
• The tension in the conductor (included in the vertical frequency) is not a constant and depends on
the amplitude, the kind of modes shapes (several could be present at the same time). Fundamental
effect is also that the tension in the conductor is the resultant of the whole section (all spans)
movement at a given time. The tension is the variable through which all modes are interrelated and
all spans in a section are depending from each other.
57
It is recommended to look for all these details in the literature, but we would like to present here a
very simplified case which could be a good base to study the possible instabilities in a vertical-torsion
movement.
As we are looking for instabilities only (thus not valid to estimate amplitudes), we may limit our
investigation to very small movement and make a development limited to first derivatives.
For the sake of simplicity, we will also limit the case to one mode only (the mode at a frequency ωv
for vertical and the mode at ωθ for torsion). Such a mode may be a section mode, as detailed in
chapter 4.2, including the movement in different spans. Let’s choose an “up and down” mode for
which tension variation is small enough.
The complete equations may be written down right a way, and the corresponding linearised terms are
coming out, with our hypothesis. We just use the modal decomposition method to be tuned on one
mode under investigation for each of the considered degree of freedom (vertical and torsion here), so
that each of the term (including aerodynamic coefficients, sinθ0, etc. are in fact integral terms taking
into account the repartition of these data all along the multi-span section): (angle positive
anticlockwise).
All notations already defined in Section 4.2

⎡k U ⎤ k U2 m
&y& + ⎢ D 0 (C D − C Lα ) + 2ξV ωV ⎥ y& + ωV2 y = D 0 C Lαθ − i d i sin θ 0 ×θ&& (4.1a)
⎣ m ⎦ m m
&& & 2 ⎡ k M U 02 m gd ⎤ k U md
θ + 2ξθ ωθ θ + ωθ ⎢1 − 2 CM α + i 2 i sin θ 0 ⎥ θ = M 0 CM α y& + i i cos θ 0 &&y (4.1b)
⎣ ωθ I ωθ I ⎦ I I
The instability analysis may be “easily” evaluated on such a simple non-linear 2 degrees of freedom
system. The outputs of such analysis would be (complex eigenvalue analysis):
• The frequency of the limit cycle, if any (if unstable, there exist a limit amplitude due to
nonlinearities, mainly coming from aerodynamic coefficients, but not only). The frequency of the
limit cycle is close to ωv but not equal.
• The modal shape of the limit cycle which is a combination of vertical and torsional amplitude
All effects cited in this book are summarized on these two equations: limited to vertical movement
only, the Den Hartog criterion is transcendent in the damping term of the vertical equation (the critical
wind speed may be written directly). The coupling between torsion and vertical is obvious and the
change of torsional stiffness with the ice pendulum effect and aerodynamic pitching moment is clearly
established.
The block diagram of such closed loop system is readily established and the instability conditions can
be clearly stated, in which the product CLωα..CMα is playing a major contribution which is also
multiplied by the cubic power of the wind speed.
The “Laplace” transform of equations 4.1 a and b are readily obtained as follows :
( a + s 2 a4 )
( s 2 + a1s + a2 ).Y = (a3 + s 2 a4 ).Θ G ( s) = 2 3
( s + a1s + a2 )
defining open loop and feedback loop
( sb3 + s 2b4 )
2 2
( s + b1s + b2 ).Θ = ( sb3 + s b4 ).Y H ( s ) =
( s 2 + b1s + b2 )
58
where all “a” and “b” coefficients are easily obtained by looking at the basic equations. For example
a2 (respectively b2) are the square of the pulsation in vertical direction (respectively torsional). Y and
Θ are the Laplace transforms of the vertical and torsional movement.
From these transforms, the block diagram of galloping is the feedback loop system as shown in Figure
4.3-1.
Θ(s) G(s) Y(s)
H(s)
Figure 4.3-1 Caption to come.
So that the transfer function is
Output G
=
Input 1 − G.H
the denominator is giving access to characteristic equation.

The transfer function may be analysed by any methods offered by system theory, like Bode diagram,
Nyquist, Evans or Routh criterion analysis for example.
But it is clear that the product G.H is a key factor. The product G.H is introducing the key factor a3.b3,
the product of CMα.CLα.V3. (a4 factor is negligible in practice).
If Den-Hartog criterion (a1<0) is not violated, both separate equations have positive damping, but
owing to the coupling, the system may become unstable as we already stated out.
We will come back on all these points in this chapter.
4.3.2 Estimation of Unstable Conditions
Some parametric studies have been presented in the literature and generally are looking for the
stability conditions (or reduced amplitude) drawing the envelope curves given by a constant parameter
in the plane of two other parameters. Unfortunately it is very difficult to have a global overview of the
influence of 5 parameters (table 1.1 in chapter 4.2) plus self damping, ice position and ice
aerodynamic curves.
To get some sense, the analysis needs to be performed using the following sequence:
• With a given wind speed and a given ice profile (means aerodynamic curves), all possible ice
position around the conductor are studied (this need to study the static equation in torsion). Inverse
pendulum effect as well as pitching moment are both fundamental to study such equilibrium
position
• All found possible static position of ice (in the presence of wind) (some are generally impossible
at mid span for strong winds) are studied by stability analysis (complex eigenvalue) and the
dangerous ice accretion angle are located, if any.
• For the most dangerous cases, if suspected to be possible, limit cycle analysis is performed either
by energy method (very quick but approximate as it is difficult to include tension variation in such
59
methods, moreover such method are limited to one mode only) or by time response. This last may
lead to calculations of a few minutes on actual 3.3 GHz PC as all the section (multi-span
generally) has to be analysed with all its modes in vertical, horizontal and torsion (some up-to-date
simulation are able to limit the amount of modes par span to be studied).
Only time response analysis may give access to appropriate tension variation in the conductor as well
as in the suspension insulator chain.
Only finite element methods may give access to more complex case, like interphase spacers effects,
these last cases have to include travelling waves and some local effect introduced by some retrofit
methods. (See f.e.Keutgen 1999)
Figure 4.3-2 is giving access to a stability analysis. Referring to Section 4.2 on the galloping
parameter, Parameter P2 (bundle separation), P3 (wind speed), P4 (reduce ice inertia) and P5
(conductor span) being given as well as ice eccentricity, the stability analysis is performed in the plane
(torsional damping, angle of ice accretion) for different parameter P1 value (detuning). It is
remarkable that more or less all position of ice may be unstable. But in fact actual torsional damping
is around 2-4% depending on conductor type, spacers used and end span fixation. It results that
unstable area for galloping are located around -50° for ice accretion in that case. It is also remarkable
to notice that a detuning of 20% would completely remove all unstable area. The detuning may be
obtained either with an increase or a decrease of the torsional frequency, both having some different
actions. A too large detuning seems to create new unstable area close to 0° (ice facing the wind).
The same curves are shifting to stronger galloping problem for higher wind speed as stated in the next
Figure 4.3-2 (but the unstable area over -90° disappears).
Figure 4.3-2 Typical instability analysis. Detection of galloping risk for a bundle conductor line. The specific wind
speed are given for the case (φ = 0.033 m; m = 1.7 kg/m; d = 0.45 m, T/2 = 35 kN; span length = 360 m (4
span section, equal length), sag f = 7.8 m; up and down 0.23 Hz vertical mode, ice thickness of 5 mm, ice
density 900 kg/m3). Parameters P1 to P5 as explained o, table 1.1.
4.3.3 Estimation of Galloping Amplitudes and Ellipse Shape
The scientific world has developed numerical tools and analytical tools to study the complete
interaction between all the degrees of freedom and including all aspect of a multi-span line. So that we
may say that the galloping is now completely covered by its equations which are well known and
defined, but the complexity of so many interactions in a real problem make it very difficult to
understand everything, even if it is possible to simulate any case. The practical problem is more
60
related to suppress or limit actual galloping by appropriate retrofit method and not to be able to
reproduce a specific observation. That is why it is a major concern to simplify equations reasonably to
have access to the different kind of instabilities. Nevertheless the numerical or analytical tools
developed may help to estimate the efficiencies of the retrofit method used using typical ice shape and
appropriate range of wind speed, for all possible ice accretion. The finite element method may even
evaluate the efficiencies of interphase spacers as detailed in (Keutgen 1999) But no numerical tool can
estimate properly the retrofit method based on ice shape modification, because of the lack of
aerodynamic properties of the modified conductor shape all along the spans.
Figure 4.3-3 A typical galloping ellipse in a vertical plane at mid-span, due to coupled flutter, the straight line attached to
each square point (all square being spaced by the same time between them, around 0.1 s) is giving access to
ice position all around the limit cycle. (calculated by University of Liège using analytical tools).
4.3.4 Basic Mechanisms of Galloping

The basic mechanism of galloping, described by Den Hartog, was outlined in Section 4.2, for a spring-
mounted model constrained to move solely in the vertical plane. Analysis of that mechanism led to the
criterion that galloping may occur if
Lα + D ≤ 0 with clockwise reference for positive angles
D – Lα <= 0 with anticlockwise reference for positive angles

(see section 4-2 to locate Den-Hartog zone of unstable case on actual and artificial ice shapes)
Since the drag D and lift L are given by (eq1) in §4.2 the criterion may be expressed versus
aerodynamic coefficients of lift and drag and their derivatives
CLα + CD ≤ 0 (clockwise)
CD - CLα <= 0 (anticlockwise) (4.3)

where CLα = ∂CL / ∂α
α = angle of attack.
Inequality (4.3) is known as Den Hartog’s criterion. *
It is easy to demonstrate that the criterion also applies to a galloping conductor span if it is constrained
to motion in the vertical plane, with no torsional motion, and if the wind and ice section are uniform
over the length of the span. Den Hartog’s method for estimating the maximum amplitude on the basis
of energy balance has also been applied to full-span galloping, subject to the same restrictions.
*
Tornqist and Becker4-28 point out that this criterion had actually been derived as early as 1919 in connection with
autorotation of airfoils.
61
Considerable effort has been expended over the years in extending Den Hartog’s analysis to cover
such effects as damping, torsional and swinging motions of spans, and the variations in conductor
tension that occur during large-amplitude galloping. This effort has resulted in a repertoire of
analyses, some computerized, for making predictions regarding whether particular spans will gallop,
under what conditions, and to what amplitudes.
Effort has also been directed at verifying the analyses against tests in wind tunnels and on full-span
test lines. On the whole, correlation has been good where theory has been tested against experiment in
wind tunnel simulations. Correlation has been less evident where full-span galloping in natural wind is
involved, however. But, more recently, parametric approach giving envelop of different cases with
different ice position may reach better correlation.
A detailed discussion of galloping theory is beyond the scope of this volume, since line designers
cannot usefully apply very much of it. Some understanding of the main mechanisms at work in
galloping is useful, however, and it is the intent of the present section to provide that.
It is helpful to approach the discussion with specific questions in mind. The first part of this section
will deal with the question when may galloping occur; i.e., under what conditions can galloping of
small amplitude build up, rather than decay and disappear? The second part of the discussion will
concern the question: if galloping can occur, how severe will it be, how great its amplitudes? The first
question involves behavior when amplitudes are small and thus permits the simplifications afforded
by linearization. The second question requires consideration of nonlinear effects with their
complexities.
In much of the discussion, the conductor span, more exactly a specific mode of a multi-span section,
will be modelled as a rigid rod hung from springs in such a way that it has one or several of the three
degrees of freedom: vertical displacement y (plunging), horizontal displacement x (swinging), and
rotation θ (torsion), as depicted in Figure 4.3-x. In this lumped parameter representation, the springs k1
and k2 are chosen to give natural frequencies in the x and y directions equal to horizontal and vertical
natural frequencies for the span in question, and the torsional spring k3 is chosen to reproduce in the
model the torsional natural frequency of the span. It must be noted that such configuration has been
used in wind tunnel for dynamic testing, noticely by (xxxx, Keutgen 2001,...), using for the rigid rod a
piece of power line conductor (last layer fitted on a tube) on which ice accretion is reproduced by
synthetic material. The same experiment, by fixing the springs, helps to find out aerodynamic
coefficients.
In one sense, this model reflect one mode of oscillation of a whole overhead line section, in its three
degrees of freedom (a fourth one exist in longitudinal direction but, despite it dramatic importance for
tension variation, we may temporarily neglect its influence on galloping inset mechanisms)
62
Figure 4.3-4 Lumped mass model of conductor span.
4.3.5 Effect of Vertical Damping

If the model of Figure 4.3-4 is constrained to purely vertical vibration, without torsional or horizontal
motion, then Den Hartog’s criterion applies (equation 4.3) . Note that the magnitude of wind velocity
is not involved in the criterion. The negative damping forces, due to CLα of appropriate sign, and the
positive damping, due to the deflection of the drag vector, both vary directly with V2 so if the negative
damping overpowers the drag effect at one wind velocity, it does so at all wind velocities. Careful
experiments in wind tunnels indeed show galloping down to quite low wind velocities.
If mechanical damping is applied, for example by paralleling the vertical springs with dashpots, a
force that does not vary with wind velocity comes into play, and stability then depends upon V. The
equation of motion for the damped system is (positive anticlockwise):
⎡ dl ⎤.
mÿ + ⎢ q ( CD − CLα ) + c ⎥ y+ky=0 (4.4)
⎣ V ⎦
Where m = mass per unit length of conductor
2
q= ρV /2 = dynamic pressure
c= damping constant of dashpot
k= system spring constant
l= length of model
d = “conductor” diameter
Classical vibration analysis was concerned with the oscillatory response of linear multiple degree-of-freedom systems excited by
periodic forces. Viscous damping is defined for these systems by multiplying the velocity terms by constant coefficients. Structural
damping, also called hysteretic seems to give better agreement with the measured responses of large structures for typical low-frequency
ranges. Either viscous or structural damping gives reasonable qualitative results for simple non-linear systems, as overhead lines
galloping.
The damping or dissipative force is not really proportional to the relative velocity in any material, part or system. Equivalent linear
damping is found by assuming sinusoidal motion, calculating the energy dissipated by the actual non linear damping force acting
through one cycle of the assumed motion, and finding the linear damping coefficient which would give the same energy dissipation.
The equation (4.4) is the classical equation for the linear oscillator, which is usually put in nondimensional form as (without
aerodynamic terms):
63
.. .
y + 2ξ vωv y + ωv2 y = 0 (4.4 bis)
where :
c
ξv =
cc
cc = 2 k .m (so called “critical damping”)
k
ωv =
m
the energy loss per cycle is easily evaluated as :
D = π cωv ymax
2
the equation (4.4 bis) is easily solved to get the amplitude of exponential vibration decays :
y = y0 e −ξvωvt sin(ωv . 1 − ξ v2 .t )
the relative amplitude decrement per cycle is :
yn +1
= e −δv ≈ (1 − δ v )
yn
where
δ v = 2πξ v
δ is called “ the logarithmic decrement”
ξ is called “ percentage of critical damping”

there is a ratio of about 6.28 between these two values expressing in a different way the equivalent viscous damping of systems like
overhead lines modes.
The equation (4.4 bis) may be considered as a modal equation of a whole overhead line section.
Order of amplitude of practical values of actual structures for low frequency modes are :
Percentage of critical damping around : 0,5% means ξ=0.005
Which, converted into logarithmic decrement, gives δ = 3% or δ= 0.03

In overhead lines, the vertical damping (mechanical) is practically zero at galloping frequencies and is reaching significant values over 5
Hz as detailed in the Aeolian vibration chapter. The vertical damping, including aerodynamics (easily obtained by looking at equation
(4.4) may be either positive (stable system) or negative (galloping will start). In any case its value grows linearly with the wind speed,
increases with the square root of the sag of the span and decrease linearly with the conductor diameter. The value of the damping is
given approximately by :
ρ air .V .(CLα + CD )
ξ veq ≈ 0.12 sag (clockwise, one loop up-down mode)
ρcable .φ
all data in SI system, using meters for sag and conductor diameter and m/s for wind speed. Density of air and conductor have to be
expressed in the same unit (f.e kg/m3)
The horizontal damping (mechanical) is also close to zero at galloping frequencies, may be obtained by a similar equation as (4.4) but
written for horizontal movement, which is using different aerodynamic force components. In that direction it is always a positive
damping which is approximately equal to (in the same conditions and units):
ρ air .V .CD
ξ heq ≈ 0.24 sag
ρcable .φ
.
Steady galloping is possible when the coefficient of the y term is zero, or
64
2c
V=- (4.5)
pdl ( CD − CLα )
This relationship is conventionally expressed in the form (MANQUE 2/l)

V 2m δ
=− 2 • (4.6)
f yd pd CD − CLα
where δ is the logarithmic decrement of the system in still air. The dimensionless parameter 2m/ ρd2 is
roughly 3000 to 3500 for commonly-used ACSR’s. To illustrate, if the galloping frequency were 0.5
Hz, the conductor were 25 mm in diameter, CD - CLα were -1, and δ were 0.1, the threshold V/fyd
would be about 300 and V would be about 3.75 m/s or about 8 mph. Doubling δ would double the
threshold wind velocity.
Just how much damping, in terms of δ, a particular span requires to prevent galloping, depends very
strongly upon what wind speeds are anticipated and upon the characteristics of the ice deposit, since
those characteristics determine CLα and CD Methods for achieving useful levels of damping will be
discussed in Section 4.5. For practical reason, nobody until now has found any usable ways to
increase the vertical damping at galloping frequencies of an amount which could be of interest. May
be one day active control could do that.
Dissipation within the conductor caused by its vertical motion is too small to influence galloping
behavior, since the long loops associated with galloping result in only slight flexing of the conductor.
Due to the fact that actual mechanical damping has been confirmed to be really extremely close to
zero, the onset galloping wind velocity may be extremely low. Practically none have been observed at
wind speed lower than roughly 4 m/s. As such fact cannot be correlated to possible mechanical source
of damping, it must be recognized that another cause may explain the observed onset galloping wind
speed. One cause is certainly the fact that a certain wind speed is needed to maintain conductor
surface to negative temperature able to fix icing/snow/rime deposit, despite the load flow existing in
the conductor. Some others could be (i) the needed wind speed to get ice eccentricity at proper
location to generate galloping, which is very seldom possible if it is located at the bottom of the
conductor and (ii) last but not least the fact that Den-Hartog galloping is only one cause of galloping,
some other mechanisms exist so that the onset conditions will be different and will depend on other
structural data which may be , due to non linearities, influenced by the wind.
4.3.6 Torsional Motion

Den Hartog’s analysis demonstrated that the sinusoidally varying lift required to sustain galloping
could be generated by variations in angle of attack, with respect to the relative wind
Vr, caused by the conductor’s own vertical velocity (see Figure 4.3-x).
Variations in angle of attack can also be caused by torsional motion of the conductor.
To better understand the influence of torsion, let’s come back to the vertical force applied on the
conductor arrangement (single or bundle), as shown on the Figure 4.2-11 in Section 4.2 (where all
aerodynamic forces are defined).
To evaluate possible instabilities, the vertical force acting on the conductor is calculated as
follows (have in mind that α is negative):
f w = f L cos α + f D sin α (2.2)
Where fL is the lift force and depending on the global angle of attack ϕ and fD is the drag force (idem).
α is only a part of the angle of attack, the part which is due to vertical movement only.
Instability obviously occurs if a positive vertical push up would see an increase of the vertical force.
65
ΔfW > 0 unstable (2.3a)
ΔfW < 0 stable (2.3b)
To establish the variation of the force, we will make the simplified hypothesis that the drag coefficient
is constant and that the angle α is very small (which is indeed the case).
Δy&
Δf w = Δf L + f D Δα Δα = − (2.4a)
U0
∂C L ∂C L
Δf L = k D Δϕ = k D (Δϑ − Δα ) (2.4b)
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
⎡ ∂C ⎤
ΔfW = k D ⎢CD Δα + L (Δϑ − Δα )⎥ (2.4c)
⎣ ∂ϕ ⎦
So that instability criterions are easy to predict (keep in mind that Δα is negative for an upward
movement):
Case 1) no torsion (infinitely rigid) Δϑ = 0 → C D − ∂C L > 0 stable

Therefore the system may be unstable only for ∂C L > 0 and larger than CD. This is the classical Den
Hartog criterion, already discussed earlier.
But, as we know, the torsion in overhead lines could never been supposed to be rigid, in fact a several
hundred of meters beam with a diameter of a few centimetre is obviously non rigid in torsion.
For bundle conductors, the torsional stiffness is dependent on the tension in the subconductor and the
spacing in the bundle as well as the number of subconductors and the spacers used. Bundle conductor
torsional stiffness (several thousand of N.m2/rad) are two orders of amplitude larger than that of single
conductor (a tenths to some hundreds of N.m2/rad), but the bundle line has a resonance between
vertical and torsional mode so that torsion is easy during dynamic movement.
Due to practical data, single conductor lines have a ratio of 5 to 10 between torsional frequencies and
vertical ones (torsion being higher). As galloping frequency will be close to vertical one, the torsion of
single conductor will have very limited dynamic action and can be reduced, in a first attempt, to quasi-
static behaviour, means that the left hand side of the torsional equation may be reduced to its stiffness
term (neglecting inertial and damping term).
Thus, for single conductor, the torsion is forced by the vertical movement and is in phase with the
vertical speed of the conductor, the amplitude being dependent of the pitching aerodynamic moment
and some structural data.
For bundle conductor, the torsion is in resonance with vertical movement so that phase shift between
the two movements may cover all the range and the amplitude may be large.
Case 2) Δϑ ≠ 0 → two cases:

→ Δϑ in phase with vertical velocity (the case of single conductor) (Δθ=−κ.Δα)
the criterion is not change compared to Den Hartog but the derivative of lift is increased by the
coupling so that a lower drag may cause instabilities.
CD − CLα .(κ + 1) ≤ 0 (positive anticlockwise)
66
(once again : To be in phase with velocity for torsion means a forced movement with no inertial
effects. It would need a large difference between vertical and torsional frequencies, which will be
possible only for single conductors with very thin ice deposit).
• Δϑ in opposite phase with velocity (may be one particular case of bundle conductor) (κ may be
negative)
• The criterion is completely modified. Instability may occur even if ∂C L < 0 , but non only. In this
case the phase shift (vertical/torsion) play an important role, this last being strongly related to
torsional damping and the proximity of resonance. This last case is called “coupled flutter”
galloping for electrical engineering. It is opening the scope to completely different mechanisms as
the derivative of lift is no more needed to have the sign of Den-Hartog instability criterion
We may complexify easily such situation by introducing horizontal movement, limit cycle frequency
(which is close to vertical one but not equal), etc… This can be managed by computer but experts
have not found significant discrepancies with the theory explained here over. Some new kind of
instabilities (horizontal/torsion) may occur but the physics remain similar.
Figure 4.3-5 Combined vertical and torsional motion, with amplitudes out of and in phase.
Of course many other torsional behavior is possible most of them may lead to galloping unpredictable
by Den-Hartog criterion.
The phase shift between torsion and vertical movement is a major factor for these new mechanisms.
Of course the amplitude of torsion is also a key factor. κ must be negative but also of enough
amplitude. The factors behind torsional amplitude are driven by:
• resonance between vertical and torsional movement (we are obviously speaking here about
frequencies in the presence of wind and ice, both factors which have dramatic influences on
overhead lines dynamics due to strong non linearities). Most of the time, resonance could only
occur for bundle conductor lines.
• pendulum effect of the ice (the center of gravity of ice deposit is not coincident with conductor
share center), which is a static influence on torsional stiffness. Just like an eccentric massa. Such
availability of rotation in the presence of eccentric mass is obviously depending on the location
around the conductor. If on the bottom part, the rotational stiffness is increased, if on the top of the
conductor, the rotational stiffness is decreased.
• Inertial effect of the ice (the mass of ice, eccentric to the share center, is accompanied by an
inertial force during conductor acceleration.)
67
• Aerodynamic effect of the ice (the presence of ice generates a pitching moment) which may also
favor either to decrease or increase the torsional stiffness of the conductor. For example, in the
presence of strong wind, independently of the three first actions here above, it is obviously
extremely difficult to maintain large eccentric ice in front of the wind.
All these effects are clearly highlighted in the basic equations of galloping given in the foreword of
this chapter.
We will see that galloping in most of cases is what is called a “limit cycle” in the theory of non linear
systems. It means that , after the onset of the instability (which is driven by the Den Hartog criterion
or other mechanisms), the system will lock on one mode of oscillation (may be several could occur
simultaneously) which mixes different degrees of freedom (very often vertical and torsion for
example, but many often with some extra horizontal movement). All these movements will then be
locked on the same frequency, that frequency being the result of some complex interactions, but in our
world of overhead lines, the “limit cycle” frequency is generally very close to vertical frequency, but
not strictly equal. The system is then moving to large amplitude (being “unstable”, the wind is able to
inject its energy into the movement) until some non linearities will limit the amplitude to a given
value: the galloping ellipse is then reached and the movement may remain in such movement during a
very long time. To limit amplitude at a certain value means that some mechanisms act to balance the
energy input by the wind by something else which must be a dissipation of energy.
We know actually that the main mechanism which act to limit amplitude is not, as some authors
thought, the tension changes in the conductor (which may be dramatic for towers , conductors and
hardware). The mechanism of limiting the amplitude is in fact in the aerodynamic itself. As amplitude
is growing the change of angle of attack is increasing during one cycle (amplitude is growing, means
conductor velocity is growing, thus angle of attack range of variation is increasing as stated in
equation 4-7), thus the aerodynamic lift, drag and moment (including their derivatives) cannot
obviously be considered as a constant, like we did for evaluation Den-Hartog criterion. These changes
of the aerodynamics will progressively avoid wind energy input in more and more parts of the
movement until a balance is obtained: the galloping ellipse is reached.
As an example, we are presenting the case if the vertical and torsional motions have the same
frequency with phase shift of a given angle (and if the motion is steady, means that the “limit cycle” is
reached)
y = ymax sin( ω t )
θ = θ max sin( ω t + φ )
.
y=ωYmax cos( ω t )
It has been shown by (Keutgen, 1999) that in such case, and providing that Den Hartog criterion is not
“violated” (means a positive value of the criterion), the necessary condition to get the system unstable
is:
ω ymax
(CD − CLα ) < CLα .ϑmax .sin φ
U0
ω ymax
where is in fact the amplitude of the part of the angle of attack due to the speed of the vertical
U0
motion (see Figure 4.2-11 of Section 4.2). There is a clear need of appropriate sign a derivative of lift,
coupled with phase shift with torsion and amplitude of torsion.
68
Figure 4.3-6
Combined vertical and torsional motion, with amplitudes in quadrature.
Now the amount of θ-motion that actually occurs and its phase are determined by the balances of
forces, aerodynamic and mechanical, acting in the system.
Once again if we go back to basic equations (see foreword) which are showing the basic forces and
moment acting on the conductor, the right hand side of torsional equation are showing two terms :
• the aerodynamic pitching moment effect
• the inertial coupling effect
But the torsional stiffness is strongly influenced also by aerodynamic pitching moment and inverse
pendulum effect (static effect of ice).
To evaluate torsion – vertical phase shift is particularly complex in dynamic case (when torsion
frequency is close to vertical frequency) where each case is possible. That is clearly the case of bundle
conductors.
But in practice, for single conductor lines, the ratio vertical to torsional frequency is quite high (over
5) so that torsional movement, during galloping (at a frequency close to vertical one) may be reduced
to its stiffness term. Depending on the relative importance of pitching moment term (which increases
quickly with wind speed) or inertial term the phase shift will be a quadrature or in/out of phase. This
last case is shown on Figure 4.3-7.
69
Figure 4.3-7
Combination of vertical and torsional motion, resulting from eccentric ice load, when torsional damping is absent.
4.3.7 Influences of Conductor Self-Damping in Torsion

Actually, stranded conductors possess significant self damping for torsional motion, even at the low
frequencies encountered in galloping. Edwards and Madeyski(4-9) report experimentally-determined
torsional energy loss factors (log decrement) in the range 0.15 to 0.20 in typical conductors. More
recent testing presented in CIGRE brochure on galloping, confirmed torsional damping close to 2% up
to 4% of critical damping in torsion at galloping frequencies.
The effect of this torsional damping is to make the θ-motions lag those that would occur in the
absence of damping. For example, the response shown in Figure 4.3-7(a) with no torsional self-
damping becomes that of Figure 4.3-8 with it. If we define eccentricity to be positive when the center
of gravity lies upwind of the conductor axis, and retain the sign conventions of Figure 4.3-4, then a
wind from the left in Figure 4.3-8 indicates that the θ displacement acquires, through damping effects,
.
a component in phase with – y . Figure 4.3-8 is sketched for the ft > fy and, for wind from the left, e >
0. Other assumptions relative to wind direction and frequency ratio lead to the following table
.
showing which way the “working” component of θ lies in phase relative to y .
Figure 4.3-8
Combination of vertical and torsional motion, resulting from eccentric ice load, when torsional damping is
present (ft < fy).
θ has component ft > fy ft < fy

in phase with
e<0 . .
+y –y
e>0 . .
–y +y
Now the importance of these θ-responses is that they may shift the conditions under which galloping
may occur relative to those obtaining in the absence of torsional response. The θ-responses may, in
fact, permit entirely new instabilities. The former may be illustrated by the case where galloping
would occur without torsional response under Den Hartog’s criterion:
70
CD - CLα < 0. Since CD is always positive and roughly equal to one, a substantially positive slope CL˜
is required (angle positive anticlockwise) for galloping to occur. If, however, torsional motion did
occur with ft > fy, and if the ice lay to leeward (e < 0), then there would be a θ-response having a
.
component in phase with y That θ-component would reduce the excursions in angle of attack of the
ice section with respect to the relative wind (Equation 4.7), more or less as depicted in Figure 4.3-x.
That reduction could reduce the amplitude of the lift force per Equation (4.8) enough that the damping
effect of CD could not be overcome, and galloping would not be possible. A more positive value of
CLα would be required to permit galloping with the torsional motion than that indicated by Den
Hartog’s criterion.
Conversely, if the ice lay to windward (e > 0) in the above case, the excursions in α would be
amplified by the θ-motions, and a less positive value of CLα would be required.
71
Instability in the form of flutter, not visualized in the Den Hartog analysis, may arise from the
mechanical coupling of y- to θ-motion. As noted in Section 4.2, positive values of are stabilizing; i.e.,
they tend to damp out purely vertical motions. However, if the θ-motion are in phase with and large
.
enough relative to y / V (see Equation 4.8), the phase of the lift force L may be reversed, such that it
sustains, rather than damps, the motion in the y direction. ft > fv, e < 0 and CLα < 0 would correspond
to such a case.
4.3.8 Influence of Ratio of Torsional to Vertical Natural Frequency
For typical conductors, the positions of the stability boundaries depend most upon wind speed, V, the
ratio of torsional to vertical natural frequency ft / fv and upon the conductor’s torsional damping loss
factor ε.
Need some inputs
The effect of frequency ratio ft / fy is illustrated in Figure 4.3-x. Although ft / fy for bare conductors that
are rigidly supported at towers falls generally in the range 6 to 10, several effects can reduce it.(4-30)
One is the “inverted pendulum effect” illustrated in Figure 4-29. Without ice or wind, the torsional
natural frequency is determined by the mass moment of inertia of the conductor about the pivot and by
the constant of the torsion spring. With ice deposited on the top of the conductor, the center of gravity
of ice plus conductor lies above the pivot, and the torsional natural frequency is reduced. If enough ice
is deposited, the system may be statically unstable and the conductor may twist to a new at-rest
positon with the ice deposit’s center of gravity somewhere below the altitude of the conductor axis.
The inverted pendulum effect comes into play whenever the center of gravity of the ice deposit falls
above the altitude of the conductor axis, and is strongest when the deposit is directly on top.
Calculations based upon a derivation by Nigol and Havard(4-31) indicate that a deposit of only 4 mm
thickness over the top surface of a 25 mm diameter conductor would halve the torsional natural
frequency of a 250 m (820 foot) span. The thickness required to do this varies roughly as the square of
conductor diameter and inversely as the square of span length. Most ice deposits do not fall exactly on
top of the conductor, so the frequency reduction usually is more modest but may still be significant.
Even with no inverted pendulum effect, the increase in the mass moment of inertia from the ice
deposit causes some (very small in fact) reduction in torsional frequency. The vertical natural
frequency is also reduced by the mass of the ice, but usually of a very small amount.
The frequency ratio ft / fy may also be altered by direct aerodynamic action of the wind. This can occur
when the aerodynamic center, through which the drag and lift forces act, does not coincide with the
conductor’s axis. This is illustrated in Figure 4.3-x, and the situation depicted results in an
aerodynamic moment about the axis.
72
Figure 4.3-9
Model illustrating inverted pendulum effect.
Figure 4.3-10
Illustration of displacement of aerodynamic center from center of gravity of iced conductor.
The aerodynamic moment has been defined and its interaction with torsional stiffness already point
out: it could be an increase or a decrease depending on ice location.
The aerodynamic moment varies with angle of attack α, just as the lift and drag forces do. The effect
upon the torsional vibration of the conductor about its axis is the same as that of attaching a torsion
spring, additional to k3 of Figure 4.3-4, having spring constant (as can be seen on the basic equations
of galloping in the foreword) :
-dM
= − qd 2 CM α (4.13)
dα
Where CMα = dCM/dα.
If CMα positive, the net torsional spring constant will be reduced, and thus the torsional natural
frequency will be also. To illustrate, again based upon Nigol and Havard’s derivation, the torsional
natural frequency about the conductor axis (y motion restrained) would be halved by a value of CMα of
about 0.34 under the following conditions:
V = 10 m/s, d = 25 mm, span length = 250m.
Such values of CMα are apparently within the range of practical interest. It should be noted, however,
that for this model and most others that have been tested, CL and CM are roughly similar in shape, so
CLα and CMα usually have the same sign. Thus CMα would have the effect of reducing ft / fy in the upper
part of Figure 4.3-x in most cases, but would usually increase it in the modified Den Hartog region of
the lower part of the figure.
Must explain here the fact that effect on frequencies must include first the evaluation of the stationary
position of ice in the presence of wind, which may drastically change the effects on frequencies, in
such a way that frequencies collapse is no more possible for single conductors.
From a practical standpoint, most ice deposits reported during galloping are thin enough that e/d is
expected to fall generally in the range 0.05 to 0.2. Thus, with reference to Figures 4.3-x to 4.3-x, the
effects of the vertical-torsional couplings are expected to be significant in at least some cases
The torsional coupling due to eccentricity not only changes the boundaries of the regions of
instability, but also alters the degree of instability within regions. This is illustrated in results of wind
tunnel model tests reported by Chadha.(4-33) The model tested was essentially that of Figure 4-18 with
ft / fy = 2.5, ε = .006, and V / fyd =180. CLα was negative in the angle-of-attack range -5 < α < 20°,
with the most negative value about -3. Figure 4.3-x shows rates of decay, (δ > 0) or buildup (δ < 0)
for three values of e / d. Substantially more rapid buildup was found for more positive values of e /d.
73
It is not necessarily true that the maximum amplitude achieved will be greater, however. This point
will be discussed later.
Figure 4.3-11
Model of iced conductor. Reference 4-33.
Figure 4.3-12
Effect of eccentricity of ice deposit upon buildup rate, as found in wind tunnel model test. Negative log
decrement indicates buildup, positive indicates decay.
4.3.9 Purely Torsional Self-Excitation

A different torsion-effect mechanism than that outlined above has been suggested by Nigol and
Clark.(4-30) The mechanism described above relied upon coupling of the vertical and torsional motions
to produce either modified Den Hartog galloping or binary flutter. In the former case, torsional motion
74
merely modified what is basically a vertical instability, while in the latter case both vertical and
torsional motions were necessary for instability to occur.
Nigol and Clarke suggest that iced conductors may become unstable and oscillate purely in torsion,
without the need for vertical motion. The existence of purely torsional instability has been
demonstrated through wind tunnel tests in connection with suspension bridges(4-84)and for models of
iced conductors,(4-46) although the aerodynamic mechanism bringing the instability about is not yet
clear.
The recent view on these mechanisms, only observed in wind tunnel testing are based on the fact that
CMα may introduce negative damping in the torsional motion, as detailed in (Wang 1996). If this may
produce instability when torsional damping is extremely low, this has no practical interest as on actual
line torsional self-damping is most of the time larger that the amount required for classical ice shape.
Such galloping, if any, could be suppressed by preventing the torsional instability through extra
torsional damping.
4.3.10 Horizontal Motion
We have considered above the interaction of torsional and vertical motions of the conductor.
Torsional motion may also couple with horizontal swinging motion through the variations in drag
induced by CDα = dCD/dα Vertical and horizontal motions may also couple through and in fact all
three motions, vertical, horizontal and torsional, may become coupled.
The effects of horizontal conductor motions are thought to have considerably less practical upon the
likelihood and expected severity of galloping than the vertical and torsional motions, and will not be
pursued here. The reader is referred to the published work of McDaniel,(4-33) Richardson et al.,(4-35, 4-36)
and Chadha(4-33) for three-degree of freedom analysis.
The recent view is different from the observations done in the seventies. In fact numerous
observations, mainly in Japan, have pointed out natural galloping with more horizontal movement , or
figure 8 (horizontal) galloping limit cycles, but quasi exclusively on large bundle conductors (4
conductors and over, sometimes with huge bundle diameter, up to 2 meters in extreme cases). As
these cases are refereeing to geometry which are not worldwide used, we will remain focused on
vertical galloping, which some limited horizontal movement.
Un exemple de galop horizontal (papier Yamaguchi)

4.3.11 Ice Characteristics and the Incidence of Galloping
As noted in Section 4.2 the thickness, shape and weight of ice deposited on a conductor is influenced
by a number of meteorological factors, as well as by the conductor’s size and the current it is carrying.
There is thus considerable variety in ice deposits found in the field. It can be expected that the varied
deposits found from storm to storm, line to line and indeed span to span will have different
aerodynamic characteristics representable by different combinations of CLα and e (among other
parameters). Unfortunately, little data (only one published –Yamaguchi 2005) exist on aerodynamic
characteristics of conductors with actual ice deposits.
But the videos on galloping (distributed with this book) are including some good views of some of
them. And a recent Japanese overview of galloping observations during last 30 years are giving some
additional data.
One hundred and twenty four (124) cases of height and shape of the ice were observed. Table 4.3-1
shows observation data of shape of ice and height.
Table 4.3-1 Number of Incidents and Height of Ice
75
Height of Ice ( Ratio with the conductors*)
Shape 0 ~ 0.5 0.5 ~ 1.0 1.0 ~ 2.0 2.0 ~
windward leeward windward leeward windward leeward windward leeward
Triangle 9 10 8 3 1 0 0 0
Triangle with
3 1 34 2 4 0 0 12
tip round
Crescent 23 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
Others 7 0 1 4
Note: * Ratio with the conductors = height of ice / the conductors diameter
Ici photo Yamaguchi-Yukino
There are certainly not enough such data to develop probability distributions of, for example, CLα. Yet
it is such probability distributions, acting through the dynamic characteristics of exposed spans, that
determine the likelihood of galloping occurring.
The distribution of actual CLα,, e/d combinations influences the expected benefit of different galloping
control devices.
Clearly the actual distribution of CLα, e/d is of direct interest in connection with predicting the
probability of galloping, given the approach of a glaze storm, and in connection with assessing
proposed protection methods. As noted, data are lacking. Opinion of researchers in the field, although
certainly not unanimous, is generally as follows:
1. Ice builds up on the windward side of the conductor, making e > 0, unless the wind reverses
direction.
2. The wind reverses direction in a minor fraction of glaze storms, this case will easily generate
galloping of Den-Hartog type on any kind of ice. This is a particular difficult case to be controlled.
(on the Japanese enquiry 20% of the cases were observed with leeward ice)
3. The absolute value of e / d is usually less than 0.5. (in the Japanese enquiry only 50% of
observations have such ratio)
4. Both positive and negative values of CLα occur, perhaps with about equal probability.
There are widely differing opinions as to the magnitudes of CLα positive and negative, that are
achieved in nature. The rapid overview of typical case shown in xxxx, all being in the range of
Japanese investigations, are showing very few windward position with Den-Hartog criterion verified,
as already stated.
It is felt that CLα may change in a particular span during the ice buildup, due to twisting of the
conductor under the eccentric weight of the ice deposit and taking into account wind speed effect.
Referring to Figures 4.3-x to 4.3-x, which pertains to “natural” ice section (of progressively increased
eccentricity), the initial angle of attack, early in the storm, would correspond to the angle of
impingement of the droplets, possibly near 60° to the horizontal (where close unstable “Den-Hartog”
area exists but only for large eccentricity).
In this vicinity, CLα would be positive (reference positive anticlockwise). With buildup, the conductor
could (depending on wind speed) twist toward other angle α, going through a range where CLα is
strongly changing in value and sign (from -3 to +3). Thus, galloping could start during glazing and
could cease before glazing stopped. A larger, torsionally lighter span might twist enough to take α out
of the “appropriate range” of unstable Den-Hartog zone and might thus experience short galloping
76
period. A shorter, torsionally stiffer span might not twist enough to take α out of the dangerous zone
near -60°, and therefore might suffer prolonged galloping.
The situation of Figure 4.3-x (D-shape) is completely different as far as it concerns unstable zones of
potential galloping.
These observations are dramatically influenced by the wind speed action which may force the ice
position to be completely out of its position without wind, due to the aerodynamic pitching moment
acting on it. For example, depending on torsional stiffness (thus single conductor would behave
completely differently from bundle conductors) it would simply be impossible, in the case of “low”
torsional stiffness, for the conductor to twist the ice in a position below the wind direction. This is of
course depending on a complex mix of wind speed, ice eccentricity (thus ice aerodynamic properties
and its density) and conductor torsional stiffness. The next subchapter is giving a quick overview of
these aspects.
Obvious cases are bundle conductors, generally having very strong torsional stiffness (compared to
acting forces), so that in these cases the ice buildup procedure will generally occur on the upper
quadrant facing the wind. This is not true for single conductors.
4.3.12 Ice Position along the Span
It is not correct to suppose that a given ice accretion angular position is equal all along the span.
Except for very short span or some bundle conductors. For single conductors, such position varies
significantly from anchor to mid-span. The influence of the mean wind speed and inverse pendulum
effect is dramatic, even based on a pure static approach.
In this short subchapter, we will introduce the problem in a particular simple hypothesis:
Let’s suppose first that ice accretion is created instantaneously all along the span at the same position
ϑ = ϑice and, then, let’s the gravity and wind acting on it, in a pure static approach (wind is constant, no
inertial effect, just look for static equilibrium position in the presence of gravity and wind forces).
Only torsion is considered here.
The equation governing the position of ice along a span is given by:
d 2ϑ
−τ = k M U 02CM (ϑ ) + mice gd ice cos(ϑ )
dz
where
τ is the conductor torsional stiffness
z is the coordinate oriented from one end to the other of the span (z = 0 at the origin and z = L at the
end)
θ is the actual position of ice at abscissa z
(θ(0) = initial position of ice on rigid structure = θice)
the two right hand side terms are :
the first one is the aerodynamic pitching moment acting on ice, with CM the aerodynamic coefficient
and U0 the wind speed
the second term is the inverse pendulum effect of ice with mice the mass of ice, dice is the distance
between the conductor shear centre et the ice centre of gravity, g the gravity constant (9.81 m/s2)
It is relatively easy to solve that equation with the two conditions :
ϑ (0) = ϑice
77
and
dϑ
= 0 (at mid span, means z = L/2)
dz
The influences may be inserted in two dimensionless parameters:
L2 k M U 02 L2 mice gdice
P2 = and P5 =
π 2τ π 2τ
And the general view of the ice repartition along the span can be seen on the Figure 4.3-13, giving ice
position at the mid-span versus ice position at the end of the span.
Figure 4.3-13 evaluation of ice position along the span with existing aerodynamic pitching moment (curve Nigol). In
abscissa the ice position at anchoring level, in ordinates, the ice position at the mid-span. (angle positive anticlockwise)
This graph is quite interesting, clearly showing that a classical single conductor (e.g. Drake on a 488
meters span, external diameter 28.2 mm, stringed at 40 kN. The Drake conductor has a torsional
stiffness around 170 N.m2/rad), if we avoid any inverse pendulum effect (P5 inactive), the simple
evidence of aerodynamic pitching moment gives a P2 around 3 as soon as the wind speed is over 2 m/s
for ice thickness near 10 mm.(elliptic shape).
That means that a lot of position of ice cannot occur in any circumstances near mid-span, for any
accretion angle (which is the position at anchoring level), as soon as wind is blowing. These
“potential” positions (which could obviously exists in the absence of wind) would be pushed by the
wind in other region.
The inverse pendulum effect is still emphasizing the case (P5 active). Moreover ice accretion in the
upper quadrant (0 to -90°) are pushed near 180° close to Den-Hartog area.
78
The situation is completely inverse in case of bundle conductor (curve 1), which is at least one order
of amplitude larger in its torsional stiffness (e.g. a twin Drake conductor with 45 cm separation would
give a torsional stiffness close to 4000 N.m2/rad). The P5 parameter has no effect on curve 1.
The shape of the aerodynamic pitching moment has a dramatic impact on that curve, but we have seen
that the shape of that curve, if amplitudes may be quite different, the global shape would remains the
same.
Last but not least, these last explanations are taking into account a very simplified case. The actual
case would have to include ice accretion procedure (during which wind and gravity are also acting)
which may obviously also include some rotation of the conductor. And, in case of movements, ice
inertial effect may also force additional dynamic rotations which may install ice eccentricity in other
positions which would react differently in presence of wind forces.
As a conclusion it may be said that ice accretion shape all along the span is a very complex feature. If
for “classical” bundle conductor (“classical” means bundle with spacers rigidly connected to the
subconductors, each subspan having typical subspan length, around 40 to 60 m) the eccentricity of ice
is probably rather uniformly distributed owing to the much stronger torsional stiffness and distributed
spacers, the situation is much more complex on single conductor lines. In these last cases, we cannot
consider separately the ice position in presence or in absence of the wind.
Some devices attached on the line (those with eccentric massa, compared to conductor centre of
gravity f.e.) may drastically change the torsional stiffness of single conductor, thus completely affect
the accretion procedure and the possible position of ice in presence of the wind.
It is thus of extreme importance to well understand the torsional behavior of power line conductors.
4.3.13 Estimation of Conductor Torsional Stiffness
Some details on torsional stiffness of bundle conductors are explained in Chapter 7.
The torsional stiffness “GJ” is defined by the following equation:
d 2ϑ
−GJ = M ( z)
dz
where M(z) is a torque on the span at abscissa z, which can be distributed or localized.
“GJ” is given by analogy with beam theory where G is the slipping modulus and J the moment of
inertia in torsion.
τ is an intrinsic data of the conductor. For power lines conductors, the fact that the conductor is made
of assembled wires (most of times round wire shape) need experimental approach. By analogy with
beam theory, we know that the parameters behind the torsional stiffness are the diameter (at a power 4
for cylindrical beam), the shape, the slipping modulus. Most conductors have round external shape
and are made of aluminum on most of their (active) layers for torsion. So that a simplified approach
could consider the diameter at a power “x” as the only variable of interest.
If that equation is applied to the simple case of a concentrated torque “C” applied at mid-span (of
length “L”), the corresponding angle of rotation at mid-span is simply given by the classical formula :
C.L
ϑL / 2 =
4GJ
Single Conductor
79
The torsional stiffness of single conductor has been manifold studied in the literature. There is one
global overview presented by (Lilien-Wang 1998) summarizing 87 experimental measurement
performed in many different countries, which is summarized in Figure 4.3-14.
Figure 4.3-14 torsional stiffness of single conductor mixing ACSR, AAAC with new and old (more
than 30 years) conductors. Based on 87 tests from Belgium, France, Canada, Japan, USA. Only round
wires conductors. Two curves fit are shown.
Where as a summary and good approximate for practical standard cable (diameter between 12 and 60
mm, AAAC, ACSR, round wire shape) can be estimated by the simple formula:
GJ = τ = 0.00028φ 4 (τ in Nm2/rad if the diameter φ is given in mm)
Large discrepancies may occur for old conductors (some 30 years old conductor tests showed up to 2
times that value). Other conductor than round wire shape (like trapezoidal or z shape) have also much
stronger torsional stiffness (z shape new conductor tests showed up to 2 to 3 time higher torsional
stiffness, depending on stranding and number of z shape layers).
As an example, a Drake (ACSR 470 mm2, diameter of 28.2 mm) conductor has a torsional stiffness of
:
τ = 0.00028(28.2) 4 = 177 Nm 2 / rad
It is clear from the Figure 4.3-14 the power “4” of the diameter remains valid, as for the beam theory.
Bundle Conductors
The basic torsional stiffness, as explained in Chapter 7, of a bundle of “n” subconductors is given by
GJ = n(τ + r 2 .T )
where “r” is the radius of the bundle (the diameter of the bundle is the diameter of the circle on which
all subconductors are placed, for classical bundle) and τ the intrinsic torsional stiffness of one
80
subconductor (see “single conductor” of this subchapter). T is the mechanical tension in each
subconductor. In SI unity system, τ is in Nm2/rad, r in meter and T in Newtons.
Such simple formula is thus generating a very much larger value compared to single conductor :
mechanical tension is playing a dramatic increasing effect.
As an example, a twin Drake conductor with 0.45 m bundle diameter and a 40 kN tension in each
subconductor will give a bundle torsional stiffness of :
2(177 + (0.45 / 2) 2 .40000) = 4400 Nm 2 / rad
which is 26 times larger than the single Drake conductor.
The torsional stiffness on bundle conductor is unfortunately not such simple. It can even be larger
(twice that value is easily possible) depending on end-span conditions (yoke plate arrangement). That
is because tension differences may appear between subconductors, depending on end span
arrangement (yoke plate).
The physics are explained in Chapter 7, including subspans collapses. In this chapter we will limit
torsional angle less than collapse as the design must be such than collapse has to be avoided, even if
some galloping may cause bundle collapse due to large torsional movement.
The torsional stiffness of bundle conductor is definitely no more linear. It depends on conductor
tension which is changing during galloping.
But for small movement (in any direction including torsion) the tangent stiffness may be used. That is
particularly valid for evaluating basic oscillation modes of the power line.
4.3.14 Influence of Eccentric Massa on the Line
To limit complexities, we will suppose that the additional massa is installed vertically on the lower
part of the conductor arrangement (single or bundle), at a distance “lpi” of the center of gravity of the
conductor arrangement (just like a pendulum). That massa is rigidly fixed to conductor arrangement,
so that rotation of the conductor arrangement will force all the system to rotate and the massa will
rotate of the same angle.
Some simplified evaluation of the additional torsional stiffness on each different mode “k” due to
different “Np” massa “mpi” located at different place “zpi” on the span “L” can be given by (g is the
gravity constant) :
2 kπ z pi
Np m pi l pi g sin 2 ( )
GJ add = ∑ L 2
L
1 ⎛ kπ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠
For example, a single vertical pendulum of 6 kg with an arm of 0.2 m placed at mid span (L= 400 m,
Drake single conductor) is giving an increase of the torsional stiffness for the first mode (k=1) of
about:
2 π 200
1 (6).(0.2).(9.81) sin 2 ( )
GJ add = ∑ 400 400 = 955 Nm 2 / rad
2
1 ⎛ π ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 400 ⎠
81
which is quite impressive compared to single conductor intrinsic stiffness of 170 Nm2/rad.
The same case has obviously no impact on mode 2 torsional stiffness (the sinus, with k=2, will give a
zero contribution), etc…
This is clearly emphasizing the extreme importance of added eccentric massa on power lines cable.
4.3.15 Estimation of Galloping Amplitudes

When conditions are such that a span is unstable, its amplitude will increase until nonlinearities
prevent further buildup, and amplitude will then become steady at the “limit cycle” amplitude. If that
amplitude is great enough, flashover may occur (between phases or between phases and ground
wires), or the forces applied to supports by the galloping may cause mechanical damage. It is thus of
considerable interest to determine the magnitudes of limit cycles.
It is nowadays established that the nonlinearities (many of them exist) which are really driven the limit
cycle amplitude is NOT the mechanical tension variation in the conductor but well the non linearities
coming form the aerodynamic curves.
In fact by increasing amplitudes, the variation of angle of attack is increasing as a consequence (as the
angle of attack includes the conductor speed). So that during a cycle of oscillation, the angle of attack
is varying in a range which is increasing around its initial value.
To clarify thinks, imagine we are in a Den-Hartog zone, means the system is unstable and amplitude is
growing. Imagine that we are in the case of Figure 4.2-15 (Section 4.2-15 4.2) around 180° angle of
attack. The wind speed is supposed to be 10 m/s.
The system is, for example, in a single one loop mode (say at around 0.5 Hz). The amplitude cycle is
supposed to be a pure sine wave, purely vertical (no torsion, no horizontal movement).
y = ymax sin ω y t
.
then y =ωyymaxcosωyt (4.15)
The excursions in angle of attack become
α = –tan–1 y. /V (4.16)
These excursions in α are growing with the vertical speed, means that, around initial angle of attack
(say 180° as stated above), any conductor position (in the vertical oscillation) has its own speed thus
its own angle of attack :
Application :
ymax = 0.4m
ω = 2π f = 2π (0.5) = 3.14rad / s
y& max = (3.14).(0.4) = 1.25m / s
α = 7°
so that angle of attack is changing from (180-7)°=173° to (180+7)=187°. In that range the Den-Hartog
criterion is still violated so that energy transferred by the wind to the vertical movement is still
positive.
82
But as the amplitude is growing, there will be obviously a range of angle of attack variation in which
the Den-Hartog criterion will no more be verified so that energy transferred by the wind to the power
lines is decreasing and progressively (as amplitude is still growing) coming to a zero balance. At that
moment, there are part of the cycle during which energy is injected in the system and other parts of the
cycle during which energy is extracted from the system. The equilibrium of these two parts exists for a
particular amplitude : the limit cycle amplitude. (the galloping ellipse).
In other words, large amplitudes may penetrate beyond the range where CL has a linear variation with
α or with y. , such as the region ab in Figure 4.3-x. When that occurs, the equation for the periodic
qdI
component of vertical force Fy = ( CD -CLα ) y& is no longer sufficiently accurate. The excursions
V
in α may also extend beyond linear regions of the CM versus α and CD versus α characteristics.
Furthermore, the wind speed relative to the conductor is no longer well-approximated by V, since the
contributions of y& to Vr = V 2 + &y 2 may be significant. Finally, the changes in direction of the lift and
drag forces shown in Figure 4-5 cannot be accounted for by (α is negative):
Fy ≅ L + Dα
but must be represented by

Fy ≅ L cos α + D sin α (4.17)
In many studies, limit cycle amplitudes have been estimated on the basis of energy balance. For
example, for purely vertical motion of the model in Figure 4.3-x, the energy per cycle imparted to the
conductor by the wind is
T
Eα = ∫ Fy (α ,V ) &ydt (4.18)
o
where T is the period of one cycle.

When the above large-amplitude effects are taken into account, the expression for Fy becomes
ρ
Fy dl (V 2 + ý 2 ) ⎡⎣CL (α ) cos α + CD (α ) sin α ⎤⎦
2
ρV 2 dl
=
2
(1 + tan2 ) ⎡⎣CL (α ) cos α + CD (α ) sinα ⎤⎦ (4.19)
This is usually written
Fy = qdl C y (α ) ( 1 + tan 2 α ) (4.20)
for short. Cy(α) must be calculated from measured CL versus α and CD versus α characteristics. It is
some nonlinear function of α. Equation (4.18) becomes
Eα = qdl ∫ oT C y (α ) &y ( 1+tan 2α ) dt (4.21)
in which a is determined from y& through Equation (4.16)

To determine maximum amplitudes, Equation (4.18) is sometimes integrated numerically for a
number of assumed values of ymax in search of a value for which Ea = 0. That value is the limit cycle
83
amplitude. * Equation (4.18) may also be integrated analytically by representing CL(α) and CD(α)by
power series or other functions.
These procedures may also be applied with slight modification to a conductor span galloping in sine-
shaped loops, by integrating over the loops.
When combined vertical, torsional and/or horizontal motions occur, the problem is much more
complex, not only because two or three integrations like that of Equation (4.21) must be carried out,
instead of one, but also because the forces and moments to be integrated are functions of several
independent variables. For example, α is
α = θ –tan–1 y& / V (4.22)
. .
so CD, CL and CM are functions of θ and y at least. But the relationship between θ and y , or integration
.
path in the θ, y plane, is not known until the limit cycle has been determined.
This multi-degree of freedom problem has been attacked by various analysts using different methods
including step-by- step integration of the equations of motion,(4-37) the Kryloff-Bogoliuboff first
approximation,(4-38) and other approximation methods.(4-39, 4-40) The analyses are so complex and
involve so many parameters that they are of interest primarily to researchers, and provide little useful
insight to transmission engineers.
Obviously nowadays, computer may easily solved the full complex three degrees of freedom
movement. This has been done noticely by (Shah, Poppelwell ??, Lilien-Wang, Lillien-Keutgen,
Yamaguchi, Diana, etc..)(to be completed)
Analyses that consider only vertical motions, and ignore the torsional and horizontal motions that
observably do occur in some cases of natural galloping, may not be realistic enough for reliable
prediction of galloping amplitudes. This is illustrated by Blevins and Iwan’s(4-38) numerical integration
of the equations of motion for a vertical-torsional case involving an angle section having the Cy
characteristic shown in Figure 4.3-15.
This has been largely supported in the eighties and nineties by numerous development with the same
authors as those cited for computer approach.
It is obvious that pure vertical motions cannot predict amplitude of instabilities related to torsion-
vertical coupled movement as these are not at all related to Den-Hartog criterion, so that the pure
vertical approach in such case would not give any galloping.
The system damping has been discussed in a subchapter on damping to consider for galloping
analysis.
*
Provided dEα/dymax < 0 at that amplitude.
84
Figure 4.3-15
Cy, versus characteristics of model analyzed by Blevins and Iwan. Reference 4-38.
As noted earlier, the usual method for estimating maximum vertical amplitudes is based upon energy
balance. Equation (4.21), or its equivalent for a full span, is integrated to discover the amplitude ymax
at which the net flow of energy to the span over a cycle of galloping is zero. If the damping in the
system is negligible, then given the Cy or CL and CD characteristics, predicted ymax always corresponds
to a certain maximum excursion αmax of the angle of attack, independent of wind speed. This is
because it is the integral in Equation (4.21) that makes Eα go to zero, by going itself to zero, and the
parameter of that integral can be made ymax ω/ V by means of Equations (4.15) and (4.16). Equation
(4.21) then becomes
T⎛ ω 2 y 2 max ⎞ω y
Eα = qVdl ∫ ⎜ 1+ 2
cos 2 ω t ⎟ max • Cy (4.23)
O
⎝ V ⎠ V
⎡ −1 ⎛ ω ymax ⎞⎤
⎢ − tan ⎜ V cos ω t ⎟ ⎥ dt
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
Figure 4.3-16
Measured single-loop galloping amplitudes in vertical two-conductor bundle of square conductor in 244 m span.
Solid line shows predicted maximum amplitude based upon Equation (4.20). Reference 4-43.
For the types of Cy (α) of interest here, only one value of ymax ω / V satisfies the requirement that Eα =
0. This value of ymax ω / V specifies just one value of αmax.
α max = − tan −1 (ω ymax / V ) Eα =0 (4.24)
An implication of this result is that given fy and thus ω, ymax will vary directly with wind speed V. That,
in fact, is found to be the case in wind tunnel tests involving purely vertical galloping,
(4-41, 4-42)
except at such low wind velocities that the galloping motion interacts with the shedding of
Karman vortices
The linear relationship between ymax and V is also evident in tests of actual spans equipped with
simulated “ice” and exposed to natural wind. Figure 4.3-16, for example, shows recorded values of
ymax as a function of the component of wind velocity normal to the conductor for a 244 m (800 foot)
vertical two-bundle span of 336.4 kcmil all-aluminum conductor having a square-shaped polyethylene
covering 20 x 20 mm (0.8" x 0.8").(4-43) The conductors were oriented with the sides of the square
horizontal and vertical. A bundle was employed with 406 mm (16 inch) separation and rigid spacers
every 17 m (57 feet), to enforce that orientation. The span was fully-deadended to eliminate support
point damping effects, and tension was 50% RS.
85
Interestingly, galloping first occurred in a high-frequency mode with one loop between adjacent
spacers. The top and bottom conductors moved vertically, with opposite phase and equal amplitudes,
leaving the spacers stationary. Adjacent subspans did not interact, and there was no low-frequency
galloping. The top and bottom conductors would sometimes clash.
This high-frequency mode was eliminated by applying specially-designed Stockbridge-type dampers,
tuned to its frequency, to the bottom conductor in each subspan. The span then galloped in the one-
loop full-span mode. Figure 4.3-16 pertains to that galloping. The line in Figure 4.3-16 is the predicted
relationship between ymax and V based upon integration of Equation (4.23).
Figure 4.3-17 shows results of another field test, this one carried out by J. J. Ratkowski.(4-29) The
“conductor” was a stainless steel ribbon with wooden “ice” attached in the form of a semicircle, or
“D-section,” having 54 mm (2-½”) diameter. The flat face was positioned vertically and facing the
wind. The span was 8.7 m (28.6 feet) long, deadended through springs. The two curves represent
predicted ymax versus V, using Equation (4.23), based upon CD CL data published by Cheersc)(4-23) and
by Harris.(4-45)
Both field tests show reasonable correlation between theory and experiment for purely-vertical
galloping.
The section “test in natural wind” (4.4) is detailing some additional testing in natural wind conditions,
with artificial or natural icing.
4.3.16 Traveling-Wave Buildup
Observations of actual galloping and forced galloping using ellipse shape of ice have shown that
traveling wave are not necessary present during the build-up procedure.
But some have been observed with traveling waves (one is available on our videos) with no evolution
to stationary waves.
Ratkowski, observed that, in his span, the initial stages of buildup involved traveling waves moving
back and forth in the span. The waves were of short wavelength and had small amplitude, so their
energy was small. A gust could have excited them. Because of their short wavelength, however, their
passage over any location along the span caused a brief but quite significant pulse of vertical velocity,
illustrated in Figure 4.3-18, the magnitude of that velocity being equal to the slope of the wave front
multiplied by the velocity of travel of the wave. With enough slope, y& could be great enough and
permit energy from flow from the wind into waves, causing them to build up in case of appropriate ice
shape and ice accretion position.
86
Figure 4.3-17
Measured single-loop galloping amplitudes in 8.7 m model span having D-shaped cross-section. Solid lines show
predicted maximum amplitudes based upon Equation (4.20). Reference 4-29.
Figure 4.3-18
Vertical conductor velocity resulting from passage of traveling wave.
Ratkowski’s observations showed that the small waves did indeed increase in amplitude and length,
with repeated travel along the span. They eventually became equal in length to some harmonic of the
span and were transformed to a standing wave in that harmonic.
The process described above has been observed in some cases of actual galloping, some involving
natural ice and some involving artificial ice. The process is evidently required for ice shapes for which
Eα is small or negative for small excursions in α but significantly positive for large excursions. Some
shapes experience this condition for some initial orientations but not at others.
When Eα is significantly positive at small amplitudes, galloping can build up from rest without
recourse to the wave mechanism. This was the case with the tests using square conductor
represented in Figure 4.3-16. Such buildup (without traveling waves) has been reported with
natural ice by A. T. Edwards.(4-46)
4.3.17 Other Methods
87
The various procedures, discussed or mentioned above, for estimating maximum galloping amplitudes
require knowledge of the dynamic properties of the span and of the aerodynamics of the iced
conductor involved. Estimated amplitude will vary with assumed ice characteristics. Hunt and
Richards(4-48) of the Central Electricity Research Laboratories in the U.K. have proposed a procedure
for estimating an upper limit on the maximum amplitude that is ever likely to occur. The procedure
combines a set of worst-case assumptions to arrive at the most aggressive combination of
aerodynamics and span dynamics in a way that yields an easily-calculated amplitude estimate. The
energy balance method is used, with sine-shaped loops assumed.
The worst-case aerodynamic lift characteristic that is used: CL is taken as - 0.6 for all α<O and +0.6
for all α>O(positive angle anticlockwise). CD is taken as unity for all α. Purely vertical galloping is
assumed.
These assumptions lead, through Equation (4.23), to a simple equation for the amplitude where energy
input from the wind becomes zero:
V
Ymax = 0.26 (4.32)
f
Thus, if V = 10 m/s (22 mph) and frequency is 0.2 Hz, ymax is 13 m (43 feet).
Hunt and Rowbottom(4-49) have used Equation (4.32) to estimate what minimum wind speeds would
be required to cause high enough amplitudes to result in flashover, to lines in the U.K. that had
experienced outages attributed to galloping during a 7-year period. They compared these speeds with
speeds actually recorded at meteorological stations and found encouraging correlation, although they
caution that neither the outage nor the meteorological data were obtained under ideal conditions.
Single and bundled-conductor lines were involved in the comparisons.
The concept of applying a full-strength CL regardless of angle of attack, and with a step from -0.6 to
+0.6 at α = 0, appears to be pessimistic. No simulated ice sections tested in wind tunnels to date have
displayed this characteristic, and the sudden step in CL at α = 0 implies that CD - CLα = – ∞. However,
the use of such a function in effect makes allowance for the possibility that torsional motion of the
conductor or bundle amplifies the instability in the manner discussed under “Torsional Motion,” as
well as for the possibility that non-linear torsional effects may contrive to hold the effective angle of
attack at that corresponding to maximum CL over each half cycle. Thus, the effects of experiencing the
CL characteristic could, at least in concept, arise.
Hunt and Richards based their choice of CL = ± 0.6 upon wind tunnel tests reported by Simpson and
Lawson(4-50) on one simulated ice shape. Other shapes have shown peak CL as much as three times the
value used by Hunt and Richards, however.(4-44) Some are detailed in Section 4.2 in Figures 4-2.15 to
4.2-17.Thus, the method will tend to overestimate galloping amplitudes, but the present choice of CL
may be biased in the other direction.
In spite of the robust nature of the Hunt-Richards derivation, Equation (4.32) accords well with some
observations. The factor, which is 0.26 in the equation, can be calculated for any galloping case from
the observed frequency, amplitude and wind speed. The values calculated for 66 of the cases collected
by the EEI’s Galloping Task Force(4-7) are represented in Figure 4.3-x in terms of their cumulative
distribution. The Hunt and Richards value, indicated by the arrow, is exceeded by only 9% of the
observed values. All of those derive from cases involving two- or three-loop galloping. It should be
noted that the field frequencies were calculated from final 16°C (60°F) bare-conductor sags and the
observed numbers of loops, since it was these data that were reported. The actual frequencies could be
somewhat greater or less in individual cases, but the overall effect upon the distribution should not be
great. Thus, Equation (4.32) perhaps with a slightly larger constant, provides a useful guide to
maximum expected amplitudes, if estimates are available for maximum expected wind speeds.
88
4.3.18 Estimation of Galloping Amplitudes and Ellipse Shape
Natural galloping records exists, based on analysis of motion picture film. Some hundreds of them
have been performed and will be used for the new method of design for ellipse in this book. An
example of waveform is given on Figure 4.3-19.
Figure 4.3-19 Waveform of natural galloping in a 256 m span of Grackle conductor (34 mm diam), determined
from analysis of motion picture film. Reference 4-9.
The scientific world has developed numerical tools and analytical tools to study the complete
interaction between all the degrees of freedom and including all aspect of a multi-span line (an
example of such treatment is given on Figure 4.3-20). So that we may say that the galloping is now
completely covered by its equations which are well known and defined, but the complexity of so
many interactions in a real problem make it very difficult to understand everything, even if it is
possible to simulate any case.
The practical problem for power line engineers is more related either to design clearances able to
accept galloping amplitudes or to solve galloping by appropriate retrofit method. There is little
demand asking to be able to reproduce a specific observation.
The numerical or analytical tools developed may nowadays help to both estimate galloping amplitudes
risks and also estimate the efficiencies of the retrofit method used using typical data bank of ice shape
and appropriate range of wind speed, for all possible ice accretion position on conductors. The finite
element method may even evaluate the efficiencies of interphase spacers as detailed in (Keutgen
1999). But no numerical tool can estimate properly the retrofit method based on ice shape
modification, because of the lack of aerodynamic properties of the modified conductor shape all along
the spans.
89
Figure 4.3-20A typical galloping ellipse in a vertical plane at mid-span, due to coupled flutter, the straight line attached to
each square point (all square being spaced by the same time between them, around 0.1 s) is giving access to
ice position all around the limit cycle. (calculated by University of Liège using analytical tools).
Figure 4.3-21 is giving access to a typical amplitude analysis. In this case the equi-amplitudes are
drawn in the plane (wind speed, ice accretion angle), for all other parameters fixed.
Figure 4.3-21Typical amplitude analysis. Equiamplitude have been drawn in a plane (wind speed, angle of ice accretion)
all other parameters fixed. In this case only a small range of ice accretion may lead to large amplitudes, in a
narrow range around -20 to -50° at the anchoring level. It may be seen that there is a need a very particular
data combination to get a dangerous galloping. For example a given ice (-40° location at anchoring level)
may give a galloping of 8 m for wind speed around 10 m/S but would not give any galloping for wind speed
higher than 15 m/s or lower than 5 m/s.
4.3.19 Effect of Ice Thickness on Amplitude

Figure 4.3-22 showed the distribution of observed values of fYmax/ V, and indicated that for the most
part they were about evenly spread over the range 0.05 to 0.30. Dispersion in fYmax/ V would be
expected because of the great variety in ice thicknesses, deposited angles of attack, and span dynamic
characteristics. The largest values off fYmax/ V should be associated with the most aggressive
combinations of those factors.
It is not possible to separate these factors in the field cases represented in Figure 4.3-x. However, it
appears from study of the data that the small to moderate ice thicknesses tend to be more aggressive
90
than thick ones. Figure 4.3-23 shows the correlation of observed fYmax/ V with reported (4-7) ice
thickness. The ice thicknesses are the maxima: if ice was deposited only on one side, the maximum
thickness of that deposit was reported, not the average around the conductor’s girth. Cases in which
the deposit was “only a film,” “very thin,” “not visible” and “none” are plotted in the 1 to 2 mm
thickness range. The cases where “none” was reported were all associated with temperatures in the
freezing range and, in some cases, with records of glazing conditions at local airports.
It is evident from Figure 4.3-23 that galloping occurred much more frequently with thin ice than with
thick, and that fYmax/ V tends to become smaller for thicknesses greater than 6 mm (1/4 inch).
The tendency would be even more obvious, were the calculations of f based upon loaded sags, which
were not available. Frequency and sag D are related by the equations *
f = 0.56n / D for D in meters (4.33)
= 1.00n / D for D in feet,
Figure 4.3-22Cumulative distribution of observed values of fYmax/ V based upon field reports.
where n is number of loops. Use of loaded sags would tend to lower the plotted positions of the cases
involving larger ice thickness more than those with thinner ice. The apparently reduced aggressiveness
of thick ice may arise from several effects. A “wrapped-on” deposit with its less effective lift
characteristics, would obviously be a thick one. Torsional coupling effects could also be involved.
The two cases having greatest fYmax/ V had ice thickness of 6 mm (1/4 inch). In both of these cases, the
conductors were fully-coated, with the point of greatest thickness directly to leeward.
*
These equations are not accurate for single-loop galloping of fully deadended spans with sag ratios greater than about .01
to .015.
91
Figure 4.3-23
Observed combinations of fYmax/ V and maximum ice thickness, based upon field reports. Circled points pertain to
bundled conductors.
92
4.3.20 Tension Variations
When a span gallops with one loop in the span, the arc length of the catenary tends to change, as
illustrated in Figure 4.3-24. If the span has suspension supports, the supporting insulators swing in the
direction of the line, feeding the variations in the secant span length into adjacent spans. If the span is
fully-deadended, however, such swings cannot occur and the conductor experiences longitudinal
strain with resulting significant variations in conductor tension. These tension variations are great
enough that high galloping amplitudes can cause the conductor to go slack at some level of the
galloping cycle. It is not true to say that when such slackness is approached, amplitude can increase no
further. In fact amplitudes of galloping can overpass the sag as can be seen on our videos of actual
galloping. This particularly true for distribution lines where several times the sag may be reached. But
most of transmission lines have their amplitude limited around the sag as their “conductor span”
parameter is less than 0.1
Figure 4.3-24 Actual observed galloping amplitudes on (left) single conductor line and (right) bundle conductors
(extracted from Lilien-Havard 2000)
A deadended span can only go slack if its arc length can be reduced by more than the elastic stretch in
the conductor, by lifting it into a straight, zero sag, position. Now the difference between the arc
length Sα and the secant length S of a shallow catenary is well approximated by the equation
S a − S 8D 2
ea = = (4.34)
S 3S 2
where D is sag. eα, is the strain a conductor would undergo rising from sag D to the straight If eα
exceeds the elastic strain in the conductor in its at-rest position due to tension, the conductor can go
slack before becoming straight. If eα is less, however, the conductor cannot go slack, regardless of
amplitude.
Most lines are strung with unloaded 0°C tensions in the range 20 to 33% of RS, and their elastic
strains are generally in the range .0006 to .0016. These correspond, by the above equation, to bare-
wire sag ratios of .015 to .024. A span that would go slack in the no-sag position with ice will also do
it without ice, so the potential for going slack can be judged from bare-wire sags. Thus, if the
approach of slackness does in fact limit galloping amplitudes, most deadended spans with 0°C sag
ratios greater than .024 should be incapable of one-loop galloping at amplitudes approaching sag,
while deadended spans with sag ratios less than .015 should be capable of much greater amplitudes in
the one loop mode.
Figure 4.3-25 contains data on a number of observed cases of galloping, most of them collected by the
Galloping Task Force of T&D Committee of EEI.(4-7) The points in the figure represent galloping
93
cases in spans that were deadended at both ends, were on pin-type insulators, or were supported from
strut insulators. The number identifying each point is the number of galloping loops observed in the
span. The ordinate is the observed ratio of peak-to-peak amplitude to barewire sag, while the abscissa
is the bare-wire sag ratio. The data show that single-loop galloping was not observed for sag ratios
greater than .023. Amplitudes reached as much as four times sag for sag ratios less than .018.
Figure 4.3-25
Observed combinations of amplitude divided by sag and sag ratio, for spans with fixed supports.
Figure 4.3-26
Same as Figure 4.3-25 but for spans supported in suspension at both ends.
94
Figure 4.3-27
Same as Figure 4.3-25 but for spans in suspension at only one end.
Suspension spans may gallop to amplitudes greater than sag without going slack. Figure 4.3-26 shows
data similar to that of Figure 4.3-25, but for suspension spans only. Several single-loop cases occurred
for sag ratios greater than .023, two of them with amplitudes slightly exceeding sag.
Figure 4.3-27 shows the same type of data for spans that are deadended at only one end.
The patterns in Figures 4.3-25 to 4.3-27 are distorted by the use of 16°C (60°F) final sags, which were
available, rather than 0°C sags existing at the time galloping was observed.
The slackness effect may come into play in long suspension spans, if the swing of insulator strings is
great enough to effectively “deadend” the spans at some point in the galloping cycle. This is
illustrated in Figure 4.3-28. The figure shows a three-span section between deadends, and catches the
galloping motion at the point where the tangent span is at the top of its travel. At this point the end
spans are in effect fully deadended, and the tangent span is slack.
This effect appears at lower amplitudes of galloping when the insulator string or suspension linkage is
short. That fact probably accounts in part for the lower incidence of singleloop galloping in ground
wires than in phase conductors, indicated in Section 4.2 under “Types of Motion,” The expected
limitation on single-loop amplitudes caused by the mechanism illustrated in Figure 4.3-28 has been
used in estimating required phase-to-phase clearances.(4-51) The slackness effect can be achieved at
lower amplitudes by use of inverted V-string supports at tangent towers.
Figure 4.3-28
Illustration of large amplitude galloping permitting a tangent span to go slack.
4.3.21 How Many Loops Will Occur?
95
The several simplified methods described above for estimating galloping amplitude (energy balance
and that of Hunt and Richards) all lead to an estimate of the parameter fYmax/ V. Amplitude ymax can
only be estimated for some assumed wind velocity if the frequency is known. The fundamental
frequency of suspension spans can be calculated from sag, but the actual frequency may be the
fundamental or some harmonic of it. The expected amplitude is strongly influenced by the harmonic
of the span in which galloping occurs. For example, if wind speed is 10 m/s and sag is 5 m, then by
Equation (4.33), f is .25 Hz max for one-loop galloping, and by Equation (4.32), ymax is 10.4 m. For
two-loop galloping, f is 0.50 Hz and ymax is only 5.2 m.
Several effects influence how many loops will actually occur.
• Deadending clearly does, as discussed immediately above, tending to exclude the single-loop
mode.
• Twisting of the conductor under the eccentric weight (case of single conductor lines) of the
growing ice deposit tends to result in a more aerodynamically stable ice shape at midspan than
near the ends, tending to favor two loop galloping over single loop.
• The most important factor is nevertheless the “Irvine” coefficient as defined in overview. In fact
fundamental mode is no more a sine wave for typical (but not all) high voltage power lines. We
called it “pseudo-one loop”. The frequency of the pseudo one loop may be larger than the two
loops mode. In such case the two loops is obviously more quickly excited as it needs a lower wind
speed to be launched.
• The loops which are existing are obviously those who are unstable and this may result of a
complex mix of structural and aerodynamic data, like torsion/vertical frequencies detuning. It
depends on the galloping mechanism. In case of Den-Hartog type, If the wind speed is strong
enough all the modes are unstable below a certain frequency which is not true for coupled flutter
type of galloping.
• In a multi-span arrangement, there are strong coupling between all spans, both in vertical and
torsion at least. True instability may occur in some span only (due to appropriate structural and
aerodynamic data with appropriate wind speed and wind direction) but all the spans of the section
will move, the stable one being forced to move due to coupling owing to suspension insulators.
The forced movement shape will depend on actual excitation both by end of the span displacement
(insulator movement) and by tension variation.
• Due to coupling between modes owing to tension variation in large amplitude, even a two loops
galloping in one span will force pseudo-one loop to operate.
With these effects aside, the number of loops appears to be governed by chance, which is not the case.
Consider a suspension span with uniform ice section along its length, the section having such shape
that Den Hartog’s criterion is satisfied: CD + CLα < 0. The statement that the criterion is satisfied
means that small motions will grow in amplitude, and the statement applies to motions in one or two
or any number of loops. Whatever mode is present initially will grow. That mode will continue to
grow until a limit cycle is reached. When such a limit cycle is attained then, as explained by
Myerscough (ref xxx), other modes cannot grow. The mode that has reached limit cycle has, in effect,
preempted the wind’s supply of galloping energy and locked other modes out. This is not necessarily
true as wind speed is far from being constant and building up of some modes may be affected by ice
orientation (which depends on wind speed) which has also some effects on frequency tuning, thus on
galloping modes and mechanisms.
Note that there must be an initial disturbance in order for galloping to build up. In field spans, such
disturbances are thought to arise from gusts striking the span. The choice as to the number of loops in
which galloping finally occurs is thought to be governed by two effects. The first has to do with the
96
combinations of modes that are present in disturbances excited by gusts. The second pertains to the
relative rates of growth of the different modes.
The simplest gust is one that is wide enough that it strikes the whole span uniformly. Such gusts tend
to excite primarily the fundamental mode. For example, if the operating point of the ice section (its
angle of attack) is such that the span experiences lift, then the increase in wind speed that attends the
gust will increase that lift, giving the span an impulse in the vertical direction. The span’s response to
this impulse will be largely in the one-loop mode, with only small response in higher modes.
In natural winds, the gust fronts have randomly-distributed widths, with many in the 20 to 100 m
range at elevations above ground typical of overhead conductors. These limited width gusts excite
disturbances that contain several harmonics of the span simultaneously. Which of these harmonics is
dominant in any case depends upon the width and spanwise location of the gust, upon the length of the
span, and upon the duration of the gust relative to the span’s fundamental frequency. Regardless of
span length, the relative intensities of the several harmonics that are excited vary, gust-to-gust.
However, in short spans the fundamental one-loop mode is emphasized more often than the higher
modes, whereas in longer spans the typical run of gust sizes tends to excite the higher modes more
strongly.
When the mean wind speed and the ice deposit attain conditions where galloping may occur, all of the
gust-excited modes that exist in the span at that moment start to build up. If the one-, two-, and three-
loop modes are present in the current gust-induced disturbance, all three begin to grow independently
of one another. They do not, however, all grow at the same rate. Energy effects governing their
buildup are such that they all experience the same percentage increase in amplitude per cycle of
motion; they all experience the same (negative) logarithmic decrement. Thus, if they all start from the
same amplitude, the two-loop mode grows twice as fast per unit time as does the one-loop mode, and
the three-loop mode grows three times as fast, because of their higher frequencies.
The different modes or harmonics grow independently of one another as long as the angle-of-attack
excursions that result from their combined motions remain in the linear range of the CL characteristic:
region a-b of Figure 4.3-x, for example. When these excursions penetrate the nonlinear regions of the
CL characteristic, the energy supply to all modes is reduced, and all grow more slowly. The mode that
is dominant at this point is affected least, however, and continues to grow. As it does, it reduces the
coherence of the lift forces acting on the span with the motions in the other modes, and they
eventually die out. In the end, the mode that won the buildup race settles alone into its limit cycle. See
the description earlier in this section pertaining to Figure 4.3-xx, relative to this effect.
Buildup is thus an “unfair” race among modes that are given (usually) unequal starts. The outcome
varies from one occasion to the next, even in the same span. The starting conditions tend to give the
edge to the fundamental mode in short spans and to the two- and three-loop modes in longer spans.
Deadending and conductor twisting effects, noted earlier, modify the odds.
Several of the methods being used or tried for preventing high-amplitude galloping appear to have the
effect of “fixing” the race. They prevent or retard the growth of the fundamental, one-loop mode,
giving the higher modes a better chance to build up and preempt the limit cycle. The lower amplitudes
that attend the higher modes, because of their higher frequencies, are less likely to cause flashover.
All of the galloping control systems that attach to and restrain the motion of the conductor at discrete
points remote from the span ends (interphase spacers, aerodynamic drag dampers, seismic dampers
and torsion control devices) are thought to be affected by this mechanism.
97
4.4 TESTING IN NATURAL WINDS (UNDER REVISION)
Data on conductor galloping may be collected by reproducing conditions propitious to conductor
galloping using artificial ice shapes on a full scale test line, or by doing field observations on existing
lines subjected to conductor galloping.
Those approaches are described in the following sections with their pros and cons.
4.4.1 Tests Using Artificial Ice

As mentioned previously, to obtain test results in a relatively short time and with a well defined test
set-up, it is possible to install artificial ice shapes on the conductor of a test line. There are few such
lines in the world. The two most well known still in service, are installed in Japan (where many such
sites exist, the most famous one being Mogami test line) and in Canada (IREQ facilities). These two
installations may have up to three suspension spans under testing (total length of 1.6 km). Japan
researchers are conducting such test for more than thirty years(Anjo et al. 1974).
Description of Artificial Ice Shapes
Different artificial ice shapes have been used to induce galloping on test lines. The most common
artificial ice shapes used on test lines are the D, crescent, triangular and D-modified shapes.
Reproductions of natural ice shapes have also been used and the crescent shape is one of those.
However, on those tests, the same shape is used along the span while on a real accretion it varies
according to the torsional stiffness of the cable which decreases as it goes further from the tower. The
wind speed also varies along the span and with the height of the cable and may also influences the
amount and shape of ice accretion.
The square prism which induces galloping in wind tunnel (Parkinson and Smith 1964) was tested at
IREQ test line during four weeks. The use of such a prism would have been advantageous since it
would have induced galloping with winds coming from both sides of the test line. However, on a
27.8 mm ACSR conductor, it induced only torsional instability with a vertical displacement limited to
an amplitude of the order of the conductor diameter. This difference of behaviour was explained by
the low torsional stiffness of the conductor compared with the wind tunnel model. However, Edwards
(CIGRE 1989) obtained 0.5 m galloping amplitude with such a shape but it was much less prone to
galloping on their test line than a D-shape.
When testing with artificial ice shapes, one must take into account some practical considerations like
the low torsional stiffness of a single conductor. Consequently, on single conductors, it is easier to
install artificial ice shapes having their center of gravity coincident in a horizontal plane with the
center of the conductor. Because of the high torsional stiffness of bundles, a D-modified shape which
has its center of gravity outside the conductor may be used on it.
A more complete description of the aerodynamic characteristics of artificial and natural ice shapes
may be found in Section 4.4.
Summary of Test Line Results
---Chapter to be modified to include a summary of test line results in the world.----------------------
The next paragraph will explain a complex case of testing in natural wind, full-scale, artificial ice
while studying the effect of interphase spacers. These tests have been performed at Mogami test line
in Japan.
98
Figure 4.4-1 Artificial triangular snow model.
Figure 4.4-2 Configuration of Mogami test line.
Figure 4.4-3 Test sample.
99
Figure 4.4-4 Interphase spacers’ targets.
100
Figure 4.4-5 Interphase spacers’s bending stress.
From their measurements and observations, they concluded that the installation of interphase spacers
can reduce the galloping amplitude and tension variations by a factor of approximately 50% compared
with the system without interphase spacers.
Part of a test result from the IREQ test line (Van Dyke and Laneville 2004) are also described
hereafter:
101
Description of Test Line
The tests were carried out at IREQ - Hydro-Québec’s test line in Varennes, which consists of three
suspension spans and two dead-end spans (Figure 4.4-6 and Figure 4.4-7). It is built on agricultural
land, which offers the possibility of obtaining a low turbulent wind regime conducive to severe wind-
induced conductor galloping, and its orientation is perpendicular to the predominant wind direction.
The test line comprises testing positions for horizontal arrangements of conductors as well as tower
arms allowing for a vertical arrangement of conductors.
Figure 4.4-6 Line set up with interphase spacers
Figure 4.4-7 Test line

The tests were performed on single Condor conductors suspended with I-insulator strings. The
conductor has an outside diameter of 27.8 mm, a mass per unit length of 1.522 kg/m and a rated
tensile strength (RTS) of 127 kN. The conductor is made of 54 aluminium strands over seven steel
strands.
D-sections(Edwards 1970), which are generally assumed to produce severe galloping, were used to
induce conductor galloping without being dependent on the temperature and precipitations (Figure
4.4-8). The center of gravity of the D-section and the conductor were coincident. The sections were
attached to each conductor in the middle span only. Their mass per unit length was 1.0 kg/m and their
height 75 mm. When covered with D-sections, the mechanical tension of the conductor was 37%
RTS.
Figure 4.4-8 D-section

One of the tests reported here was performed on a single conductor while the second test was done on
a vertical arrangement of three conductors linked with four interphase spacers per span. The
interphase spacers were located at one third and one fourth of the span length (see Figure 4.4-6). The
phase to phase distance was 3.7 m. The interphase spacers consisted of one polymer insulator with an
102
articulation at each end where it was attached to the conductor. This articulation allowed rotation in a
longitudinal-vertical plane.
Conductor displacement was monitored using two piezoresistive accelerometers and two video
cameras. The wind speed, yaw and elevation angles were monitored by means of four bivane-type
Gill anemometers located at the conductors level (Figure 4.4-6). A fifth anemometer of the same type
was located at mid-span at a height of 10 m.
All the data collected during the test period were processed by software developed at IREQ, some of
which is based on Matlab software. Accelerometer signals were recorded at a rate of 32 pts/s during
128 s and wind data were sampled at a rate of 4 pts/s for a total of 256 s while the data of one
anemometer was also recorded at 32 pts/s. The video cameras were synchronized with the
accelerometers.
The acquisition cycle was repeated every 10 min. Characteristic parameters of wind conditions, such
as mean velocity, yaw, elevation angle and turbulence, were determined and stored. The
accelerometer signals were processed to determine the maximum conductor displacement along the
span during each recording period.
Results
Test line results without interphase spacers

The wind exposure at the height of the conductor’s center of gravity is shown on a polar graph in for
the test without interphase spacers. The 0-180º line is coincident with the line direction. Wind
exposure is shown only for the azimuth range of 180 to 360º, since galloping occurs only with the
wind facing the flat surface of the D-section. It corresponds to winds blowing from the south-west
side of the line. The maximum wind speed attained for this test was 18 m/s with an azimuth of 222º.
The conductor vertical displacement was normalized with the D-section height (A/h - peak to peak).
It is shown as a function of wind velocity for different ranges of direction measured from the
perpendicular to the line on while Figures 4.4-6 and 4.4-7 show the same information in a different
form. Comparing the three figures with the wind exposure, it can be seen that there is no apparent
relationship between the conductor vertical displacement and the azimuth.
Figure 4.4-5 shows that the onset of galloping appears at 2.5 m/s.
Test line results with interphase spacers

The same graphs have been generated for the test with interphase spacers (Figures 4.4-8 to 4.4-11). In
this case, the maximum wind speed is much lower: 10 m/s with an azimuth of 327º. However, the
amplitudes reached are higher: 65 m/m peak to peak. Based on Figures 4.4-9 to 4.4-11, it is quite
clear in this case that the conductor vertical displacement is related to the wind’s direction. Maximum
amplitudes are attained at angles close to 50º from the perpendicular to the conductor and decrease to
a minimum when the wind is perpendicular or parallel to the conductor.
Figure 4.4-9 shows that the onset of galloping appears slightly below 2 m/s, which is close to the
previous result. This is not surprising since this value depends on the system damping, which is
similar for the two configurations (Parkinson and Smith 1964).
103
Results without interphase spacers: <-- Test line orientation --> 5
Wind velocity (m/s)
10 15 20
0 180
Azimuth (degree)
Wind velocity (m/s)
<-- Test line orientation --> 5 10 15 20
0 180
Azimuth (degree)
330 210
330 210
300 240
270
300 240
Figure 4.4-13 Wind exposure.
270
Figure 4.4-9 Wind exposure. 70
60 0 to 20
o
70 20 to 70
o
50
A/h (pp)
o
60
o
0 to 20 70 to 90
20 to 70
o 40
50 o
30
A/h (pp)
70 to 90
40
20
30
10
20
0
10 0 5 10 15 20
0 Wind velocity (m/s)
0 5 10 15 20 Figure 4.4-14 Amplitude for different ranges
Wind velocity (m/s) of wind direction from the perpendicular to the
Figure 4.4-10 Amplitude for different ranges of line.
wind direction from the perpendicular to the
line. 70
0 to 5 m/s
60
5 to 9 m/s
70
50 9 to 18 m/s
60 0 to 5 m/s
A/h (pp)
5 to 9 m/s 40
50 9 to 18 m/s 30
A/h (pp)
40
20
30
10
20
0
10 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
0 Wind azimuth (degree)
180 210 240 270 300 330 360 Figure 4.4-15 Amplitude for different ranges of
Wind azimuth (degree) wind velocity.
Figure 4.4-11 Amplitude for different ranges of
wind velocity. 70 70
60 60
70 70 50 50
A/h (pp)
60 60 40 40
50 50 30 30
A/h (pp)
40 40 20 20
30 30 10 10
20 20 1618
0
0 360 14
10 10 Win 330 1012 /s)
d a 300270 68 (m
0 16018 zim 240 4 i ty
Win360
330 14 /s)
12 uth 210
(de 180 0
2 loc
d a 300270 8 10 y (m gre d ve
zim 240 4 6 it e) in
uth 210
02 l oc W
(de 180
gre d ve Figure 4.4-16 Conductor amplitude envelope.
e) in
W
Figure 4.4-12 Conductor amplitude envelope.
Results with interphase spacers:
104
Discussion and Conclusion
Based on the results from the preceding section, it appears that the interphase spacers play an
important role in the behaviour of the D-section regarding galloping amplitudes and
contradict some observations from the field which indicate that conductors are generally less
prone to galloping when equipped with interphase spacers.
This may be attributed to the fact that in the field, the natural ice accretion may be different on
each conductor and one conductor may act as a damper while the other one alone would
experience severe galloping. Moreover, the interphase spacers contribute to increase
conductor torsional stiffness. The first torsional resonant frequency, which in our case was
close to the fourth vertical mode, is then moved further apart from the first vertical resonant
frequencies. Hence, the torsional mode may then be coupled with a higher vertical mode
which generally corresponds to lower amplitudes.
On the other hand, when there are no interphase spacers, conductors tilt under the effect of
drag. Consequently, instead of remaining vertical, the initial angle of incidence on the D-
section varies between 0º and 20º, depending on the perpendicular component of the wind
speed. This may explain why the amplitude does not increase much with the wind speed
when there are no interphase spacers since the angle of incidence exceeds the range of
galloping instability. However, when there are interphase spacers, even for high wind speed,
the conductors will remain mainly vertical because they are linked together at two points
along the span. The initial angle of incidence on the D-section remains the same regardless of
wind speed.
The results obtained on a D-section exposed to turbulent flow in a wind tunnel (Havard and
Pohlman 1984) show that for angles of incidence below 9º, the aerodynamic force coefficients
have a null gradient and no propensity for galloping. At higher angles of incidence, the D-
section becomes unstable, which means that it needs an initial excitation to become unstable
and, consequently, it acts as a hard oscillator. The D-section becomes stable again above 41º.
The fact that the D-section acts as a hard oscillator may be circumvented if there is an initial
angle of incidence combined with a dynamic torsion of the conductor. This may explain why
the configuration without interphase spacers experiences galloping for winds perpendicular to
the conductor while the configuration with interphase spacers does not. As mentioned earlier,
the first configuration is more prone to torsion since it is more flexible and its first mode is
close to a lower vertical mode than the second configuration. The higher torsional flexibility
of the configuration without interphase spacers may facilitate the initiation of galloping but it
may also set a lower bound for galloping amplitudes since the conductor torsion added to the
apparent angle of attack (ratio of conductor speed over wind velocity) may bring the
conductor out of its range of instability at lower amplitudes.
Regarding conductor galloping for wind directions that are not perpendicular to the conductor,
it may be interesting to notice that in this case, the wind flows around a D-section which
seems to have a different aspect ratio. For example, for a direction of about 50º from the
perpendicular to the line, the apparent aspect ratio of the D-section becomes 0.78 instead of
0.5. Nakamura et al (Nakamura et al. 1980) have measured the aerodynamic characteristics
of D-sections with different aspect ratios in a turbulent flow. They have shown that D-
sections with aspect ratios above 0.73 will experience soft galloping (a galloping that starts
spontaneously from a resting state). Figures 4.4-6 and 4.4-10 show that the amplitude reaches
a maximum at about 50º from the perpendicular to the line. At mean angles closer to the
perpendicular to the line, the D-section may still act partly as a soft oscillator because the
wind direction varies continuously during the acquisition and, consequently, there may be
105
some excursions in direction that are in the range of a soft oscillator. Nakamura has shown
that the D-section will experience soft galloping up to an aspect ratio of 1.5, which in our case
corresponds to an angle of incidence of 72º. There are no data available above those angles.
This last result emphasizes the fact that a mathematical model based on aerodynamic
coefficients corresponding only to a direction perpendicular to the section considered will not
provide adequate results for different wind directions. Moreover, as shown in the case with
interphase spacers, non perpendicular winds may be the most severe.
4.4.2 Tests with Natural Ice

There are several ways of testing in natural wind:
Wait for appropriate icing period during windy time, which has been done in many countries
in the world where permanent test station were installed in the regions favouring galloping,
these test stations being equipped with appropriate material (camera, tension recording) and
data processing to detect in real time to record or not some events. Remote control is
sometimes possible, but costly. Nowadays internet facilities may help a lot using Webcam on
site. The measurement of tension and other parameters are not an easy task due to awful
meteorological conditions during which most of galloping occurs and due to the fact that such
measurement, for some of them, have to be installed on the conductor, on the tower n, in
between tower and conductor at anchoring level, etc… which force to be protected against
lightning and harsh environment (electromagnetic field noticely).
There is no known easy way, actually, to measure directly the low frequency amplitude of
galloping. Most of existing methods are using post treatment of camera records.
Some temporary installation may also be installed in windy regions, like the experience
explained in.
Some rare operating line (some sections) are (were) under permanent supervision, like in
Belgium in the Ardennes (Villeroux) where a 400 kV four spans section have been recorded
for more than ten years with different bundle line arrangement.
Such “tests” can be done by chance, just being informed on actual galloping existing on an
operating line. There are some famous cases, like the one in U.K. in 1986 when galloping was
observed about four days long on quad bundle lines. Many videos have been taken and some
can be seen on the joined CD-ROM. The most classical real time detection of galloping
remains the recurrent circuit-breaker operation, several times in a few minutes, due to
clearance problems in the galloping phases.
Last but not least, there are some after-galloping observations, when “somebody” has seen
something. In fact the first galloping observed were seen by lineman who reported to their
chief such huge amplitude. Nobody believed them until the first video had been taken. Some
unexplained consequences can clearly be the output of some galloping, like bundle twist,
abnormal insulator failure, tower legs troubles, spacer failure, conductor damages (up to
breakage).
The aim of such testing must be clearly established and may be multifold:
• To better understand the phenomenon (kind of icing events, wind speeds, torsional
behaviour, range of tension variations, shape of galloping, amplitudes)
106
• To test retrofit methods in actual conditions
• To validate simulation tools
The two last cases need some comments:
Retrofit systems based on aerodynamic control devices or torsional control devices must be
validated with natural icing or artificial ice with natural shapes or else the interaction
mechanism will not be proven adequately.
To validate simulation tools, it is required to obtain all data of the tested structures, to avoid
side effect. In such case, artificial ice is recommended, because it is the only way to get access
to the aerodynamic coefficients, which can be measured in wind tunnel before hand. It is
needed to validate the model with different kind of galloping mechanism (Den Hartog and
coupled flutter at least).
The reader may refer to and to section 1179657 to have access to such full scale tests in
natural ice and wind.
It is important to mention also that extensive field trials were carried out on operating power
lines, mainly in North America, including systematic observation of motions of the overhead
conductors during galloping occurrences. The main purpose of those tests was to validate the
efficiency of detuning pendulums. The field sites were set up to include identical spans of
conductors with and without the galloping controls subject to the same conditions of ice or
wet snow and wind. The program generated an extensive database on galloping motions with
and without the control devices.
Galloping Observations by Measurement and Data Analysis
Instrumented test lines and instrumented sections in operating lines are particularly valuable
in advancing understanding of galloping, since they produce numerical records. It was
pointed out in Chapter X that galloping can occur in a number of different modes, and that
these often appear in combinations. Recorded data on variables that are involved in galloping
can be used to determine which modes were present in particular galloping events, and can
often permit estimates of galloping amplitudes, even if amplitude was not directly recorded.
Doing this requires detailed knowledge of the modes that can occur in the span or line section
involved.
Simultaneous presence of several modes is shown most clearly in the spectra of recorded
variables. Figure 4.4-17 is a spectrum obtained during a galloping episode at the Belgium test
line at Villeroux. The recorded variable was the conductor tension at one of the dead ends of
the four-span section. The spectrum shows 12 major peaks, suggesting that 12 different
modes were active.
Analysis of the possible normal modes of the section was carried out using the procedures of.
Several of these modes are pictured in Figure 4.4-18, identified by their frequencies. It should
be noted that the motions that occur in natural galloping are not strictly identical to the
undamped free normal modes obtained from the procedures of, since aerodynamic forces are
not taken into account. However, those forces are small compared with the inertial and elastic
forces at work in the conductors. Thus, they cause only small perturbations in the gross
features of the normal modes, i.e., the frequencies and amplitudes of motion and tension
variations. The free normal modes provide a good, if imperfect, representation of the major
features of actual galloping.
Table lists the major spectral peaks of Figure 4.4-17, and associates many of them with
eigenmodes of the section. Some of these peaks reflect the tension variations that are
107
synchronous with the galloping motion, such as the eigenmode at 0.357 Hz, and those at
1.111, 1.316, 1.406 and 2.072 Hz.
Other peaks reflect tension variation due to nonlinear effects. When galloping amplitude
becomes large enough, stretching of the conductor at its extreme displacements causes
increases in tension twice each cycle. This introduces a tension variation at twice the
frequency of the eigenmode. For example, the peaks at 0.66 and 0.74 Hz arise from
autonomous two-loop galloping in the 397.3 and 361.4 m spans, which had resonant
frequencies of 0.341 and 0.375 Hz, respectively. The eigenmode at 1.316 Hz causes a peak at
1.31 Hz directly, and one at 2.63 Hz due to nonlinear effect.
The peak at 0.36 Hz could be due to the 0.357 Hz eigenmode directly, or to nonlinear effect of
the 0.1819 Hz eigenmode. It would require additional information, such as from an insulator
swing transducer, to distinguish between the two possibilities.
The peaks at 1.53 and 1.89 Hz are not associated with eigenmodes of the recorded phase. A
1.89 Hz peak was present in the tension spectrum of another phase, and probably caused
motion in the deadend structure that was reflected in the signal leading to Figure 4.4-17. The
1.53 Hz peak has the same frequency as subspan resonance in another phase. It also
corresponds to the longitudinal resonance of the four-span section. The peak may be
associated with this coincidence.
Detailed knowledge of the eigenmodes associated with the spectral peaks permits calculation
of the galloping amplitudes from the spectrum ordinates. Table 3.1 shows these estimated
amplitudes reported as the maximum peak-to-peak amplitude in the section. Note that the
source of the 0.36 Hz peak is ambiguous. That peak may mean either 2.5 m in the 0.182 Hz
eigenmode, or 0.19 m in the 0.357 Hz eigenmode. Fortunately, on-site observers were present
during the galloping and could not have failed see the 0.1819 Hz mode. Thus, the tension
peak at 0.36 Hz must have been from the 0.357 Hz eigenmode directly. The observers did
report seeing, and filming, two-loop galloping in the 361.4 m span with amplitude of 3 m.
This is consistent with the 2.91 m calculated from the tension spectrum.
The combination of recorded data from an instrumented test line supported by observer
reports, with detailed analysis of the possible galloping modes, permits greater insight into the
complexity of galloping in nature. In the example described here, there are three different
modes with amplitudes larger than 2 metres simultaneously present. The picture that emerges
highlights the challenge faced by on-site observers in attempting to describe galloping events
verbally.
Table 4.4-1 Correlation of Spectral Peaks with Eigenmodes
Spectrum Effect on Est. max ampl.
Eigenmode frequency
frequency tension (m pk-pk)
0.33 0.167 Hz Nonlinear 2.42
0.36 0.182 Hz Nonlinear 2.49
0.36 0.357 Hz Direct 0.19
1.13 1.111 Hz Direct 0.40
1.31 1.316 Hz Direct 0.15
1.38 1.406 Hz Direct 0.014
1.53 Subspan gallop in another phase?
1.89 Transfer from another phase.
2.07 2.072 Hz Direct 0.64
108
2.63 1.316 Hz Nonlinear 0.27
Figure 4.4-17 Spectrum of conductor tension, Sensor 4, Villeroux, 4 April 1989.
Figure 4.4-18 Eigenmode shapes.
How to Collect Field Data

The way to collect data from a galloping event has been well described in a previous work
done by this same task force. Examples of galloping mode shapes, how to measure galloping
ellipse and how to install cameras during galloping observations are shown in Figure 4.4-19
and galloping reporting forms are shown in Figure 4.4-20 to 4.4-22.
Since galloping instability depends not only on structural characteristics but mainly on ice
shape aerodynamic force coefficients and on wind conditions, it is particularly interesting to
109
evaluate them adequately. A review of methods and systems for collecting icing data has
been done recently Moreover, there are still some additional informations which might be
gathered during or after the galloping event such as the possibility to collect ice samples that
have fallen from the cables or in extreme cases, because the line collapsed and the cables lie
on the ground. In either case, security of the personnel must be considered first but this will
not be covered here.
When collecting ice samples, the following procedure must be followed:
Identify the conductor or ground wire or OPGW from which the ice sample comes from;
Identify the span no;
Measure the distance from the nearest tower since the ice shape may vary along the span due
to the variation of torsional rigidity of the cable;
Cut a section of the ice section and take a picture with an object of known dimension (a rule is
ideal for that purpose);
Make a sketch of the ice sample section with its main dimensions indicating the orientation of
the ice section relative to the horizontal plane;
Put the ice sample in a plastic bag to prevent loss by sublimation and keep it in a cold place;
As soon as possible, measure the mass of the ice sample to deduce its mass per unit length;
It is possible to prepare plaster molds of the ice samples for future aerodynamic
characterization in a wind tunnel.
110
111
Figure 4.4-19 Field observations of overhead line galloping, ref.
112
Figure 4.4-20 Galloping reporting forms, ref.
113
114
115
4.5 Galloping Protection Methods: Introduction
A variety of methods for protecting against galloping or its effects are currently in use or
under field evaluation. They fall generally into the following categories:
• Ice build-up prevention, ice melting or ice removal
• Special conductors with aerodynamic or ice phobic properties
• Increased clearances between phases and ground wires
• Interphase spacers to reduce phase to phase approaches
• Aerodynamic drag dampers to modify wind effects during galloping
• Torsional motion control devices
• Limiting longitudinal conductor motions
• Bundle geometry modification to decouple bundles and to promote twisting of the
subconductors
A survey of the various known galloping control methods was recently completed under the
aegis of CIGRE and published in ELECTRA (Wolfs et al. 2000). The various control
approaches were classified as “retrofit” or “design” systems. The ELECTRA paper also
includes a list of discontinued methods. This chapter will focus on control devices which are
considered to be practical, and in use, at least on a trial basis, on operating lines. Where
possible practical issues relating to ease of installation and side effects attributable to the
devices will be summarized. A table forms the final section of this chapter, combining the
key information about the application of each of the devices in current use. The devices will
be discussed in this chapter including, where possible, the following aspects:
• For which type(s) of weather exposure and line construction has each device been tested
and applied.
Galloping can be caused by a range of different conditions, namely the type, density and
adhesion of the ice, be it glaze, wet snow, or hoar frost, and the speed, direction, and
turbulence of the wind. Most of the North American experience is with galloping due to wind
acting on glaze ice accretions. Galloping due to wind acting on wet snow has received more
attention in Japan and parts of Europe. The type of icing under which each device has been
evaluated will be included along with known practical details. It is also different on small
versus large single conductors, on bundle conductors versus single conductors, and on dead–
end spans versus suspension spans. There are even rare conditions, with wind but without ice,
in which other mechanisms create galloping-like motions. The common feature of all
galloping is the excitation of the lowest natural frequencies of the spans and the resulting
large amplitude, low frequency motions.
• What are the proper locations for each galloping control device.
The number of devices required for control, or the physical design of the devices, or the
manner of application of the devices may also differ according to the expected type of ice
accretion and the physical details of the conductor span. Where there are alternative
practices, these are indentified. While application practices for some of the devices are public
knowledge, for some devices these are considered proprietary by the suppliers.
116
• What are the limitations and precautions required with each galloping control device.
The performance of a control device may be acceptable in one range of sizes of conductor
while less acceptable in another size range. Also the effectiveness in one weather condition
may or may not indicate effectiveness in a different form of icing.
• Observed motions without and with each control device.
Data from tests on scaled or full size test lines, sometimes with airfoils to represent ice are
included where available. More weight should be given to information obtained from
observations on actual operating lines, especially where there are systematic trials including
untreated phases similar to the phases with the control devices, and such results are included
where possible. When galloping does occur in a span of an overhead line, the individual
conductors are frequently moving at different amplitudes and in different modes under
nominally the same exposure to ice and wind. During an ice storm the galloping amplitudes
change as the speed and direction of the wind, as well as the amount of ice deposited changes.
This randomness and variability are inherent in the galloping phenomenon. Conclusions on
the overall performance of a device need to be based on a number of separate galloping
events. The greatest confidence can be placed on the devices that have been the subjects of
the widest exposure and evaluations. At the same time the control device needs to be installed
on one or more phases in the same span as nominally identical phases without controls.
Galloping motions on all the phases needs to be documented to enable proper statistically
supportable conclusions on performance of the control devices to be obtained.
Cautions to be Observed When Applying In-span Galloping Control Devices
In-span hardware, including galloping control devices and aircraft warning markers, are
concentrated masses, which can act as reflection points of traveling waves of aeolian
vibration. This vibration due to wind can occur in the sections of the conductors or overhead
ground wires between the in-span devices and these sections of the span are isolated from any
vibration damping systems, which are most often applied to the ends of spans. For spans of
conductors with low tension this does not cause any problems. However extra precautions are
needed for spans with tensions approaching the safe tension limits with no dampers (Hardy et
al. 1999). The precautions required are to reduce the stress concentrations at the metal clamps
attaching the hardware to the conductors. Two alternatives for reducing these stresses are
installing armor rods under the metal clamps or replacing the metal clamps with elastomer
lined clamps. A further option is to add vibration dampers within each subspan between the
in-span hardware.
A second aspect requiring caution applies to galloping control devices based on the control of
torsional motions. These are custom designed based on the parameters of the conductor span.
They are designed to ensure that the torsional natural frequency, after adding the devices and
a chosen amount of ice and wind, falls within a range necessary for the proper function of the
control device. The caution required for this is that the actual parameters of the line need to
be known, and that may necessitate a line survey to confirm that the line is installed according
to the design. In particular the tension of the conductors has been found to deviate from the as
designed values, especially in regions where ice loads have occurred increasing the sag, or
where repairs have been made in the spans. There are ratios of torsional to vertical oscillation
frequency that make a span more likely to gallop. Consequently, it is possible to misapply the
devices if they are designed with the wrong input parameters, or if the resonant behavior is
117
not avoided by proper choice of device dimensions. It is therefore highly recommended that
the design of galloping controls be carried out by experienced practitioners.
118
4.5.1 Ice Melting
(*To be written*)
119
4.5.2 Ice or Wet Snow Removal
(*To be written*)
120
4.5.3 Special Conductors
(*To be written*)
121
4.5.4 Increased Clearances
The principal opportunity to impact the effects
of galloping occurs at the design stage. Many
utilities have guidelines aimed at providing
sufficient spacing within the tower heads to
reduce the probability of overlapping of the
galloping motions of the phase conductors and
overhead ground wires, thus avoiding contacts
between them. A summary of these
approaches is given in (EPRI 1980). The
design approaches are basically similar to the
concepts introduced by Davison (Davison
1939). These are based upon observations of
amplitudes and mode shapes in a number of
cases of actual galloping. The design methods
involve laying out elliptical envelopes around
the conductor positions under standardized Figure 4.5-1 Generic galloping ellipse
conditions of wind and ice loading. The envelope inscribed around sagged
envelopes are intended to represent the conductor at mid span (EPRI 1980)
maximum excursions, during single loop
motions, of the galloping orbits at mid span. The conductor and overhead ground wire
positions are the positions including the sag at mid span under the chosen ice and wind load.
The ellipse sizes vary between the different design methods, but the ellipse axes are normally
scaled in terms of the sag under these chosen wind and ice loads. Figure 4.5-1 shows the
approach schematically. The symbols in the figure have the following significance:
A1 = DL DL = sag under wind and ice load
A2 = A1/4 A3 = 0.3 m (1 foot) A5 = 0.4A4
θ = Φ /2 Φ = angle of conductor swing out under the selected loading

It had been observed that, when certain spans galloped, the motion most often seen was the two-
loop mode, and the single-loop mode was rare. These observations were on dead end – dead end
spans and very long spans. For these situations alternate lower values of the major, A4 , and
minor, A5 , axes of the ellipse have been proposed (Toye 1951). The proposed values are:
A4 ≈ DL / 2 2 (4.5.4-1)
A5 = 2 A4 (4.5.4-2)
These basic shapes for the clearance ellipses have been modified by several utilities based on
their own experience. Table 4.5-1 summarizes some of these variants. A more complete
description is given in (EPRI 1980).
Table 4.5-1 Sample Dimensions of Galloping Clearance Ellipses
122
SOURCE A4 A5 A2 COMMENT
Davison 1939 1.25 DL + 0.3 m (1 foot) 0.4 DL A1/4 Single loop galloping
Toye 1931 DL/2√2 2√A4 DL/2 Two loop galloping

Single loop galloping
REA 1962 DL + 0.6 m (2 feet) 0.4 DL 0.3 m (1
foot)
Single loop galloping
AEP 1.25 DL 0.33 A4 0.3 m (1
(EPRI 1980) foot)
DL + 0.3 m (1 foot)
Ontario Hydro F.DL + 0.3 m (1 foot) 0.4 A4 A4/4 F is a galloping factor

between 0.8 and 1.4
Commonwealth 1.4 DL + 0.3 m (1 foot) 1.25 A4 0.4 DL Single loop galloping

Edison
Russia 35-220 kV: 0.45DL + 0.33 A4 A4/5 Single loop galloping

1m
(Baikov 1967)
300 kV: 0.9 DL
500 kV: DL
Davison’s suggested value of θ in Figure 4.5-1 had the ellipse tilted opposite to the blowout
angle, φ. Other values have been used. It appears from the database of field observations that
tilts in both directions are regularly experienced with perhaps a higher incidence of tilts that
are in the same direction as the blowout angle.
Dimension A2 in Figure 4.5-1 is of minor importance with respect to phase-to-phase
clearances, if all phases are assumed to gallop. An error in estimating A2 does not affect the
relative positions of the phase ellipses. A2 is important to phase-to-ground wire clearances,
especially if the ground wire is assumed not to gallop. Simultaneous phase and ground wire
galloping was observed in only about 10% of reported cases. For galloping in two and more
loops, the galloping ellipse is very nearly centered on the conductor’s blown-out at-rest
position.
All of these galloping ellipse systems have apparently served well in that they have resulted in
reduced outage rates. Statistical data on the degrees of reduction do not appear to be available,
but the reductions are generally thought to be quite significant.
The issue of whether spans are more likely to undergo galloping in single- or two-loop mode was
addressed by Anjo (Anjo et al. 1974). From studies of two and four conductor bundle lines, the
behaviour was related to a parameter M given by:
m2l 2
M= EA
24T 3
(4.5.4-3)
123
Where E is the final modulus of the conductor and A is the area of cross section of the
conductor. This parameter is equal to ea /e in which ea is the excess of catenary length over
secant span length, expressed as a fraction of the latter, and e is elastic strain of the conductor
due to its loaded tension. The guidelines developed from this approach differentiate between
the expected ellipse sizes for dead-ended and suspension spans. The recommendations are
presented in Table 4.5-2 in which the sags corresponding to values of M of 1.5 and 4.0 are D1*
and D2* , respectively.
Table 4.5-2 Guidelines for Galloping Clearance Ellipses
based on Anjo’s method (Anjo et al. 1974)
DEAD-END SPANS SUSPENSION SPANS
Sag A4 Sag A4
*
DL < D1 0.58 DL DL<0.83 D1* 1.25 DL
* *
D1 < DL < D2 0.37 DL + 1.3 m * *
0.83 D1 < DL < D1 1.04 DL
D2* < DL < 27.3 m 0.45 D2* D1* < DL < D2* 0.24 DL + 5.0m
DL > 27.3 m 2.27 DL *
D < DL < 32.8 m
2 0.54 D2*
DL > 32.8 m 0.27 DL
A similar approach was taken
by the Bonneville Power
Administration (Winkelman
1974). Their approach
assigns values to the major
ellipse axis, A4, according to
span length, single or bundle
conductor, and dead-end or
suspension span type. The
approach is summarized in
Figure 4.5-2. The asterisks
identify span lengths below
which single-loop galloping,
and above which two-loop
galloping, are assumed.
The ellipses surrounding the
various conductors and
overhead ground wires need
to be separated by sufficient
air gap to eliminate flashovers
at the corresponding phase-to- Figure 4.5-2 Bonneville Power Administration guidelines on
phase or phase-to-ground galloping ellipse amplitude (Winkelman 1974)
voltage. Table 4.5-3 shows
the separations required.
Table 4.5-3 Clearances
required to avoid flashovers
between conductors and
overhead ground wires at different voltages (EPRI 1980)
124
VOLTAGE 115 kV 138 kV 230 kV 345 kV 500 kV
Phase-Phase 0.46 m (1.5 ft) 0.46 m (1.5 ft) 0.76 m (2.5 1.07 m (3.5 ft) 1.83 m (6.0 ft)
Phase-Ground 0.30 m (1.0 ft) 0.30 m (1.0 ft) ft) 0.76 m (2.5 ft) 1.22 m (4.0 ft)
0.61 m (2.0
ft)
Data from eighty-one galloping events were

gathered over several years by the
“Galloping Conductor Task Force” of the
Edison Electric Institute and documented in
the chapter on galloping in the EPRI “Orange
Book” (EPRI 1980). The reports include the
basic design parameters of the line and the
weather and galloping activity on lines
without any control devices installed, but not
all data were collected in every case.
Figure 4.5-3 shows the plot of these results in
the form of peak to peak galloping amplitude
versus span length for conductors supported
on suspension-suspension spans. Figure 4.5-
4 shows the equivalent values for conductors
supported on dead-end structures. In this and
Figure 4.5-3 Field data from galloping the next figure, the small numbers indicate
events: Peak to peak galloping amplitude the number of galloping loops reported, and
versus span length for suspension spans circled values are for bundled conductors.
(EPRI 1980)
These two plots provide field data for
comparison with each of the above design
methods. The maximum galloping
amplitude reported is about 12 metres. Also
there is a tendency for more galloping loops
in the longest spans and in dead-ended
spans.
It is of interest to compare the amplitudes
reported in the EEI’s collection of galloping
cases, and in previous reports and papers,
with the suggested values of A4 discussed
above. Unfortunately, the comparison
cannot be done in a rigorous manner, since
the loaded sags that exist during galloping
are usually quite difficult to determine and
are rarely reported. Comparison must be Figure 4.5-4 Field Data from galloping events:
based upon bare-wire sags and, since most peak to peak galloping amplitude versus span
of these have been referred to 60°F (16°C), length for dead-ended spans (EPRI 1980)
that reference temperature will be used here.
125
The observed ice
thicknesses during 21
different glaze ice galloping
events are shown in Figure
4.5-5. This figure shows
that the majority of
galloping events occur with
thin layers of ice, and
consequently, use of bare-
wire sags should be
acceptably close in most
cases, except where small
conductors or short spans
are involved.
The wind speeds recorded

during the same set of 21
galloping events are shown
Figure 4.5-5 Data from 21 galloping events from database in Figure 4.5-6. This figure
compiled during field studies showing that most events occur shows that most events
with low ice thickness (Havard and Pohlman 1984) occur with wind speeds
between 15 and 35 mph.
The corresponding wind
pressure is then in the range of 0.6 to 3.1 pounds per square foot. The value of 2 pounds per
square foot used in the REA
guide then appears to be a
reasonable intermediate value.
When considering the area of the
conductor including the ice
accretion, the relative positions
of phases would be the same but
there could be different positions
relative to the overhead ground
wire.
Plots of the maximum galloping
amplitudes and maximum
galloping amplitudes divided by
sag, as observed in the field from
the above database, are shown as
functions of span length, in
Figure 4.5-7. Both plots show
continuous envelopes around the
maximum values.
Figure 4.5-6 Data from 21 galloping events from database
compiled during field studies showing that most events occur
with wind speeds between 15 and 35 mph (Havard 1979)
126
The same database of field
observations of galloping was
used in an analysis to relate
maximum galloping amplitude to
line parameters (Rawlins 1981,
Rawlins 1986). The resulting set
of trend lines is presented in
Figure 4.5-8 in the form of curves
of equal peak to peak galloping
amplitude / span length, Ymax / S,
versus catenarity factor, M1, and
tension / unit weight of
conductor, T/w. Here EA1 is an
adjusted longitudinal stiffness
including the flexibility of
insulator strings of different
length, or dead end strings.
Figure 4.5-7 Envelopes encompassing maximum w2 S 2

M1 = EA1 (4.5.4-4)
peak to peak galloping amplitude and peak to peak 24T 3
galloping amplitude/sag versus span length from

95 galloping events on single conductors (Havard
1998)
An alternative analysis of the same database
(Lilien and Havard 2000) employs the
reduced amplitude, which is the ratio of
peak-to-peak galloping amplitude (Apk-pk)
over conductor diameter (φ), both in m:
A pk − pk
(4.5.4-5)
φ
This reduced amplitude has a range between
0 and 500.
The conductor span parameter is a

combination of the catenary parameter with
the ratio of conductor diameter (φ) over the
square of the span length (L), which can also
be expressed as the ratio of conductor
diameter over the sag (f). The conductor
span parameter is dimensionless:
T .φ 100.φ (4.5.4-6)
100 =
mg.L2 8f
Figure 4.5-8 Estimated maximum peak to peak galloping
amplitude / sag versus catenarity factor and tension
/weight (Rawlins 1986)
127
This parameter shows a clear distinction between single and bundle conductors, and the
similarity among all types of bundle conductor. This parameter has a range of 0 to 1.1 with
tension in N, mass in kg/m, span length, sag and diameter in m. The dimensionless conductor
span parameter is useful because it shows clear trends on the global database. For single
conductors, the fitted curve to the maximum amplitude over conductor diameter, which is
included in Fig. 4.5-9, is
given by :
amplitude/conductor diameter
500
A pk − pk 8f
Peak to peak galloping
400 Observed motions = 80. ln (4.5.4-7)

φ 50.φ
300 Fitted maxima (Eq. 4.5.3-7)
200 This is valid only in the 0-1

100 range of the conductor span
0 parameter, which corresponds
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 to the data base range.
Conductor span parameter
Figure 4.5-9 Variation of observed maximum peak to peak For bundle conductors, the
galloping amplitude/diameter on single conductors as a corresponding fitted curve,
function of the conductor span parameter (Lilien which is reproduced in Fig.
and Havard 2000) 4.5-10 as the estimated
maximum, is given by :
A pk − pk 8f
= 170 . ln (4.5.4-8)
φ 500 .φ
This is valid in the range 0-

0.15 of the conductor span
500
parameter.
amplitude/conductor diameter
Observed (twin)
Observed (triple)
Peak to peak galloping
400
Observed (quad)
It may be noted that the
300 Fitted maxima (Eq.4.5.4-8) expressions have the same
form, but single conductors
200
have up to about 2.5 times
100
larger values of galloping
amplitude/diameter for values
0 of the conductor span
0 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 parameter between 0.015 and
Conductor span parameter
0.10.
Figure 4.5-10 Variation of observed maximum peak to

peak galloping amplitude/diameter on bundle conductors
as a function of the conductor span parameter
(Lilien and Havard 2000)
128
The US and Canadian field trials of galloping control devices (Havard and Pohlman 1979,
Havard and Pohlman 1984, Havard 1996), produced an extensive archive of films of the
events reported. Since that program finished, the clearest of these films were selected for
further analysis (Pon and Havard 1994). A total of 44 films were used, showing galloping
events on single conductors and twin, triple and quad bundle lines. The films were carefully
scanned and motions scaled to give statistical data on actual conductor orbits during
galloping.
The key characteristics of the galloping motions extracted from the films were:
• the peak to peak vertical amplitude
• the peak to peak horizontal amplitude
• the position of the motion relative to the median position of the conductor
The main results of this analysis were that, based on films of 12 galloping events, the vertical
motions of single conductors were up to 1.7 times the loaded sag. On bundle conductors the
vertical motions extended up to 0.93 times the loaded sag from 17 different films.
The horizontal motions for the both single and bundle conductors were always less than one
tenth of the loaded sag, and always less than one fifth of the vertical motions. Thus the
observed motions are almost all in the vertical plane.
The position of the center of the galloping motion was found to be close to the static position
in half the records, and in the lower third of the motion in the other half. A compromise
average of the film records places the static position at the lower quartile point of the motion.
These film analyses led to a possible new galloping
clearance envelope. Figure 4.5-11 shows this profile,
which consists of two ellipses, each with a width that is
10 percent of the height, and inclined at 5 degrees each
side of vertical. They are attached to the sagged position
of the conductor at the lower quartile point in the ellipse.
The height would be chosen according to the current
practice of the utility. In default, the maximum galloping
amplitude given as a function of span length, as shown in
Figure 4.5-7 can be used. It should be noted that the
envelope around the field data does not show lower
galloping amplitudes for two loop galloping than for
single loop galloping.
The effect of this profile compared to existing ellipses
would be to reduce the amount of horizontal offset
between tower crossarms resulting in lighter towers
shafts and foundations because of the lessened
requirement for resisting twisting under unbalanced,
broken conductor, load. Figure 4.5-11 Clearance
envelope derived from analysis
The results of the analysis of films of galloping, of films of galloping
described above, are from events due to freezing rain (Pon and Havard 1994)
accretion on the conductors. The terrain in most cases
was relatively flat. There are a few regions where there are transmission lines, which are
subject to wet snow accretion, and galloping does occur in those regions. These are often
129
regions in mountains and where there are frequent periods with cold wet winds from a nearby
sea.
There have been several field sites established in regions, where galloping is caused by wet
snow, with the test sites set up mainly to study the effects of the weather conditions before
constructing a new transmission line. Some of these studies are summarized in a
comprehensive CIGRÉ paper (Morishita et al. 1984). That paper is mainly focused on the
behavior of bundled conductors using three test sites in the mountains. Test lines comprising
single conductors, and two-, four-, six-, eight- and ten-conductor bundles were installed. The
sites included instrumentation and cameras to record loads and movements during galloping
events. Results of three winters at
two sites and four winters at the
other site are summarized. The
terrain is irregular and the winds
have significant vertical
components rather than being
mainly horizontal as in flat
terrain.
One significant result of this
research, from the perspective of
design of clearances within the
tower heads, is the extent of
conductor motions during
Figure 4.5-12 Orbit shapes obtained on six- and four- galloping in these locations with
conductor bundles during galloping due to wet snow wet snow accretion. The
with a wind velocity of 12 m/s (Morishita et excursions of the four- and six-
al. 1984) bundle conductors are
exemplified by the orbits included
in Figure 4.5-12. These
recordings were obtained under
naturally accreted wet snow with
winds of 12 m/s, by Chubu
Electric Company at their Mount
Ryuo test site. The conductors
cross a valley between mountains
at an elevation of 830 m and are
boldly exposed to transverse
winds. The orbits recorded
contain much larger horizontal
motion than is usually seen during
galloping under freezing rain
Figure 4.5-13 Orbit shape obtained on an eight- conditions in flat terrain.
conductor bundle during galloping due to wet snow The tests with an eight-conductor
with a wind velocity of 18 m/s (Morishita et al. 1984) bundle showed an even more
elongated orbits as shown in
Figure 4.5-13. This record was obtained at an elevation of 750 meters above sea level at the
Mount Tsuruga test site by the Kansai Electric Power Company, under natural wet snow
accretion with a wind speed of 18 m/s.
130
Some research was
conducted by the Tokyo
Electric Company at the
Mount Takahashi test
site with simulated wet
snow accretion on six-
and ten-conductor
bundles. This test site is
at an elevation of 1500
meters above sea level.
Figure 4.5-14 shows the
resulting orbits of
motion at wind speeds
Figure 4.5-14 Orbit shapes obtained on six- and ten- conductor of 20 m/s and 15 m/s
bundles during galloping due to simulated wet snow accretions respectively. The figure
with a wind velocity of 20 and 15 m/s (Morishita et al. includes sketches of the
1984) artificial accretion
profiles used on the
bundles to represent the wet snow shapes.
These samples of orbits of galloping bundle conductors under wet snow, or simulated wet
snow, conditions illustrate that transmission lines in regions subject to these weather
conditions cannot be safely designed using the guidelines normal for many North American
lines.
Design criteria for clearances need to be developed for such locations, and also, as described
elsewhere in this volume, high dynamic loads can occur and need to be accommodated.
131
4.5.5 Interphase Spacers
One method for controlling galloping motions, in such a way as to prevent phase-to-phase
contacts, involves use of insulating interphase ties or spacers. The method does not prevent
galloping, but forces the motions into a mode in which flashovers are much less likely.
Interphase spacers appear to have been highly effective at reducing the incidences of
galloping flashovers due to galloping, and are
employed by a number of utilities. (Edwards 1970,
Vollmer 1969, Jongerius and Lewis 1970, Becken
and Drevlow 1972, Callahan 1973, Kito et al. 1975,
Abilgaard et al. 1976) A worldwide survey in the
1990s (Berg and Smart 1992) showed data from 32
utilities in 13 countries with nearly 13,000 installed
interphase spacers. The survey reported that these are
used on lines at voltages from 11 kV to 420 kV.
The earliest stiff spacers were assembled from
ceramic insulator sections joined with an aluminum
tube, and attached to the conductors using standard
suspension clamps. These spacers were heavy and
difficult to handle and install (Figure 4.5-15). Some
early rigid spacers suffered breakages of the
insulating sections due to the high compressive forces
occurring during galloping, and there were failures of
the welded joints at the ends of the central aluminum
tube. Later, polymeric insulators were substituted for
the ceramic sections creating a lighter and more Figure 4.5-15 Installation of a rigid
manageable, but still rigid, assembly. Flexible interphase spacer (Havard 1978)
clamps were also used, but special means were
needed to avoid arcing at the sliding surfaces. More recently armor grip suspension (AGS)
clamps have also been used to reduce local stresses in the conductors at the points of
attachment.
The spacers are applied well out in the
span, sometimes at or near midspan,
sometimes at one third or one-quarter
points of the span. Figure 4.5-16
illustrates recommended use of two or
four interphase spacers per span of a
vertically oriented circuit (Edwards
and Ko 1979). In either of these
arrangements the interphase spacers
could be effective in both the single
and two loop modes. These
arrangements were used in the field Figure 4.5-16 Alternative arrangements of
evaluations, but the alternative using interphase spacers in a span of a vertical circuit
four spacers is preferred, because there (Edwards and Ko 1979)
is still a possibility of contact between
the phases at the quarter points in the span during mixed mode galloping with only two
spacers.
132
Overhead line circuits in Germany
can be vertical, horizontal or in a
delta configuration. Interphase
spacer location schemes, that are
intended to be economical while
still establishing an adequate level
of control, have been proposed for
each of these circuit designs
(Schmidt and Jürdens 1989). The
scheme for the delta circuit
arrangement is shown in Figure
4.5-17. This spacing scheme was
Figure 4.5-17 Mounting scheme for interphase installed on over 100 spans of a
spacers on a delta circuit twin bundle line in southern
(Schmidt and Jürdens 1989) Germany, but the report does not
include any field experience during
galloping events. They also note that spans which include a transition from one configuration
to another, or which serve to rotate the phases for electrical load balance, are at particular risk
of flashovers during galloping. They recommend use of interphase spacers at the closest point
of approach of the conductors.
Practice varies from utility to
utility with regard to number of
spacers needed per span and as to
their positioning. In some
installations, only one pair of
phases is coupled. Usually all
three are coupled, but the bottom
pair may be coupled at different
spanwise positions from the top
pair.
Interphase spacers do not
suppress the galloping motions of
the conductors. Figure 4.5-18
shows a double exposure of a
Figure 4.5-18 Double exposure photo of a span
quite usual two-loop type of
equipped with rigid interphase spacers during
galloping motion on a span of a
galloping showing two-loop motion (Pon et al. 1982)
vertical circuit fitted with four
interphase spacers. This shows that galloping motion can occur, but the spacers maintain the
phase separation and minimize the likelihood of phase-to-phase contacts.
133
There are less common motions and
a diagram of one type of mixed
mode motion, observed during a
galloping event on Ontario Hydro
lines, is sketched in Figure 4.5-19.
The upper and lower phase
conductors are moving in a single
loop mode, while the middle phase
is in a two-loop mode. The middle
phase conductor can approach the
other conductors at the top of the
Figure 4.5-19 Forced motion of the middle phase left hand and at the bottom of the
conductor during mixed mode galloping with two right hand interphase spacer.
interphase spacers (Pon et al. 1982)
Early studies (Tornquist and Becker 1947) on a test line with D-shaped artificial ice, showed
that connecting the three phases by means of a taut cord located at one of the one-third points
of the span forced the separate phases to gallop in unison, with equal amplitudes and the same
phase. Since the relative motions of the phases were negligible, phase separation was
maintained, even with large-amplitude galloping.
Although a flexible cord is not an effective spacing member in most other applications, the
oscillatory character of galloping does make it effective here. Galloping leads to reduced
phase separations through oscillations of conductors about
their mean positions. Those oscillations require that the
phases be free to move away from, as well as toward, each
other. By preventing increased phase separation, the cord
prevented oscillations that could produce reduced phase
separation.
Interphase insulating spacers may be either essentially rigid
or somewhat flexible. The latter type has been used in
Germany (Abilgaard et al. 1976). It employs a single
spacing member with a glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP)
rod for a core and a cast-on silicone rubber shed shell. Its
column strength is low enough that it may buckle under
compressive loads that may occur during galloping.
Subsequent designs were made more flexible through joints
within the length of the spacers, initially retaining the metal
middle section. Later designs substituted silicone rubber
covered fibreglass rods for the metal sections. These
changes effectively created a chain of insulated links
between the phases. This type of interphase spacer was
used at 230 kV and 500 kV, in the Canadian Electrical Figure 4.5-20 Flexible
Association sponsored field trials of galloping controls for polymeric interphase spacer
bundled conductors, as illustrated by the sample on a installed on a triple bundle 500
Manitoba Hydro 500 kV triple bundle line shown in Figure kV line in Manitoba Hydro
4.5-20 (Pon and Havard 1994). The joints are bridged with (Pon and Havard 1994)
flexible metal bonding straps to eliminate arcing from
134
movements of the loose joints. Corona rings are mounted at the high voltage ends of the
sheds of the polymeric insulators to reduce the electric field gradient and minimize arcing
damage to the sheds.
While most of the applications are to vertical or near vertical circuit arrangements, interphase
spacers have also been applied to horizontally arranged circuits with galloping problems. One
such design for a two-conductor bundle line in northern Norway (Loudon 2003), which has
experienced frequent winter damage, is shown in Figure 4.5-21. This rigid design uses
composite insulators and has a tubular steel central section. It is underslung to ensure that the
bundle stays in its normal orientation. Some cases of damage to interphase spacers have
occurred with this design.
Figure 4.5-21 Rigid interphase spacer for a horizontally aligned

two conductor bundle circuit in northern Norway (Loudon 2003)
Apparently, all phase-to-phase spacers that have been employed in the United States are of the
essentially-rigid type. Most have a GRP strut as the spacing member, with porcelain elements
between each of its ends and the conductor clamps. The clamps are usually applied over
armor.
Specific application data and recommendations should be obtained from suppliers of
interphase spacers. Certain considerations involved will be mentioned, however. Since
galloping motion is not eliminated, the spacers may have to endure dynamic mechanical
loads. Useful estimates of these loads may be made through an analysis (Kito et al. 1975). The
spacers must also cope with the shock loads that occur when ice falls from a span, and with
static loads that exist after the top conductor, for example, has shed its ice but before the
others have.
The dead weight of the spacers may cause measurable increases in sag, especially for the
smaller conductors in short spans. Wind loads on interphase spacers are significant in some
cases.
Interphase spacers require a high degree of electrical reliability, otherwise the increased
number of flashovers caused by contamination or breakdown of the interface at the end
fittings, may exceed the number of flashovers prevented by the improved galloping
performance (Jongerius and Lewis 1970, Kito et a1. 1975).
135
Field trials of interphase spacers
were in place on Ontario Hydro lines
during the 1970s (Pon et al. 1982).
In that period a number of
manufacturers’ products were
installed, and most of the
installations were on single
conductor lines with stiff spacers.
The field results from single
conductor lines only are presented
graphically as a plot of peak-to-peak
amplitude versus the fraction of the
observations in Figure 4.5-22. The x-
axis scale is based on the Weibull
statistical analysis of values of
extreme events (such as flood levels Figure 4.5-22 Effect of interphase spacers on
of rivers), and allows linear peak to peak galloping amplitude based on 10
projection to give predictions of observations on single conductors (Pon et al. 1982)
behavior beyond the plotted data.
The figure includes all values of peak-to-peak amplitude on the untreated phases and all those
with interphase spacers recorded during 10 separate galloping events. This figure shows that
there is, on average, a reduction in the reported galloping amplitudes, but there are still large
amplitudes of motion on the lines with interphase spacers.
In Figure 4.5-23 the same data are divided by sag and plotted against number of data points
on the same scale as in the previous figure. This form of presentation compares directly with
the design guides in which the galloping clearance envelopes are scaled to the sag of the
conductor. The maximum
amplitude is reduced from 0.52
x sag to 0.38 x sag, a reduction
of 27%.
It should be noted that
interphase spacers, and several
of the other devices, restrain the
rotation of the conductor that
tends to occur under the
eccentric weight of the growing
ice deposit. Free rotation tends
to result in an ice shape that is
more rounded and so less prone
to gallop. Thus, in long single
conductor spans, these devices
Figure 4.5-23 Effect of interphase spacers on may aggravate the problem they
peak to peak galloping amplitude/sag based on 10 are intended to solve.
observations on single conductors (Pon et al. 1982)
The Canadian Electrical
Association sponsored field
trials of galloping control devices for bundled conductor lines (Pon and Havard 1994)
included four sites with flexible interphase spacers on twin, triple and quad bundle lines. The
field trials of interphase spacers on bundled lines produced four documented galloping
observations. The results include three events in which there were no visible motions on the
136
phases linked by the interphase spacers and small amplitude motions on the reference
untreated phases. One event included significant motions on both the treated and untreated
phases. These four results were not considered sufficient to draw conclusions about the
overall performance of these devices under the range of ice and wind conditions conducive to
galloping.
The worldwide survey (Berg and Smart 1992) investigated the opinion of the utilities with
regards to both performance of interphase spacers as control devices during galloping, and the
experience with respect to damage and maintenance required of the interphase spacers.
Solely from the performance point of view the survey indicated:
• Many survey responses indicated that there were no phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground
flashovers after installing the interphase spacers
• Some low amplitude galloping was seen after spacer installation, but large amplitude
motions appear to be eliminated
• Clashing was prevented but galloping continued at a lower level
• Wear and conductor damage occurrences were reduced
Reported side effects of using the interphase spacers included:
• Some mechanical damage to the insulator sections of the spacers in the form of cracking
of the sections with sheds
• Electrical and mechanical breakdown in some urban areas, due to tracking attributed to
pollution.
• A few cases of compression failures during galloping
• Some spacers damaged by birds pecking at the insulator sheds
• Some porcelain insulator sections were replaced by polymer insulators.
Spacers have proved effective at eliminating phase-to-phase contacts during galloping but
there can still be conductor motions and dynamic loads on the support structures.
Recently studies of interphase spacer behaviour during simulated galloping have been carried
out at IREQ, Hydro Quebec’s research facility. (Van Dyke 2005). The focus of this study
was the fatigue of conductors at clamps due to galloping, and the outdoor test site at Varennes
was used to simulate overhead line performance. A “D’ section foil was attached to the
conductors to produce galloping at any time of year providing the winds were adequate. In
this study the fatigue stress was assessed by instrumentation measuring the frequency of
vibration and the free loop amplitude in the span. The dynamic stresses adjacent to the clamps
were compared during galloping on two parallel phases, one with and one without interphase
spacers. Surprisingly these measurements showed that the bending stress at the clamps was as
high or higher with the interphase spacers than without them. The clamps used were metal
clamps, and it was recommended that they be replaced with elastomer-lined clamps attached
using helical armor rods in galloping prone locations.
In summary, the interphase spacers have a good track record for eliminating flashovers during
galloping but they do not prevent the galloping motions. Observations in the field show that
motions still occur with interphase spacers in place, especially when the galloping conditions
are such that high levels of motion can occur. The side effects of galloping such as high loads
137
on the support structures and damage to the conductors at the suspension clamps can still be a
problem with interphase spacers. Interphase spacers are also subject to breakage if they are
not designed well enough for the dynamic loads applied to them.
138
4.5.6 Aerodynamic Dampers
(*To be written*)
139
4.5.7 Torsional Control Devices
(*To be written*)
140
4.5.8 Bundle Modification
Experience in the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium, as well as other European countries
where winter precipitation occurred mainly in the form of wet snow, was that small to
medium sized single conductors were virtually gallop free while bundle conductors galloped
severely, leading to sporadic occurrences of serious damage. The difference in behaviour is
attributed to the ability of long spans of single conductor to rotate under the weight of the
accretion, and for the ice to form in a smooth profile with smaller aerodynamic lift forces.
This twisting action is not possible in short single conductor spans, in bundle conductors due
to the restraint of the spacers, or in large single conductors due their inherent torsional
rigidity. For these spans the accretion will build up on one side of the conductor and develop
into a more pointed profile, with higher aerodynamic lift forces.
Modifications to the design of bundle conductors were investigated in order to allow the
subconductors to rotate under the weight of the accretion (Leppers et al. 1978). Upwards of
240 circuit-km (150 circuit-miles) of line were treated in three European utilities. The
modifications generally involved moving the subconductors to different heights, and the
removal of spacers from the spans. Figure 4.5-24 shows samples of suspension arrangements
for two-, and four-conductor bundles developed for this purpose, and applied to transmission
lines operating at 150, 220 and 380 kV in the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany. The height
differentials were introduced so that during swing-out under buffeting winds the
subconductors do not clash, and also to reduce the wake effects in bundles, which contribute
to an increase in wind energy transfer to the conductors. The applications were on lines with
subconductors in the 18 to 22 mm diameter range.
The initial development was simply removal of spacers, but adverse behaviour was
experienced during emergency current conditions in which there are high electromagnetic
forces of attraction between the subconductors causing the bundle to collapse inward. These
Figure 4.5-24 Alternative arrangements of bundles without spacers

(Leppers et al. 1978)
forces are inversely proportional to the spacing between subconductors, so the bundle will
remain in its collapsed state even when the current is reduced to normal operating levels. The
current must be reduced to zero to restore the bundle geometry. Also, in vertical two-
141
conductor and four-conductor bundles,
unequal ice loads on the subconductors, or
sudden release of ice may cause the
subconductors to wrap up.
A new design of spacer was developed to
allow free rotation of the subconductors,
while preventing the collapse of the bundle.
This is the “hoop” spacer, and a sample
design is shown in Figure 4.5-25 (Hoffman
and Tunstall 2003). Hoop spacers are
shown installed on an experimental section
of a 150 kV twin bundle line in the PLEM
system in the Netherlands in Figure 4.5-26.
Figure 4.5-25 Hoop spacer used to maintain
The left hand circuit is despacered, as shown
separation of subconductors in despacered
in diagram “a” in Figure 4.5-24, and top and
bundles (Hoffman and Tunstall 2003)
bottom phase suspension strings are
replaced by “V’ strings to limit excursions of the phases during galloping. The right hand
circuit has the top two phases despacered as
in diagram “a” of Figure 4.5-24, and the
hoop spacers are mounted on the bottom
phase only, which remains in its original
horizontal configuration. This line was
monitored by line patrols during galloping
events and on two occasions the sections
with conventional spacers were seen to
gallop while the sections without spacers
were quiet. The patrols also reported that
the ice coatings were eccentric and pointed
on the conventionally spacered section, and
fell off quickly after the temperature rose.
On the other hand, the despacered section
was covered with a smoother ice coating,
which persisted for a longer period.
In Belgium, UNERG implemented the
despacered vertical twin bundle
configurations shown in Figure 4.5-24 “a”
and “c”. The lines were initially at 150 kV
and were later uprated to 220 kV. The lines
run through the Ardennes mountain range,
and had a history of galloping problems. Figure 4.5-26 Despacered vertical twin bundle
The effectiveness of the spacer removal 150 kV transmission line with hoop spacers
program was monitored by a remote sensing on lower phase of right circuit
station established by LABORELEC, the (Leppers et al. 1978)
Belgian electrical industry research laboratory. The station instrumentation measured the
dynamic loads on a dead end span. All six phases of the double circuit line were monitored to
facilitate comparison of the despacered vertical and standard horizontal bundle configurations
with different types of spacers. As shown in Figure 4.5-27, these measurements indicated
dynamic tension variations up to 60 percent of the static conductor tension at 0°C on the
horizontal bundles at a frequency corresponding to the galloping motion. On the despacered
142
phase the loads were much smaller
and irregular, indicating that the load
variations were not due galloping
conductors, but due to the reactions Figure 4.5-27 Rotating clamp spacer to allow
of the towers and crossarms to the subconductor twisting during ice and wet snow
galloping motions on the other side
accretion (Leppers et al. 1978)
of the tower.
Initial trials of despacering in the German utility PREAG were on a twin bundle 220 kV line,
and the arrangement shown in Figure 4.5-24 “b” was used. Due to numerous repair sleeves
and resulting uneven sags in this galloping prone section of the line, the 80 cm vertical
separation was applied. The previous poor performance during the winters was eliminated
with this modification.
When PREAG applied the spacer removal approach to 380 kV quad bundles, rearranged as
shown diagrams “d” and “e” of Figure 4.5-24, there were increases in electric field, radio
interference, and audible noise. Subsequently, such modifications were limited to uninhabited
areas only. An alternative method of achieving the free rotation of subconductors was then
developed, illustrated in Figure 4.5-24. This is the “rotating clamp spacer”, and consists of
two shells around each conductor, one
clamped to the subconductor and one
attached to the hinged link forming the
spacer. The two shells are designed to
rotate freely one within the other, and
care is required to ensure that the
subconductors are at the same tension,
to facilitate rotation. Also one metre
long, wind driven “vane drives” were
added to the conductor to effect
continuous movements and keep the
sliding surfaces free.
Spacer removal is expected to produce
significant benefits in spans that are
long enough or use small enough
conductors that resistance to twisting
is small. One measure of torsional
resistance to twisting under eccentric Figure 4.5-28 Load measurements during galloping
2
ice load is S/d , where S is span length on a twin bundle in Belgium (Leppers et al. 1978)
and d is conductor diameter. Large
S/d2 indicates small resistance to twisting. Figure 4.5-28 shows the distribution of S/d2 for a
large data set of galloping events on single conductors (Edison Electric Institute 1977). The
data in the figure indicate that S/d2 exceeded 600,000 m-l (180,000 ft-l) in less than 5% of all
reported single conductor galloping cases. The spans involved in the European spacer removal
programs are generally more torsionally flexible, with values of S/d2 generally greater than
600,000 m-l.
143
Figure 4.5-28 invites the conclusion that twisting
effects will almost always prevent galloping in
single conductor spans for which S/d2 exceeds
600,000 m-1. It should be borne in mind, however,
that the trend that is evident in the figure is
probably due in part to the distribution of span
lengths that appears in actual lines. For example, for
the relatively popular conductor Rail, S/d2 would
exceed 600,000 m-l only in spans greater than 525 m
(1700 feet). Galloping is unlikely to be reported
very often for such spans, simply because they form
a small percentage of the total population of lines. It
is almost certain that twisting effects do protect
spans with large S/d2, but not with the reliability Figure 4.5-28 Cumulative distribution of
implied by Figure 4.5-28. Oddly, all of the lines span length/(diameter)2 in spans where
represented in Figure 4.5-28 having S/d2e galloping was observed. (EPRI 1979)
144
4.5.9 Limiting Longitudinal Motions
(*To be written*)
145
References
References: Section 4.2 and 4.3
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146
4-16 E. Smith, “Excerpts from Bureau of Reclamation Reports on Recent Experiences with
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147
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Buildings and Structures, Teddington, England, 1963, pp. 6 1 1-86.
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4-43 Data courtesy of Alcoa Laboratories.
4-44 F. Cheers, “A Note on Galloping Conductors,” NRC (Canada) Laboratory Technical
Report MT- 14, June 1950.
4-45 C. O. Harris, “Galloping Conductors,” Second report on a Utilities Research
Commission Project at University of Notre Dame, 1949.
4-46 Data courtesy of The Hydro Electric Power Commission of Ontario.
4-47 C. J. Myerscough, “Further Studies of the Growth of Wind-Induced Oscillations in
Overhead Lines,” Journal of Sound and Vibration (1975) 39 (4), pp. 503-17.
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4-51 Information courtesy of Commonwealth Edison Company.
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4-55 “Die Buendelleiter-Versuchsanlage Hornisgrinde,” Badenwerk AG, Karlsruhe, 1964.
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Service,” AIEE Transactions, Vol. 72, Pt. 111, 1953, pp. 1200-6.
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12, 1974.
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Transmission Branch, Power Supply Division, February 9, 1962.
4-69 Data courtesy of American Electric Power Service Corporation.
4-70 H. C. Sweet, “Transmission Line Design to Reduce Galloping Conductor Problems,”
Engineering Conference, Missouri Valley Electric Conference, Kansas City, MO, April 15,
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Winkelman 1974, “Investigations of Ice and Wind Loads, Galloping, Vibrations and
Subconductor Oscillations (Transmission Line Conductor Problems),” by P.F. Winkelman,
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bonneville Power Administration, September 1974.
Abilgaard et al. 1976, “Composite Long-Rod Insulators and Their Influence on the Design of
Overhead Lines,” by E. H. Abilgaard, E. A. Bauer and K. L. deLussanet dela
Sablomiere,CIGRE Report 22-03, 1976.
Becken and Drevlow 1972, “Midspan Spacers Rein in Galloping Conductors,” by R. W.

Becken and R. A. Drevlow, Transmission & Distribution, Vol. 24, November 1972, pp. 34-
6,86.
Berg and Smart 1992, "Results of Questionnaire on Interphase Spacers", by A. Berg and
T.J. Smart, CIGRÉ SC22 WG11, ELECTRA Vol. 143, Aug 1992
Callahan 1973, “Curbs for Galloping Conductors,” by F. B. Callahan, Transmission and
Distribution, October 1973, pp. 66-8.
Edwards 1970, “Conductor Galloping,” by A. T. Edwards, Electra, No. 12, March 1970, pp.
31-48.
Edwards and Ko 1979, “Interphase Spacers for Controlling Galloping of Overhead
Conductors”, by A.T. Edwards and R.G. Ko, IEEE Symposium on Mechanical Oscillations of
Overhead Transmission Lines, Vancouver, B.C., July 1979
Havard 1978, “Status of Conductor Galloping Research at Ontario Hydro”, Second Canadian
Workshop on Wind Engineering, by, D.G. Havard, IREQ, Varennes, Quebec, Sept 28-29,
1978.
Jongerius and Lewis 1970, “Development of a 69 kV Mid- Span Phase Spacer,” by W. L.
Jongerius and P. E. Lewis, IEEE Conference Paper C70 630-PWR, July 1970.
Kito et al. 1975, “Phase-To-Phase Spacers for Transmission Lines,” by K. Kito, T. Imakama,
and K. Shinoda, IEEE Paper No. A75 498-6, July 1975.
Loudon 2003, Private correspondence from D. Loudon
Pon and Havard 1994, "Field Trials of Galloping Control Devices for Bundle Conductor
Lines", Final Report on CEA R & D Project 133 T 386, by C.J. Pon and D.G. Havard, Mar
1994
Pon et al. 1982, “Performance of Interphase Spacers for Galloping Control” by C.J. Pon,
D.G. Havard and A.T. Edwards, Ontario Hydro Research Division Report No.82-216-K, July
6, 1982.
159
Schmidt and Jürdens 1989, “Design of Interphase Spacers with Composite Insulators and
Service Experience”, by J. Schmidt and C. Jürdens, presentation to CIGRÉ SC22-WG11 Task
Force on Galloping, Rijeka, Jugoslavia, 1989
Tornquist and Becker 1947, “Galloping Conductors and a Method for Studying Them,” by E.
L. Tornquist and C. Becker, AIEE Transactions Paper, Vol. 66, 1947, pp. 1154-61.
Van Dyke 2005. Oral presentation by P. Van Dyke, at CIGRÉ WG11 meeting, Bilbao, Spain,
2005
Vollmer 1969, “Control of Galloping with Interphase Ties,” by R. W. Vollrner, IEEE
Conference Paper C59-PWR, June 1968.
Edison Electric Institute 1977, Data courtesy of Edison Electric Institute’s Galloping
Conductor Task Force. NOTE: Eighty-one of the cases in this collection have been used in
one or more tables and figures in this book. In many cases some items of data, e.g. ice
thickness, wind speed, amplitude, were not available. For this reason, different figures and
tables that are based upon this collection contain data on different numbers of cases.
EPRI 1979 "Transmission Line Reference Book - Wind Induced Conductor Motion", Electric
Power Research Institute, Research Project 795, 1978.
Hoffman and Tunstall 2003, “A Review of the Service Performance of National Grid
Transco’s Conductor Systems”, by S.P. Hoffman, and M.J. Tunstall, CIGRÉ Study
Committee B2 Colloquium on “UK Transmission & Distribution - An Era of Change”,
Edinburgh, Sept 2003
Leppers et al 1978, “Spacers Removed to Combat Galloping,” by P. H. Leppers, R. H. Brand,

M. Couvreur and J. Maljean, Electrical World, Vol. 187, No. 9, May 1, 1977, pp. 70-2.
160
G
CHAPTER 5, BUNDLE CONDUCTOR MOTIONS
G-1
Chapter 5 Bundle Conductor Motion (Wake-Induced Oscillation)
5.1 INTRODUCTION
(*To be completed*)
5.2 OVERVIEW
Wake-induced oscillation encompasses several types of motion, observed in conductor
bundles, that are caused by the aerodynamic shielding of leeward-lying conductors by
windward ones. The leeward conductors that lie in the wakes of windward conductors are
subjected to forces not experienced by single conductors, and these forces permit wind-
induced motions to occur that are peculiar to bundles.
The motions occur in moderate to strong winds, usually in the range of 7 to 18 m/s (15 to
40 mph). Although they may occur with ice on the conductors, (5-15) or when there is rain,
(5-16, 5-17)
the motions are most often observed when the conductors are bare and dry.
The four principal types of wake-induced motion are illustrated in Figure 5-1. Three of
these types, those shown in B, C, and D of the Figure, are termed “rigid-body modes”
since little distortion of the cross section of the bundle occurs. They are similar to the
fluttering motions of a ribbon.
The rigid-body modes involve motions in the three degrees of freedom: vertical,
horizontal, and rotational. However, none of these degrees of freedom occur in pure
form. The vertical and horizontal galloping modes of Figure 5-1B and C are accompanied
by some rotation or rolling, while the rolling or twisting mode of Figure 5-1D seems to
embody some vertical galloping. Motion in one of the degrees of freedom is always
dominant, however, and this provides a basis for the mode classifications.
The rigid-body modes may occur with one or several loops in the span, the two-loop
forms being the most common for vertical and horizontal galloping. The rolling mode has
been observed with as many as eight loops in the span. The one-loop form is uncommon.
When more than one loop occurs, the node points between loops do not appear to be
associated with spacer locations.
The vertical galloping mode is occasionally observed in the form of a traveling wave, (5-5)
rather than as standing loops. The wave has a length of the order of 50 or 100 metres and
travels back and forth along the span, being reflected at the towers. Peak-to-peak
amplitudes greater than a metre have been observed. Traveling waves in the rolling and
horizontal galloping modes have not been reported.
1
The subspan mode of wake-induced oscillation is illustrated in Figure 5-1A. It takes the
form of one or several loops between spacers in a span, with nodes at or near the
spacers.The trajectories of individual subconductors are elliptical, and windward-leeward
pairs of subconductors often move approximately in phase opposition. Motions in
adjacent subspan are usually synchronized but are not necessarily in phase or exactly out
of phase. The one-loop-per-subspan form is most common.(5-18)More than two loops per
subspan are rarely observed, except when the conductors are wet.
The subspan mode is the most dramatic and the most frequently reported. Since the
elliptical orbits traced by the conductors usually have their major axes horizontal, the
motions are easily seen from the ground. However, large amplitudes in the rolling mode
also give an appearance similar to the subspan mode, if the observer is not directly under
the bundle. Many instances of the rolling mode are reported as subspan mode.
In the subspan mode, both subconductors in a windward-leeward pair usually participate
in the motion, the leeward having the higher amplitude. Not all pairs in a bundle
necessarily participate to the same degree. For example, in a four-conductor square
bundle, the upper or lower pair may have considerably greater amplitude than the other.
In a bundle with a large number of subconductors, their association into windward-
leeward pairs is apparently not meaningful since some subconductors are upwind of one
subconductor and downwind of another. In such bundles, all conductors in the top or
bottom quadrant may oscillate as a group, but in a complex pattern.
The frequencies of the rigid-body modes are associated with harmonics of the bundle
span. Thus, for example, the fundamental frequency of a typical 400 metre span would be
about 0.20 Hz. The two-loop vertical and horizontal galloping modes would then have
frequencies of about 0.3 Hz. Their amplitudes may be as much as 2 or 1 metres,
respectively. The two-loop rolling mode would have a slightly higher frequency, say 0.35
Hz, due to the torsional rigidity of the conductors. Its amplitude can reach 80° peak-to-
peak.
The amplitudes of the subspan mode frequently reach magnitudes at which
subconductors clash, 0.5 metres peak-to-peak. However, where the loops are short, say
less than 50 metres, as occurs when there are two loops in a span, maximum amplitudes
are less, and clashing seldom occurs.
The frequencies of the mode are associated with loop lengths determined by subspan
lengths, and are well approximated by the fundamentals or harmonics of the subspan.
Thus, a bundle having 80 metre subspans would display the subspan mode with one loop
per subspan at a frequency of about 1 Hz.
2
Detailed analysis of wake-induced oscillations over a whole span reveals that several
modes participate in the motion at the same time. This is shown in Table 5.2-1, which
was derived from typical spectral analyses of the motion of one of the subconductors in a
quad bundle fitted with a system of five spacer-dampers staggered along the span. (Hardy
& Van Dyke, 1995). The motion, which was measured horizontally at the middle of all
six subspans, resulted from a 11 m/s wind blowing almost perpendicularly to the line.
Subspan lengths together with the associated theoretical fundamental subspan frequencies
are indicated in the first two columns of the Table respectively. These theoretical
frequencies f merely correspond to the fundamental frequency of a taut string having the
length l of the given subspan. They can be determined from the well known relationship:
f = (H/m)½/2l
where H and m are conductor tension and mass per unit length respectively. The next
three columns show the mode number in each subspan, sorted according to decreasing
amplitude, and then the related frequency and root-mean-square (r.m.s.) amplitude of
motion as derived from the spectral analyses. The next column deals with modal
identification.
Hence, in this case, it may be seen that all individual subspan modes participate in the
motion, all of them dominating their own terrain amplitude-wise except for subspan #3
where the snaking mode predominates although marginally. The highest subspan mode
amplitudes, about 50 mm r.m.s., occur in subspans #2 and #4. The fundamental #6
subspan mode is felt in all subspans except again for subspan #3 where its magnitude at
the point of measurements could have been small enough to have been outside of the
range of analysis. Likewise, fundamental subspan modes associated with subspans #2 and
#5 are detected in adjacent subspans #3 and #4 respectively. Some of the minor
component frequencies in subspans #3 and #4 could not be related to any classified mode
of oscillation.
It could be determined that the spectral component with a frequency of 0.729 Hz
corresponds to a snaking mode showing four loops along the span. The antinodal
amplitude of this snaking mode could be determined by best-fitting a four-loop sine curve
through the measured amplitude at each point of measurement. That yielded an antinodal
amplitude of 14.8 mm r.m.s approximately.
3
Table 5.2-1 Modal Identification of Wake-Induced Oscillations: A Case Study
4
5.2.2 Factors Influencing Oscillation
The incidence of wake-induced oscillations in transmission lines reflects the effects of
location and line design upon susceptibility to motion. Locale appears to exert an
influence because of the recurrence of auspicious winds and of the effect of local terrain
upon the smoothness of wind flow over the lines.(5-19)
5.2.2.1 Incidence of Motion
Where and when spans are susceptible to oscillation, there is a combination of wind
velocity and wind yaw angle (angular direction of approach with respect to the line)
required to initiate and maintain motion. That is evidenced in Figures 5.2-1 and 5.2-2
which show on polar plots the contour lines of maximum and average values of the
Instability Index (see Appendix for a definition of the instability index) regarding a quad
conductor bundle tested at the Hydro-Quebec test line in the Magdalen Islands (Hardy &
Van Dyke, 1995). The bundle was systematically tilted at a uniform angle of -10°
(leeward subconductors lying below windward subconductors) all along the test line to
favor incidence of oscillations as much as possible.
An Instability Index of 0.05 corresponds typically to the instrumented subconductor
oscillating at an amplitude of about two conductor diameters peak-to-peak in one
subspan. For practical purposes, such a value may be looked upon as the threshold of
wake-induced oscillations. Hence, the figures show that winds assailing the line at angles
less than about 45° do not produce oscillations. As a corollary, it is clear that winds
having the same component of wind speed perpendicular to the line but a different yaw
angle are not equivalent. Otherwise, contour lines of the instability index would appear as
straight lines parallel to the test line on the polar plots.
The instability contour lines are closed curves depicting not only a range of propitious
yaw angles but also a lower and an upper wind velocity for oscillations to occur. In this
particular case, the bundle tilt angle was fixed throughout so that stabilization at the
higher wind velocities could arise only as a result of changing aerodynamic forces. It
should be noted at this juncture that the minimum or threshold, wind velocity is often
used hereafter as a parameter for classifying susceptibility of individual spans to wake-
induced oscillation.
The instability contour lines are not quite symmetrical with respect to the normal to the
line; the center of the contour lines appears to be offset by about 20° with respect to the
normal. This may be due to the effect of conductor stranding.
Low-activity contour lines corresponding to the maximum value of the Instability Index
are somewhat more stretched out than low-activity contour lines corresponding to the
average value of the Index, but not by much. However, the maximum value of the
maximum Instability Index is about three times as high as the maximum value of the
average instability index. This suggests that the more the oscillations are violent, the less
they are sustained.
5
Figure 5.2-1. Maximum values of the instability index of a quad bundle as a function of wind
velocity and angle of approach to the line.
6
Figure 5.2-2. Average values of the instability index of a quad bundle as a function of wind
velocity and angle of approach to the line.
7
The circumstances under which wake-induced oscillation may occur appear to be
narrowly circumscribed. That is, a number of conditions must be satisfied
simultaneously. The tilt of the bundle with respect to the wind must be right, the
separation expressed as a/d, the spacing to diameter ratio, must not be too large, the
spacing system and support arrangements must be amenable, and the wind must be of
sufficient smoothness.
Observations of operating lines indicate that these conditions are simultaneously satisfied
in only a small percentage of all spans. The requirement that the wind be smooth appears
to be particularly restrictive.
The turbulence of low-altitude strong winds is largely determined by the nature of the
ground cover and of local terrain features, such as ravines. Local winds are found to be
increasingly turbulent over ice, mown grass, plowed fields, woods, towns, and cities,
respectively.(5-27) Figure 5.2-3 shows a graph representing spans in which wake-induced
oscillations have been observed or recorded, plotted according to their a/d ratio and the
type of ground cover.(5-28) The number for each entry in the graph indicates the number of
subconductors in the bundle. Lines or spans that have not oscillated are not represented in
the graph. The turbulence of the wind at conductor height is thought to be influenced to
some degree by the location and orientation of the line relative to large terrain features
such as valleys, where the wind flow may be funneled, and ridges, where the flow may be
accelerated. Little quantitative information on these effects, relative to turbulence,
appears to be available. They are not represented in Figure 5.2-3.
A trend indicated in the graph is that for small oscillations have occurred in spans having
rougher ground cover than in the case of spans with larger a/d. The dashed line indicates
a possible boundary above which lines of conventional construction do not oscillate. It is
likely that bundles having different numbers of subconductors actually have different
boundaries, but not enough data are available to distinguish them.
The indicated boundary is consistent with the geographical distribution of occurrences of
oscillation. The 500 kV system along the West Coast is largely two-bundle with a/d in the
range 10 to 11.3, much of it in regions where the ground cover is sagebrush. More than
half of the reported oscillation occurs in this system.
Two-bundles with a/d in the same range are also extensively used in the Northeast and
Middle Atlantic states. These lines traverse terrain having more generous ground cover,
and have experienced very little oscillation, other than at water crossings.
Two-conductor bundles having a/d around 15 have been used extensively in several
regions, but face their most barren terrain in the Southwest. Even there, they have
experienced little difficulty, the most troublesome 345 kV two-bundle having an a/d of
13.6 and residing in sagebrush country.
Three-conductor bundles are concentrated in the South-east, where the relatively rough
ground cover apparently protects them, and in the Northwest, where special spacing
procedures are followed to reduce the likelihood of oscillation.
8
Four-conductor bundles for 765 kV are located in the region from Illinois to New York
State, where the smoothest ground cover is field grass. With a/d in the range 13 to 15.5,
significant motion occurs in some spans.
Because of the variability of both terrain and tilts along a line, the incidence of oscillation
within lines is spotty. In uniform terrain, such as desert, as many as six or eight
contiguous spans may be found in motion simultaneously, seldom involving all phases. In
less uniform terrain, one normally finds only isolated spans or pairs of span in motion.
The phases within a given span almost always behave differently, because of differences
in tilt or spacer position, and possibly due to differences in support flexibility.
Figure 5.2-3. Effects of ground cover upon incidence of wake-induced oscillation.
The motions that occur do so only during periods when the wind speed is above
threshold, and from the proper direction. The range of wind directions that may result in
motion is different for different spans and lines. For example, Figure 5.2-4 is a polar plot
showing amplitudes of oscillation in the B1(one-loop subspan) mode that were recorded
during a certain test period in one phase of a 345 kV line.(5-6) The numbers shown in the
plot are the amplitudes of motion in inches, and their locations in the plot represent the
speeds, and directions of approach with respect to the line, of wind at the times of
recording. The enclosed regions show the combinations of wind speed and direction that
were well-represented in the test. It can
be seen that winds from a fairly broad range of azimuths caused oscillation.
9
Figure 5.2-4. Monroe-State Line 345 kV line. Top phase NE circuit B1 mode. Amplitudes
in inches peak-to-peak. Test duration: ten weeks.
In contrast, Figure 5.2-5 shows a similar plot from another test, in this case on a 500kV
line. The entries in the plot are again the amplitudes of the subspan mode. In this case, the
wind azimuth range in which oscillation occurred was clearly more limited.
Figure 5.2-5. Grizzly-Round Butte 500 kV line. North phase B1 mode. Amplitudes in
inches peak-to-peak. Test duration: six weeks.
10
Differences in tilt, spacering, terrain and line design result in different threshold wind
velocities. Observed thresholds as low as 4 m/s (10 mph) and as high as 18 m/s (40 mph)
have been found in field tests. The number of times that oscillation occurs in a particular
phase of a particular span is determined by how often the wind speed exceeds threshold
in the azimuth sector from which oscillation-producing winds come. For certain spans
having low thresholds, oscillation occurs with the passage of most major weather
systems, sometimes twice a week, and the motion endures for several hours. In most
cases, however, the required combination of wind speed and direction occurs less
frequently, for example once or twice a month, and these occasions may be limited to
winter and spring when winds tend to be stronger. Seasonal changes in foliage and crop
growth alter the effective roughness of the ground and thus the smoothness of the wind,
reducing the incidence of oscillation, or eliminating it during summer in some lines.
5.2.2.2 Design Factors (to be completed)

Revised subsection to cover former subsections Primary Factors (Number and
Arrangement of Subconductors, Separation between Subconductors, Bundle Tilt and
Spacing System) and Secondary Factors (Conductor Surfaces, Suspension Arrangements
{done} and Conductor Tension).
11
5.2.2.2.6 Suspension Arrangements
The influence of spacer characteristics upon oscillation behavior was noted above. The
mechanical characteristics of suspension arrangements at towers are also expected to
have an influence. First, they may affect the tilt of the bundle under the pressure of the
wind, and thus the position of the leeward conductor(s) in the wake(s) of the upwind
conductors. This effect is illustrated in results of tests at the Magdalen Island test line of
IREQ [Hardy & VanDyke 1995] shown in Figure 5.2-6. The figure shows the Instability
Index of side-by-side four-conductor bundles of Bersfort ACSR, one support from I-
strings and the other by V-string insulators. Both were adjusted to zero tilt in no-wind
conditions. When the wind attained velocities greater than about 35 km/h, the I-string
bundle swung into the positive tilt range that had been found in other tests to be more
stable than zero tilts.
The other potential effect of suspension arrangements has to do with the fact that they
provide some freedom for dynamic motions of conductor or bundle at towers. For
example, the links by which suspension clamps are hung from support yokes permit
lateral and longitudinal movement of the conductors with respect to each other. Use of I-
string suspensions permits corresponding movements of the bundle as a whole. The types
and magnitudes of conductor and bundle mobility depend upon the particulars of the
support design.
Experimental data from field tests on effects of support point dynamic mobility appear to
be lacking. However, computer analyses have indicated a substantial influence upon
oscillation behavior.(5-26) Also, certain features of field test data are best explained on the
basis of such effects. Specifically, the observation that the subspan modes occur in square
four-bundles only for negative tilts, and in two-bundles usually for positive tilts, indicates
some asymmetry with respect to horizontal, either in the structure of the bundle span, or
in the system of aerodynamic forces that causes the motions. The aerodynamic force
functions are symmetric about the zero tilt positions of the bundles, so the rotations of the
suspension members under the pressure of the wind on the phases are thought to be the
cause.
12
Figure 5.2-6. Oscillation severity for V- and I-insulators strings: —*—, = 0° = const. (V-strings);
— —, ≥ 0° (I-strings)
5.2.3 Damage Caused by Wake-Induced Oscillations
(*To be completed*)
5.2.4 Protection Methods
(*To be completed*)
13
5.3 ANALYSIS OF WAKE-INDUCED OSCILLATIONS
It is generally felt among researchers involved that the fundamental causes and important
mechanisms of wake-induced oscillations are understood. A number of detailed analyses
have been carried out, some of which will be described below. In many cases, these
analyses lead to results that are consistent with the observed behavior of bundles exposed
to natural winds.
The number of variables involved in the oscillations has, so far, made broad validation of
analytical attacks impossible. Too many of the variables have had to be dealt with
through assumptions, either because field data lacked sufficient detail, or because the
particular analyses in question did not provide for them: Further, the fund of quantitative
field data available for such comparisons is limited. Utilization of results of analytical
studies in design thus entails some risk.
Section 5.3 contains three parts. The first contains a qualitative description of the causes
and mechanisms of wake induced oscillations, consistent with present understanding of
them. The second and third provide an overview of the major published analyses and
wind tunnel testing programs respectively.
5.3.1 Mechanisms of Wake-Induced Oscillation

Fully developed wake-induced oscillation of a bundled span usually involves a number of
subspan sections of the bundle, and frequently, all of them. The combinations of motions
that occur are difficult to describe because so many loosely coupled parts participate in
the motion. There may, for example, be six subspans separated by mobile and somewhat
flexible spacers, with two, three, four or more subconductors in each subspan, with each
subconductor capable of vibrating in the form of loops or waves, independently, in two
separate planes, such as vertical and horizontal. The several sub-conductors within a
subspan influence one another’s motions by aerodynamic effects. The subconductor
subspans that share a spacer, or a support yoke, influence one another’s motions by
coupling through the spacer or yoke. The large number of degrees-of-freedom and the
numerous couplings between them make the analytical problem immensely complex.
Two features of the oscillations lend some simplicity, however, and these are useful in
illuminating the mechanisms involved in terms of systems that are much less complex
than full spans. First, the wind is the sole source of energy to initiate and sustain the
oscillation, and to a first approximation individual spans are autonomous: there is only a
small flow of vibration energy past support points. Second, under the influence of steady
wind, generally steady motion is eventually achieved, sometimes at a single frequency.
The motions in different parts of the bundle are of different magnitude and phase, but
they are coherent.
The coherence of motions at widely separated locations in the span and the coherence of
motions of differing phase represent a singular situation. The forces that produce such
motions require special attributes. Those attributes, and the source of energy for the
oscillations, are most easily brought out in the context of a simple two-degree-of-freedom
system. The system is illustrated in Figure 5.3-1. A windward conductor is fixed with
14
respect to ground. A leeward conductor is suspended from a two-degree-of-freedom
mechanical spring system.
Figure 5.3-1 Elementary twin-conductor system. Windward conductor fixed, leeward

conductor has two degrees of freedom.
5.3.1.1 Aerodynamic Forces

5.3.1.1.1 Static Force Field
The windward conductor of Figure 5.3-1 is subjected to aerodynamic drag determined by
its size, surface roughness, and the Reynolds number R. The drag force per unit length is,
pV 2 dCD
D= (5.1)
2
Where ρ is mass density of air
V is speed of oncoming flow
d is conductor diameter
CD is drag coefficient
CD is a function of R, as illustrated in Figure 5.3-2 for a smooth cylinder and for a
stranded conductor.(5-22) There is no lift force (transverse to the stream), at least if the
conductors are perpendicular to the flow.
The leeward conductor is also subjected to aerodynamic drag, but the magnitude of its
drag coefficient depends not only on R, but also upon where the leeward conductor lies
with respect to the wake of the windward one. This wake is a region of reduced speed of
flow, as illustrated in Figure 5.3-3, and that results in smaller drag near the center of the
wake than outside of it. If the drag coefficient for the leeward conductor is defined, as in
Equation (5.1), in terms of the free stream velocity V, the shielding effect of the
windward conductor is expressed by that drag coefficient. Figure 5.3-4 shows this drag
coefficient as a function of the location in the wake for smooth cylinders, based upon
measurements reported by Diana et al. in Italy.(5-5) The leeward conductor’s CD is
minimum at the center of the wake, and approaches that of the free stream velocity at the
wake boundary. The shielding effect diminishes as the leeward conductor is moved
downstream in the wake.
15
Figure 5.3-2 Drag coefficients vs. wind speed for smooth and stranded single
conductors.
Figure 5.3-3 Wind velocity impinging upon leeward conductor vs. position of leeward
conductor in wake.
Figure 5.3-4 Drag coefficients (CD) of a subconductor, placed in the wake of another
one, as a function of the position of subconductors in the wake. Reference 5-5.
16
The leeward conductor also experiences a lift force, transverse to the stream. In general,
the lift on the leeward conductor is directed toward the axis of the wake of the windward
conductor. Figure 5.3-5 shows the lift coefficient as a function of wake position for
smooth circular cylinders, based upon tests reported by Diana et al.(5-5) Corresponding to
Equation (5.1), the equation for the lift force per unit length of conductor is:
ρV 2 d
L= CL (5.3)
2
Figure 5.3-5 Lift coefficients (CL) of a subconductor, placed in the wake of another
one, as a function of the position of subconductors in the wake. Reference 5-5.
Wake-induced oscillations of the leeward conductor of Figure 5.3-1 are self-excited and
result from the variations in drag and lift that it experiences as it moves about in the wake
of the windward one. The drag and lift forces by the wind will cause some shift in the rest
position of the leeward conductor, due to the elasticity of its suspension, and the
particular drag and lift that correspond to that new position will be called D0 and L0, with
coefficients CD0 and CL0. It is the variations of drag and lift about D0 and L0, resulting
from excursions of the leeward conductor about the rest position, that cause the
oscillations.
If the leeward conductor is thought of as moving about in an aerodynamic force field, that
field can be represented as in Figure 5.3-6, where the resultant of D and L is shown.
A possible orbit of oscillation is shown in Figure 5.3-6, and it may be used to illustrate
the manner in which the leeward conductor acquires its energy of oscillation from the
wind. Basically, the conductor moves downstream with the strong flow of the outer wake,
and upstream against the weaker flow of the inner wake. The drag forces that do work
upon the conductor in its downstream course are larger than those against which it does
work moving upstream, so net work is done upon the conductor by the aerodynamic
forces in the course of a complete cycle of motion.
The picture can be made more dramatic by subtracting out the steady drag and lift, D0
and L0, at location “R” of Figure 5.3-6, corresponding to the rest position of the leeward
conductor. This is done in Figure 5.3-7, which shows the vector sum of D -D0 and L - L0.
This is the active part of the static force field in which the leeward conductor moves. This
Figure was produced by subtracting the vector at “R” in Figure 5.3-6 from all of the other
17
vectors. Figure 5.3-7 brings out the concept that the leeward conductor oscillates because
it is caught in a vortex.
Now it is evident that the shape of orbit has a great deal to do with how much energy the
conductor can acquire from the wind during a cycle of motion. If the orbit is a straight
line, so that in the second half of a cycle it simply retraces its path of the first half, it will
lose, going upstream, all the energy it gained going downstream. It goes with and against
the same forces at each point. In order to gain energy from the wind, the forces must be
different in the two legs of the orbit, and so, those legs must be separated. The orbit must
be open.
The particular characteristic of the static force field most directly connected with energy
input is the curl of the force. The relationship involved can be brought out through
consideration of Figure 5.3-8 (a), which represents a small square orbit. For motion
around the orbit, following the legs in order 1,2,3,4, the work done upon the conductor is:
δ W = ( D1 − D3 + L4 − L2 )Δ (5.4)
where ∆ is the length of each leg, and D1 D3, L4 and L2 are the magnitudes of D and L that
exist in the vicinities of the legs indicated by the subscripts.
Figure 5.3-6 Aerodynamic static force field acting upon leeward conductor. (R indicates
rest position).
18
Figure 5.3-7
Variable part of aerodynamic static force field acting upon leeward conductor. (Note;
scale length of vectors is twice that of Figure 5.3-6).
Figure 5.3-8
Incremental force and motion data for development of curl F (see text).
If the square orbit is small enough,

D1 − D3 ∂D
= (5.5)
Δ ∂y
and:
L2 − L4 ∂L
= (5.6)
Δ ∂x
Thus the work done is:
19
⎛ ∂D ∂L ⎞
δW = ⎜ − ⎟ Δ2 (5.7)
⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠
Now the curl of the force field is defined as:
∂D ∂L
Curl F = − (5.8)
∂y ∂x
Thus the work done is:
δ W = Δ 2curl F (5.9)
The work done in traversing an orbit that encloses two such small square orbits 1 and 2 in
Figure 5.3-8 (b) is simply the sum Δ 2 (curl F1+ curl F2) of the amounts of work done in
orbiting the two squares separately, since the elements of work done in traversing the leg
that is common to both squares cancel one another.
A large orbit of almost any shape can be built up in this manner from a number of square
elements, as in Figure 5.3-8 (c). The total work done in traversing the entire orbit is the
sum of the work done in traversing each of the square elements it contains:
Σ W = Δ 2 Σ curl Fn (5.10)
If the mesh size is allowed to approach zero, this becomes:
Σ W = ∫ ∫ curl F dxdy (5.11)
where the double integral is taken over the area of the orbit. It is clear that the orbit must
be open for work to be done on the leeward conductor.
Now:
∂D ∂L ρV 2 d ⎡ ∂CD ∂CL ⎤
curlF = − = ⎢ ∂y − ∂x ⎥ (5.12)
∂y ∂x 2 ⎣ ⎦
is not constant over the area of the wake. When curl F is calculated from sample wind
tunnel data on CD and CL, a plot such as Figure 5.3-9 results(5-19), indicating certain
regions of the wake as having larger values than others. These are the regions where
aerodynamic forces can excite oscillation the most energetically. By and large, they are
associated with rapid variations in local velocity VL with cross-wake position y. In curl F,
∂CD / ∂y is dominant; ∂CL / ∂x is numerically of much less significance.
It should be noted that the acquisition of wind energy by the orbiting conductor hinges
upon its going around the orbit in the proper direction. If counter-clockwise rotation is
taken as positive, then the sense of the orbit must be negative in the upper wake and
positive in the lower, consistent with the indications of Figure 5.3-9. Orbits A and B must
have positive sense, orbits C and D must have negative sense.
20
Figure 5.3-9 Contour representing intensity of curl of aerodynamic force field acting on
leeward conductor.
The points to be emphasized at this stage are the localized nature of the oscillation-
producing forces in the wake, and the importance of a difference in phase between the x
and y components of the leeward conductor’s motion (to produce an open orbit).
Now, sustained oscillation requires more than access to a supply of energy. Conditions
must be such that the source can be tapped on a continuing basis. Basically, this requires
a steady open orbit of motion, with the proper direction of rotation. The x and y
components of motion must be synchronized to the same frequency and must have a
certain type of phase relationship.
During steady oscillation, the frequencies of the x and y motions are indeed synchronized.
They are not equal by happenstance. In wind tunnel tests(5-4) of the system shown in
Figure 5.3-1, differences in the vertical and horizontal natural frequencies, with wind off,
caused by differences in the corresponding spring constants, have been explored for their
effects upon oscillation behavior with wind on. When the wind-off natural frequencies
are not equal, trajectories of motion resulting from an impulse to the model are not
steady, in the absence of wind, but display continually changing phase, as illustrated in
Figure 5.3-10. The rapidity of the phase change is proportional to the difference in natural
frequencies. When the wind is turned on, however, oscillation in a steady orbit occurs for
any combination of the wind-off natural frequencies, within a certain range. The shape of
orbit and its amplitude vary with the choice of frequencies, but in each case the motions
in both directions are synchronized to exactly the same frequency, and the phase is
unvarying.
21
Figure 5.3-10
Unsteady orbit produced when impulse is applied to conductor (with wind off), when
natural x and y frequencies are not equal.
Two characteristics of the aerodynamic force field in the wake of the windward
conductor are involved in this synchronization. The first is the characteristic of the
aerodynamic force field that lends it spring-like properties. L is plotted as a function of y
in Figure 5.3-11. The plot represents the force in the y direction as a function of the
displacement in the same direction. The relationship is similar to that of a non-linear
spring. For small displacements about a particular y position, the spring is essentially
linear. A similar plot of D versus x would also show a spring-like relationship, again with
locally linear behavior. These local spring constants are ∂CL / ∂y and ∂CD / ∂x each
multiplied by ρV 2 d / 2 .
The mechanical and aeroelastic spring systems add together to form a resultant spring
system, as illustrated in Figure 5.3-12. This system determines the basic natural
frequencies of the system, wind on, and the planes of its principal modes. These wind-on
natural frequencies are different from those with the wind off, but they are still generally
not equal.
22
Figure 5.3-11 Lift force L as a function of vertical displacement (y). (Note for the editor:
Substitute L to CL on the ordinate)
Figure 5.3-12 Equivalent spring system acting upon leeward conductor.
The other characteristic of the wake forces involved in the synchronization of frequencies
is the same one responsible for energy input: curl F. The aeroelastic spring system
discussed above may modify the original natural frequencies in a way that increases or
lessens their separation. It is the action of curl F that actually brings them to the same
value, in cases where that occurs. If the orbit of oscillation contains a linear component,
such that it is elliptical rather than circular, curl F causes further shifts in the two natural
frequencies. The directions and magnitudes of these shifts depend on the eccentricity of
the orbit and the orientation of its major axis.
Generally speaking, there is a continuum of orbit shape and orientation combinations,
within which the natural frequencies may be shifted by the two aerodynamic mechanisms
to be made equal.
Only certain orbits occur, however. Selection out of the range of choices available is
determined by energy balance considerations internal to the system. These are different
from those pertaining to the “global” energy balance, the total input to, and total
dissipation of, the system. That balance will be dealt with later. The considerations that
govern orbit shape and orientation arise from the fact that the force associated with curl F
imparts energy to the system with proportions among the x and y coordinates that are
usually different from the proportions in which the system can dispose of energy to the
ultimate sources of dissipation. The energy must be redistributed among the coordinates
by couplings within the system to satisfy an internal energy budget.
The nature of the curl force is such that it imparts energy to the x and y components of
motion in equal amounts. In fact, it imparts energy to motions in any two perpendicular
coordinates in equal amounts.
The dissipation of energy, on the other hand, is not partitioned among coordinates in a
simple manner, but varies with their relative amplitudes, with the damping assumed in
the springs of the suspension, and with aerodynamic damping effects.
Now, the precessing orbit of Figure 5.3-10 illustrates the passing of vibration energy
from one normal mode to another. These modes are aligned with the ±45º axes for the
case illustrated. There is a continual transfer of energy from one mode to the other and
then back again as the orbit precesses. The rate and direction of transfer at any moment
depends on the orientation, eccentricity and direction of rotation of the orbit at that time.
An orbit of stable shape can occur when this transfer just balances the inequality of
dissipation between the two modes.
23
Two conditions must be met for an orbit to occur that is stable in shape. First, the
frequencies in the x and y directions must be synchronized, and this is brought about
through the action of the curl force component. Second, the internal energy budget must
be balanced in such a way that the energies in the x and y directions maintain a constant
ratio. This is achieved through the action of the energy transfers described above.
There turn out to be just two orbits that simultaneously satisfy both conditions, given the
wind speed, mechanical parameters of the system, and the at-rest, wind-on location of the
leeward conductor in the wake. One rotates positively (counter-clockwise) and the other
negatively (clockwise).
The importance of the interaction between the spring-like forces (Figure 5.3-12) and the
curl force (Figure 5.3-9) was illustrated in wind tunnel experiments on the system of
Figure 5.3-1, carried out at the Canadian National Research Council (5-21). The suspension
was essentially that illustrated in Figure 5.3-13.
Figure 5.3-13. Suspension system used in tests of Figure 5.3-14.
The wind tunnel test results are summarized in Figure 5.3-14, which shows stability
boundaries, in terms of wake position, for several wind velocities. Oscillation occurred
when the leeward conductor’s rest position (wind off) fell within the boundary pertaining
to the wind velocity in question.
Figure 5.3-14. Wind tunnel test results (*to come*).
In the present context, the significant feature in Figure 5.3-14 is the omission of the upper
half of the wake. That half was omitted because no oscillation occurred there at any wake
location, at any wind velocity. Although just as much curl-derived energy is available
there (see Figure 5.3-9), the orbital direction required to serve internal energy flows
(counterclockwise) is opposite to that which permits that energy source to be tapped
(clockwise). Although the symmetry of the aerodynamic forces about the axis of the
wake would have permitted a clockwise orbit in the upper wake, the mechanical
couplings from the spring system were not symmetrical. The blow-back angle was the
same in both halves of the wake. Thus the effective spring system in Figure 5.3-12 was
different in the lower and upper wakes. In the lower wake, the system resulted in natural
frequencies that were nearly enough equal for curl force action to bring them to
synchronism. In the upper wake it did not.
24
5.3.1.1.2 Velocity-Dependent Forces
The above description is accurate only when the leeward conductor moves in its orbit
very slowly, relative to the speed of the wind. When the velocity of motion is significant,
as it is in actual wake-induced oscillations, the velocity of flow relative to the conductor
is changed, and this changes the aerodynamic forces.
For example, in Figure 5.3-15, the effect of vertical velocity of motion upon the drag
force is to present the leeward conductor with an apparent wind that is the vector
difference between the local flow velocity in the wake, VL, and the conductor's vertical
velocity y& . Because y& is substantially smaller than VL, in general, the apparent wind
speed is still approximately VL, but its direction is tilted downward by an angle Tan-
1
( y& /VL) which is approximately equal to y& /VL. The deflection of the direction of the
apparent wind deflects the drag vector, resulting in a vertical component of drag given by
(D/VL) y& The velocity thus causes a vertical opposing force, proportional to it.
Figure 5.3-15 Effect of vertical velocity of leeward conductor upon drag force applied to
leeward conductor.
Figure 5.3-16 Effect of transverse velocity of leeward conductor upon apparent wind
velocity applied to leeward conductor.
Figure 5.3-16 illustrates the leeward conductor with a velocity of motion in the
downstream direction of x& . The magnitude of the drag acting upon it is reduced because
it is moving with the local flow VL. The amount of the change can be estimated by means
of Equation (5.1), by substituting for VL in that equation, the relative flow speed with
respect to the conductor, which is (VL - x& ). The result is:
25
ρVL 2 d ρVL 2 d 2CDO ρ x& 2 d
D= CDO − x& + CDO (5.18)
2 2 VL 2
The last term is small enough to be dropped in practical cases, so the change in D that
results from x& is:
ρVL 2 d ⎛ 2CDO ⎞
Dx& = − ⎜ ⎟ x& (5.19)
2 V
⎝ L ⎠
The force associated with x& is, then, one opposing and proportional to x& .
These forces that arise from the velocity of motion of the leeward conductor have the
character of damping forces, since they are, for small values of x& and y& , proportional to
the conductor velocity. They are thus called “aerodynamic dampings.” Both are
proportional to ρVL 2 d / 2 , or to ρV 2 d / 2 if CD is defined in terms of the speed of the free
stream as in Equation (5.1).
The influence of these forces on the power balance may be illustrated in terms of the orbit
shown in Figure 5.3-17, in which the leeward conductor is assumed to move with
significant velocity. The conductor receives energy from the flow, basically because the
drag is greater in the vicinity of b than d, due to shielding effects. However, to the extent
that x& is significant at those locations, the difference in those drags is reduced, consistent
with Equation (5.19), and the net energy received per cycle is reduced. This reduction is
treated conceptually as a distinct dissipation.
Loss of energy also occurs in the vicinities of a and c through the deflection of the
apparent wind direction, as described earlier.
Figure 5.3-17 Wind velocities affecting moving leeward conductor.
26
Both losses increase with increased velocity of motion of the leeward conductor, and
thus, with increase in frequency. If frequency is continually increased, a point is reached
at which energy input and these losses are in balance. Oscillation at any higher frequency
could occur only with the support of some external source of power.
Now the frequency of the oscillation is always very close to a natural frequency of the
system. The global energy balance is therefore strongly influenced by such frequencies. If
they are too high, the velocity of vibration is always too great to permit the curl-derived
energy to carry the aerodynamic damping losses, and oscillation will not occur. This
mechanism may be usefully exploited in protecting operating lines, as will be discussed
in Section 5.5.
5.3.1.2 Global Energy Balance
The amplitudes of orbital oscillation grow until global energy balance is achieved.
Energy derived from aerodynamic forces during each orbit’s sweep of the curl field goes
into added potential and kinetic energy of vibration or into dissipation through the
aerodynamic dampings or losses in the mechanical structure of the system. The part that
goes into stored energy appears as increased amplitude.
As amplitude grows, so does the energy input per cycle, because of the expanding area of
the curl field being swept, and so do the losses to dissipation. The balance between the
two changes with amplitude. The losses vary roughly as the square of amplitude. So does
energy input when amplitudes are small, because the area swept by the orbit varies with
the square of amplitude, and the strength of the curl field being swept is nearly constant.
See, for example, orbits A and C of Figure 5.3-9.
Figure 5.3-18 Results of wind tunnel tests of suspension system shown in Figure 5.3-1.
Reference 5-21.
As amplitude becomes larger, however, the curl field is no longer uniform in strength
within the orbit (orbit B of Figure 5.3-9), and the energy input no longer keeps pace with
increase in dissipation. Ultimately, an amplitude is reached at which global energy
balance is achieved.
The balance between input and dissipation is influenced by other factors, such as changes
in orbit shape due to variations in aerodynamic damping as amplitude increases.
27
Now the energy gained per orbital cycle from the curl field is independent of frequency.
However, dissipation is influenced by frequency, since the aerodynamic damping forces
are proportional to conductor velocity. Thus, global energy balance in a particular orbit
may be achievable at low frequency but not at high frequency. The maximum frequency
at which balance can be achieved can be termed the “threshold frequency” for the orbit,
given the wind velocity.
Correspondingly, both energy input and dissipation ordinarily increase with increased
wind speed, given the orbit and frequency of oscillation. The energy input increases with
the square of wind speed, since drag and lift and their x and y derivatives do. The
aerodynamic damping forces increase only linearly with wind speed, however (see
Equation (5.19)), so global energy balance may be possible at high wind speed, but not at
low. The minimum wind speed that permits global energy balance is called “threshold
wind velocity.” The contours of Figure 5.3-18 represent the threshold velocities at
various wake locations.
Determination of threshold wind velocity is complicated by the fact that the drag and lift
coefficients may vary with Reynolds number, and consequently with wind speed. The
drag and lift, and thus the intensity of the curl force field, may then not vary with V2.
Threshold wind velocity may be substantially higher than would have been predicted had
these Reynolds number effects been ignored.
5.3.1.3 Summary of Aerodynamic Effects

The aerodynamic forces that act on conductors in wakes are clearly complex. Their
salient features are:
a. A component of the static force field, its curl, that permits input of energy to leeward
conductors executing orbital oscillations, and that also acts to synchronize the frequencies
of motion in different degrees of freedom.
b. A spring-like component that modifies the natural frequencies and modes from those
with the wind off.
c. Aerodynamic “damping” forces that dissipate energy of oscillation and thus help
establish the global energy balance of the system, and which also participate in the
constraints that determine the flows of energy internal to the oscillating system.
The mechanical couplings within the system, as modified by the aeroelastic couplings,
provide the means by which internal energy flows occur. These flows are determined by
the shape and orientation of the orbit of motion, as is the frequency- synchronizing effect
of the curl of the static force field. These two relationships determine between them two
orbits that are stable in shape and orientation.
The global energy balance associated with each orbit determines whether it will grow in
amplitude, decay, or remain steady. Since one of the orbits rotates against the curl-
derived force field, it always decays. The other may grow if wind velocity is great
enough, and oscillation frequency is not too high.
28
5.3.1.4 Oscillation of Bundles
The simple two-degree-of-freedom system discussed above and illustrated in Figure 5.3-1
has the same general properties and types of behavior as certain field spans. A leeward
cable may oscillate in the wake of a windward one that is largely stationary. This is
occasionally observed when two self-supporting telephone cables are supported at about
the same height on opposite sides of a pole, as in Figure 5.3-19. The motions observed in
this situation are not galloping in the sense of Chapter 4, although such cables may be
subject to such galloping when free of wake effects.
Figure 5.3-19 Wake-induced oscillation of leeward telephone cable.
Wake-induced oscillation involving only the leeward conductor is occasionally observed

in bundles that are supported by V-strings, where the subspans between spacers are very
nearly equal, as in Figure 5.3-20.
Figure 5.3-20 Wake-induced oscillation of leeward subconductor. (Bundles supported

by V-strings. Nearly equal subspans).
In these cases, motions are well represented in terms of one of the vertical and one of the
horizontal normal modes of the leeward cable or conductor. Little coupling of the motion
in those modes to other modes, or to motion of the windward cable, takes place. The
behavior is essentially that of the two-degree-of-freedom system dealt with above.
In the vast majority of bundle spans, however, some motion is transmitted to the
windward conductor, either through support point movements, or through spacers that do
not fall precisely on the node points of the loops in the leeward conductor.
Even when this happens, the motions that occur may be relatively simple, at least in
concept. That simplicity is found in the rigid-body modes.
29
5.3.1.4.1 Rigid-Body Modes
The rigid-body forms of wake-induced oscillation are basically combinations of the
undamped rolling and the vertical and horizontal galloping modes. When oscillation
occurs, one of these motions is dominant and gives its name to the wind-induced motion.
Apparently in all cases, however, a second component of motion is present, and the
instability boils down to a two-degree-of-freedom situation involving two out of the three
degrees of freedom of the bundle as a unit: vertical and horizontal displacement, and
rotation.
Wake-induced vertical galloping combines vertical motion with rotation. Wake-induced
horizontal galloping involves horizontal displacement and rotation. Wake-induced rolling
appears to combine rotation with vertical displacement, although the latter is often
discernible only in terms of a phase lag between the motions of the subconductors.
In each case, mechanisms exist that are analogous to those described above, through
which energy input, frequency equalization, internal energy budgeting and global energy
balancing are brought about. The mechanisms are harder to visualize, since the static
force fields involved do not map directly onto the wake, as was the case in the previous
section. An extended discussion of these mechanisms may be found in the first edition of
this book.
It should be pointed out that the rigid body modes are specialized forms of galloping.
Chapter 4 of this book deals with galloping of ice-coated conductors, the ice coatings
lending the conductors aerodynamic characteristics that lead to aerodynamic instability.
However, conductor bundles, even without ice, possess some of those characteristics.
Leeward subconductors experience wake-induced lift and drag forces that are functions
of the instantaneous tilt of the bundle with respect to the apparent wind. These forces are
shared with the bundle as a whole through coupling by the spacers. The bundle thus can
have lift, drag and moment characteristics similar to those illustrated in Chapter 4 for iced
conductors.
The ranges of tilt (angle of attack) where the slopes of the lift characteristics are
conducive to galloping instability are narrow for bundles without ice, because of the
narrowness of the wakes of the upwind conductors. Thus, conditions where the rigid
body modes may occur are similarly narrow. They are not often observed, and the
vertical galloping mode in particular is rarely seen.
5.3.1.4.2 Subspan Oscillations

Subspan oscillations occur when the spacers and supports transmit some of the leeward
conductor’s energy to windward conductors in a form that is not incorporated into rigid-
body motions. A distinctive feature of subspan oscillations is the distribution of the
energy of motion within the span.
The rigid-body modes take the form of one or several sine-shaped loops between
supports, and when there are several loops they are identical in amplitude and orbit shape.
All loops are part of the same simple mode, and energy of motion is the same in each
loop.
30
In subspan oscillation, the action of spacers is to partially isolate certain motions in some
subspans from corresponding motions in others, and those motions may incorporate
different amplitudes, and thus, different energies in the different subspans.
This may be illustrated by considering certain motions in a two-conductor bundle
equipped with completely-rigid spacers, in the absence of wind, illustrated in Figure 5.3-
21. The motion considered is one of the resonances of the bundle, and takes place in the
plane of the bundle. Since the amplitudes of the two subconductors in the vibrating
subspan are equal, the forces acting upon the spacers at either end of that subspan are
always in balance, and the spacers do not move. Adjacent subspans do not feel the
motions of the vibrating subspan.
Figure 5.3-21 Horizontal oscillation of single subspan of two-conductor bundle with rigid
spacers. (No wind).
In the case illustrated, each subspan is capable of motions of this type, independent of
what the other subspans are doing. In fact, each can perform such motions with two,
three, or more loops within it. These motions are fully trapped within subspans. They
may exist simultaneously with, and independent of, the rigid-body modes.
31
Figure 5.3-22 Horizontal subspan oscillations involving all subspans between
supporting structures. (Two-conductor bundle with flexible intermediate spacers).
Reference 5-35.
If the spacers are not rigid, the motions in adjacent subspans are coupled through motions
of the spacer clamps. In this case, instead of having a series of modes for each subspan,
corresponding to its harmonics, with the modes for each subspan independent of those in
the others, there is instead a series of modes of the span as a whole, each generally
involving motions in all subspans. The modes in this series are represented by different
ratios of amplitudes among the various subspans, and each mode has, in general, a
different frequency. The node points do not fall precisely at spacers.
A sample set of such modes is shown in Figure 5.3-22, based upon calculations by Claren
et al.(5-35) Each of the three modes shown is reminiscent of a mode like that of Figure 5.3-
21, in that one subspan has most of the amplitude and energy. However, in this case,
spacer flexibility couples the dominant subspan to the others, and they perform motions
such as to assure balance of forces on the spacers. Note that none of the frequencies of
these modes is equal to what it would be were the spacers rigid. These frequencies are
shown in Table 5.3-1.
Table 5.3-1 Title
Dominant Frequency
Length
Subspan
Rigid Spacers Flexible Spacers
1 15 m 5.16 Hz 5.05 Hz
2 16 m 4.84 4.31
3 15.52 m 4.99 4.84
The mechanism involved here is that of a discontinuous change in the shape of vibration
loops by the force that is applied to the conductor by the spacer. With rigid spacers, the
loops are simply terminated at the spacers (and supports), but with the flexible spacers,
the loops continue past the spacers following a step change in slope. The magnitude of
the change in slope is proportional to the force applied by the spacer, which, for linearly
elastic spacers, is proportional to the deflection of the spacer from its at-rest length. Thus,
the change in slope of the loop as it passes the spacer is proportional to the amplitude of
the loop as it reaches that location. The net effect is to leave the force in the spacer
balanced by the transverse components of conductor tension, as illustrated in Figure 5.3-
23.
32
Figure 5.3-23 Components of force applied to flexible spacer.
Now the modes shown in Figure 5.3-22 are undamped normal modes of the bundle. To a
first approximation, each of them taken separately is analogous to the x-degree-of-
freedom motion in the simple two-degree-of-freedom system discussed earlier. Use of
that analogy permits illumination of mechanisms involved in the subspan mode of wake-
induced oscillation.
5.3.1.4.3 Normal Mode Combinations

The bundle as a whole is subject to the same constraints as the two-degree-of-freedom
system in performing steady wake-induced oscillations. There must be energy input to
supply the losses to dissipation. The frequencies of the modes involved must be
synchronized. Flows of energy within the structure must be matched to the distributions
of energy input and dissipation among its various components.
Physically, the wind does work on individual elements of the leeward conductor. If the
bundle as a whole is to receive energy, at least some of those elements must move in
open orbits. Each of the undamped normal modes involves planar motions, however.
Often the several conductors move in different planes within a mode in bundles of more
than two conductors, but no conductor moves with an open orbit.
It takes the combination of two mode types to create an open orbit, and in subspan
oscillation one of them is a subspan normal mode. Figure 5.3-24 illustrates the
combination of the rigid body rolling with a subspan normal mode to create orbital
motion, and thus permit input of energy.
33
Figure 5.3-24 Combination of rolling and normal subspan oscillation, creating orbital
motion in both conductors of a two-conductor bundle.
The fact that both conductors have orbits in Figure 5.3-24 tends to be confusing. In
natural oscillation of real bundles, windward conductors are usually in motion, unlike the
case with the two-degree-of-freedom model discussed previously (e.g. Figure 5.3-17).
For the pair of orbits shown, however, the effect of the windward conductor’s
displacements is to double the displacement of the leeward conductor relative to the
windward one’s wake, and thus to amplify the aerodynamic force variations that act upon
the leeward conductor. Qualitatively, the static aerodynamic effects are the same as if the
windward conductor were still.
The orbit that is created is different at different points along the span. Just how these
orbits differ depends upon just which of the subspan normal modes is involved, and the
differences are important. This may be illustrated in terms of the subspan normal modes
of Figure 5.3-22.
Figure 5.3-25 shows the orbits that would be traced at the middle of each subspan when
each of the modes of Figure 5.3-22 is combined with three-loop rolling motion, assuming
that the subspan motions are in quadrature with the rolling motion. The orbits can be
reversed in any case by reversing the phase of the rolling mode.
Now the orbits illustrated in the case at the top all rotate in the same sense, and that sense
is such that energy input from the curl field occurs for negative tilts if the wind is from
the left. In the other two cases, however, which involve the second and third modes of
Figure 5.3-22, one of the subspans orbits in the direction opposite from the other two.
Thus, if the bundle is tilted uniformly along its length in the right direction, two subspans
can receive energy from the curl component of the wind force, but the third must yield
energy back.
The global energy input is determined by integrating over the full length of the span, and
clearly, the first mode combination receives the most abundant supply of energy.
34
The frequencies of the undamped subspan mode components of motion are 5.05, 4.31,
and 4.84 Hz, respectively. The frequency of the rolling component is 4.99 Hz in all cases.
The spring-like component of wind force will modify each of these, but will still leave
them different, so curl field action will be required in different degrees to effect
frequency synchronization of the two mode types in each case. The reversed phase
relationships in the second and third cases weaken this action, as well as the effectiveness
of the couplings in shifting energy from one mode to the other. The first case in Figure
5.3-25 is thus the most likely to experience wake-induced oscillation. The frequencies for
the case illustrated are rather high for that to happen, however.
5.3.1.4.4 Effects of Unequal Subspans

Subspan staggering systems employ patterns of unequal distance between adjacent
spacers within a span to reduce the range of conditions under which oscillation may
occur. Their general effect is to increase the threshold wind velocity. Three mechanisms
involved can be identified in terms of the case discussed above.
35
Figure 5.3-25 Development of open subspan orbits in two-conductor bundle by
combination of rigid rolling with subspan normal mode.
The first mechanism is reduced coherence between the normal modes participating in the
motion. The orbit shape is different at various locations along the span, with the result
that efficient input of energy from the wind occurs only in some parts.
Orbit differences are apparent in Figure 5.3-25, relative to the midspan orbits. However,
it is also true that the nodes of the subspan modes of Figure 5.3-22 are displaced from the
nodes of the rolling mode. Thus at the locations of the nodes for the rolling mode, motion
in the subspan mode creates a straight-line orbit which gathers no energy, but which does
suffer aerodynamic damping.
This reduced coherence, and the attendant effects on local orbit shape result essentially
from the fact that the spacers shift the loops of the two mode types along the span with
respect to one another. The subspan mode loops and the rolling mode loops are not “in
phase” in terms of the spanwise positions.
The second mechanism is the concentration of energy input in one or a few subspans,
without corresponding concentration of dissipation. The relative areas of the orbits in
each case in Figure 5.3-25 illustrate the concentration of energy input. That concentration
is associated with the partial entrapment of the subspan mode in subspan 1, 2, or 3 in
Case I, II, or III, respectively. However, the rolling mode is not entrapped by the spacers.
This mode, which is a necessary part of the energy-gathering orbit of the dominant
subspan, must also be present in the other subspans, where its motions cause
aerodynamic damping. In effect, this mechanism harnesses the aerodynamic damping
loads of all subspans to the limited energy input of the dominant subspan or subspans.
This mechanism has the greatest leverage in two- and three-conductor bundles, since the
selection of mode types available for forming orbits is most limited there. As the number
of subconductors increases, there is a corresponding increase in the number of types of
subspan mode. These different types of subspan mode lie in different planes. Orbits may
then be formed entirely from subspan modes, certain pairs of which may turn out to be
dominant in the same subspan. The effect is quite noticeable in four-conductor bundles
equipped with rigid spacers, where all oscillation motion may be concentrated in a single
subspan, as illustrated in Figure 5.3-26. The top two panels of that figure indicate simple
one-loop normal modes of the type shown in Figure 5.3-21 involving different pairs of
subconductors. The top panel indicates horizontal motions, with the top pair and bottom
pair moving in phase opposition. The middle panel shows vertical motions with the left-
hand pair and right-hand pair moving in opposite phase. When the two sets of motions
are superimposed with their phases in quadrature, the fully trapped subspan motion of the
last panel results.
In a real bundle experiencing actual subspan motion, there would have to be at least a
small amount of bodily motion of the spacers to permit transfer of energy from the
leeward to the windward conductors, in order to sustain their motion.
The third mechanism through which subspan staggering systems raise threshold wind
velocity is detuning of frequencies of the modes participating in the motion. In the
illustrations of Figures 5.3-22 and 5.3-25, the subspan mode of Case I had a frequency of
36
5.05 Hz, while the nearest rolling mode had a frequency of 4.99. This small frequency
difference is within the range that can be eliminated by the action of the curl component
of the aerodynamic forces. More generous differences between subspan lengths would
increase the frequency difference, however, requiring a higher wind velocity to suppress
it.
Figure 5.3-26 Formation of open subspan orbits in four-conductor bundle due to

transverse and vertical normal modes.
Identification of the three mechanisms described above is useful in relating subspan

oscillation of full bundles to the simple two-degree-of-freedom model of Figure 5.3-1.
There are, however, fundamental differences, between that simple system and full
bundles, which have been ignored in the interest of simplicity. When those differences
are taken into account, the three mechanisms above turn out to be different aspects of one
more-fundamental mechanism.
37
5.3.1.4.5 Wave Motions in Bundles
In the descriptions above of wake-induced oscillations of full bundles, the conductor
motions have been characterized by undamped normal modes of the bundle: the rolling,
vertical and horizontal galloping, and subspan modes. These undamped normal modes
take the form of standing waves as in Figure 5.3-22. Actual motions are more complex in
that traveling waves are present and are, in fact, necessary to a rigorous description of the
phenomenon. They are necessary in order to properly account for flows of vibration
energy within bundles.
A singular characteristic of standing-wave vibrations is that there is no movement of
vibration energy from one location in the structure to another. All forces and moments
are in quadrature with velocities of motion, so that the vector product of any force, and
the velocity with which it acts, is zero. No element of the structure can do net work on an
adjacent element over a cycle of motion.
Energy does flow within bundles during steady oscillation, however. For example, in the
illustration of Figures 5.3-22 and 5.3-25, energy must flow from the dominant subspan to
the other subspans to sustain motion against the aerodynamic damping and loss of energy
due to orbiting against the curl of the force field. Also, when a windward conductor
participates in the motion, energy flows to it from a leeward conductor, which has a
supply of wake-derived energy, to sustain the windward conductor’s motion against
aerodynamic damping.
Vibration energy imparted to a conductor by an external force takes the form of a
continuous train of traveling waves moving along the conductor away from the point
where the force is applied, as in Figure 5.3-27. If the conductor is subject to distributed
positive damping, such as aerodynamic damping, the wave decays as it travels. If the
damping is negative, reflecting input of energy from the wind, the wave grows as it
travels, and its increased amplitude indicates increased energy borne by the wave.
Figure 5.3-27 Planar traveling wave.
The waves involved in wake-induced oscillations are generally not planar waves like that
illustrated in Figure 5.3-27, but rather, helically-shaped, corkscrew waves as in Figure
5.3-28. They have certain orbit shapes and orientations associated with them, and certain
rates of decay or growth with travel, which depend upon the wind’s velocity, the position
of the leeward conductor in the wake of the windward one and the frequency of the wave.
The waves propagate at approximately the taut string wave velocity, VT = H / m .
38
Figure 5.3-28 Helical traveling wave.
The total motion of an oscillating bundle is a combination of such waves traveling in the
various subconductors of the several subspans. There are usually waves of similar shape
moving in opposite directions, which superimpose to form a visible standing wave
pattern. These standing waves are not pure, however. There is almost always a traveling-
wave component, and it is this component that is responsible for net transport of energy
within the bundle.
Although the traveling-wave motions are complex, they may be resolved into four basic
types known as normal propagation modes, and any steady wake-induced motion that a
bundle is capable of, subspan, rolling, or vertical or horizontal galloping, may be
synthesized from some combination of them. The combination is likely to be different in
different subspans and in different windward-leeward pairs of subconductors of the same
subspan. The four basic wave mode types are illustrated in Figure 5.3-29.
39
Figure 5.3-29 Basic types of traveling wave propagation modes for two-conductor
bundles. Reference 5-6
At each spacer, there are sixteen such wave modes for each windward-leeward conductor
pair: four incoming from each side, and four outgoing. Broadly speaking, the spacer acts
as a mode conversion device: each incoming mode is partly transmitted past the spacer,
partly reflected back into the subspan from which it approached, and partly converted to
other mode types and dispersed in either direction from the spacer. Each of the eight
incoming wave modes for each conductor pair experiences this process. If there are
several windward-leeward conductor pairs, say three, then there are twenty-four outgoing
wave modes into which each incoming mode may be dispersed.
Now only one mode type in each set of four that traverses any subspan is capable of
growth: Type 4 of Figure 5.3-29. The others decay. It is useful to view the Type 4 mode
as the medium through which the wind imparts energy to the span, and to view Types 1,
2, and 3 as damping media. (This view is not completely rigorous, but is sufficiently so to
illustrate the role of spacers in oscillations.) To the extent that the spacers are effective in
mode conversion, they channel the wind energy borne by the incoming Type 4 modes to
the other three modes, where that energy is dissipated through aerodynamic damping.
Some energy may be dissipated in the spacers during the conversion.
Energy disposed of in these ways is not available to build up the amplitude in the span. If
the disposal of the Type 4 mode energy is efficient enough, oscillation cannot occur.
The effectiveness of the mode conversions is strongly influenced by spacer
characteristics, and by their positioning in the span. Very flexible spacers would, of
course, exert only small forces opposing the motions of the conductors, and would thus
40
be inefficient at mode conversion. Also, if the spacers all fall at, or quite near, natural
nodes of the span, the motions they experience are too small to result in significant forces
on the conductors, and mode conversion is again inefficient. The most severe wake-
induced oscillation in the subspan mode in field spans is, in fact, found where all
subspans are equal.
5.3.1.4.6 Additional Factors

The descriptions above of the mechanisms involved in wake-induced oscillation are quite
simplified, Considerable detail that is needed in exact analysis has been omitted, as not
necessary to basic understanding. Certain effects should be mentioned, however, because
of their leverage upon practical performance of field spans.
Two of these effects pertain to types of waves that move in the conductors in addition to
the lateral displacement waves illustrated in Figure 5.3-29. These additional waves are
torsional and longitudinal waves. Neither is excited directly by wind forces, and both
travel substantially faster than the latera1 waves of Figure 5.3-29. They occur when
lateral waves force motions at spacers or supports that tend to twist or to stretch the
subconductors. For example, a pivoted spacer arm necessarily twists the conductor in the
course of lateral motion, if the pivot axis is parallel to the conductors.
These waves provide additional paths for dispersion of the normal propagation modes.
They tend to increase the natural frequencies of certain of the undamped normal modes.
The torsional waves have a significant effect in all three types of wake-induced rigid-
body oscillations. The longitudinal waves have a small influence in vertical galloping.
41
5.3.2 Survey of Analytical Methods
The preceding section gives an overview of the physical phenomena involved in wake-
induced oscillation. During the years following its emergence as a serious problem there
was a sustained effort to put this technology in an analytical framework that could be
applied in line design. The effort met with limited success. It did lead to clearer
understanding of the mechanisms involved and their relative importance, and pointed to
the more fruitful approaches to controlling oscillation. However, it did not result in a
capability to predict the behavior of field spans numerically with any degree of
confidence.
The main reason for this failure was the sheer complexity of the phenomenon. First, there
are a great many variables involved. Second, their interactions are nonlinear. The result is
that large and complex computer programs are required for analysis of field spans. The
large number of variables, and the expense of field testing, have made it impractical to
properly verify analytical predictions. Their reliability remains unclear.
The first edition of this reference book contained an extended discussion of the published
analyses of wake-induced oscillation, intended in large part to guide further effort on the
analytical approach to the problem. What follows here is a much-reduced version of that
discussion, aimed only at providing background for designers who may wish to look
further into the area.
The literature on analysis of wake-induced oscillation of bundled conductors began in

1967 with an exploratory report by I. P. Smith [5-36] of the Central Electricity Research
Laboratories (United Kingdom). Various analyses have been published since. Taken as a
group, these analyses reflect the growth of understanding of the phenomenon, and the
increasing sophistication of the analytical methods applied to it, during the decade
following Smith’s report.
5.3.2.1 Two-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

I. P. Smith’s exploratory analysis was put in more concise form and expanded by Alan
Simpson of the University of Bristol. Simpson’s analysis [5-24] remains the definitive
one for the basic two-degree-of-freedom system shown in Figure 5.3-1, and the
corresponding bundle mode illustrated in Figures 5.3-19 and 5.3-20. The analysis takes
into account all energy effects as well as frequency synchronization (confluence).
Aeroelastic and mechanical couplings are considered. The analysis is linear, and thus is
suitable for evaluating stability of the system and buildup rates. A number of similar
analyses have since appeared that extend Simpson’s or that study simplifications of it or
cast it in other coordinate systems [5-2, 34, 53, 56, 58].
42
5.3.2.2 Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom Analyses
Two analyses have been published in which a short segment of a bundle is modeled with
all subconductors free to oscillate. Ko [5-56] considered the case of a 4-bundle modeled
as in Figure 5.3-30. The four conductor segments were suspended from a massless frame
by independent spring systems that could be assigned various spring constants and
orientations relative to the frame. The frame was sprung from ground such as to permit
motions of the bundle in the rolling and the horizontal and vertical galloping modes. The
orientations and constants of the various springs could be chosen on the basis of a
separate finite element analysis of full-bundle undamped normal modes. The model
incorporated aerodynamic coefficients derived from wind tunnel tests.
A similar analysis was announced by Claren et al [5-61]. In that analysis, the massless
frame and frame-to-conductor springs were replaced by a spacer or damping spacer. The
frame-to-ground springs were selected to permit rigid-body motions of the model bundle.
The analysis was extended to bundles having as many as six conductors. The analysis
utilized aerodynamic coefficients based on wind tunnel tests on smooth cylinders.
These analyses are strictly applicable only to the type of model illustrated in Figure 5.3-
30, and are useful in fundamental research.
Figure 5.3-30 Physical representation of mathematical model of segment of four-

conductor bundle used in multi-degree-of-freedom analyses.
5.3.2.3 Energy Methods

The analyses discussed so far are linear. They are realistic for small amplitudes of motion
and are useful in predicting conditions under which small amplitudes can grow and, if so,
how rapidly. Linear analyses do not permit prediction of the maximum amplitudes that
43
oscillation will achieve. To circumvent this limitation, Diana and Gasparetto [5-51]
applied the principle of conservation of energy to the global energy balance in Simpson’s
simple system, thus taking partially into account the non-uniformity of the aerodynamic
force field (see Figures 5.3-4, 5.3-5, 5.3-6, 5.3-7, and 5.3-9).
Diana et al. later extended the above global energy balance procedure to full bundles [5-
5]. In that analysis, the selection of modes considered was again restricted, this time to
undamped normal modes of the bundle span as determined in a separate normal mode
analysis [5-35]. Global energy balance was determined assuming simultaneous presence
of two of these undamped normal modes, with their motions in quadrature as illustrated
in Figure 5.3-25.
5.3.2.4 Normal Propagation Mode Method

The usefulness of methods that represent bundle motion by combinations of undamped
normal modes is questionable where spanwise flows of vibration energy are significant,
since those modes do not contain the traveling-wave components that make these energy
flows possible. Spanwise flows of energy are necessary in the subspan modes of wake-
induced oscillation if windward conductors participate in the motion.
Rawlins [5-33] extended the transfer matrix method of Claren et al. [5-35], which was
based on undamped normal modes, by introduction of traveling-wave type normal
propagation modes such as those illustrated in Figure 5.3-28. Use of these modes
permitted proper accounting of flows of energy internal to the bundle. Their application
in the transfer matrix method retained that method’s rigor with respect to bundle
frequencies. The normal propagation mode method was further extended to cover various
secondary effects [5-26]. The method can be used to predict the wake-induced oscillation
modes that may occur in a particular bundled span, and the minimum wind velocities that
can cause them. Since it is a linear analysis, limit cycle amplitudes cannot be predicted.
5.3.2.5 Linear Finite Element Analyses

Finite element methods permit useful degrees of realism and accuracy to be attained with
large but finite numbers of degrees of freedom. In this approach, the conductors of the
bundle are broken down into a number of simple segments, such as rods connected end-
to-end. These segments or elements are governed by ordinary, rather than partial,
differential equations, and equations of motion of bundle systems may then be cast as a
set of simultaneous ordinary differential equations. These may be solved by algebraic
eigenanalysis.
In theory, finite element methods can be made to yield results that come arbitrarily close
to exact behavior of the bundle. How close depends upon the type of element employed,
and how finely the bundle is divided into elements. The choice of type of element and
mesh size is important, because use of too few or too simple elements may lead to
inaccurate results, while use of too many elements or of types that are too sophisticated
leads to unmanageably large matrices and prohibitive computational expense.
Two linear stability analyses have been reported that are based on finite element methods.
The first, by Ko and Wardlaw, [5-4] employed a relatively sophisticated element in small
44
numbers. A single element was used to represent each conductor in each subspan. The
element was essentially a rod that could flex to an arc of a circle. The rod element had
eight degrees of freedom: the vertical and horizontal displacements at its midpoint and at
each end, and the longitudinal (axial to conductor) displacements at each end.
Eigenanalysis yielded, for an assumed wind velocity, the frequencies and mode shapes
for all the wind-on normal modes, and their rates of buildup or decay. The minimum
wind velocity that permits buildup could be determined by iteration.
The other linear stability analysis using finite elements methods was reported by Curami
et al.[5-48]. The element employed was a rigid rod, and three rod elements were used,
end-to-end, to represent each conductor in each subspan. This resulted in 3/4 as many
degrees of freedom as in the Ko Wardlaw analysis. Due to the limited number of
elements used in a subspan, the analysis is applicable to the subspan modes having one
loop per subspan, and to the rigid-body modes from the lowest full span modes up to
those with about as many loops in the span as there are subspans.
5.3.2.6 Non-Linear Finite Element Analyses

Linear analyses discussed above are valid only for small amplitudes of oscillation, since
they assume that the forces acting on and within the bundle vary linearly with amplitude.
Some of the forces, particularly the aerodynamic ones, do not vary linearly with
amplitude if those amplitudes are large. Departure from linearity is usually significant
when the amplitude of a leeward conductor relative to its windward neighbor reaches one
conductor diameter in the vertical (cross-wind) direction, or several conductor diameters
in the horizontal (along-wind) direction. This is illustrated in Figures 5.3-4 to 5.3-7.
When conditions are such that a bundle span is unstable, so that oscillation will build up,
the limit cycle amplitudes eventually reached are determined by nonlinearities, primarily
those of the aerodynamic force field referred to above. These amplitudes can be
determined only through a nonlinear analysis.
Curami et a1 [5-48] have reported step-by-step integration of the nonlinear equations of
motion for the finite element model mentioned above, where each subconductor in each
subspan was represented by three rigid rod elements end-to-end. Calculations were
carried out for twin and triple bundles.
5.3.2.7 Decrement Method

Each of the analyses discussed above seeks to cover aerodynamic and structural effects,
and to deal with the interactions between them. A procedure aimed at optimizing
structural effects without reference to the aerodynamic forces that excite the oscillations,
was proposed by Hearnshaw [5-63]. The procedure involved evaluation of the structural
damping in the wind-off vibration modes that are similar to those observed in actual
subspan-type oscillations, e.g. those of Figure 5.3-22. The method rests on the
assumption that structural dampings have a major influence upon the occurrence or
severity of the subspan form of wake-induced oscillation.
Experimental methods have been utilized in full-bundle test spans, to find sets of spacer
locations that maximize damping in subspan modes [5-63]. The procedure employed was
45
manual excitation of the mode from a location near a tower, and evaluation of damping in
terms of the logarithmic decrement determined during decay of the mode.
Hearnshaw [5-64] later reported an analytical procedure for arriving at the logarithmic
decrements without recourse to the above test. The analysis required information on the
flexibility and damping characteristics of the spacer involved, and was applied to the
problem of optimizing over-all logarithmic decrement in terms of spacer position.
46
5.4 TESTING IN NATURAL WINDS
(*To be completed*)
5.5 PROTECTION METHODS (to be coordinated with Section 5.2)

(*To be completed*)
5.6 SPACERS AND SPACER-DAMPERS

5,6,1 Introduction
5.6.2 Type of Spacers
5.6.3 Material Used in Spacers
5.6.4 Design Criteria for Spacers and Spacer-Dampers
5.6.5 Clamping Systems
(*To be completed*)
47
5.6.6 Spacer Damper Articulations
5.6.6.1 Introduction (requirements and design criteria)
As defined in Section 5.6.2.4, a spacer damper must incorporate some mechanism to
allow large relative movements of one conductor clamp with respect to the others. This
mechanism is referred to as the articulation.
This mechanism has to provide some elasticity in order to restore the bundle geometry
when the external loads are removed. The stiffness has to be high enough to prevent
excessive arm movement, but low enough to ensure that some arm movement will take
place to allow the spacer damper to play its role.
The articulation also has damping capacity. The damping can only be provided if there is
some relative movement of the arm. Consequently, the damping characteristics cannot be
considered independently from the elastic characteristics. Section 5.6.4.2 describes in
detail how those two parameters are interrelated and contribute to the performance of the
spacer damper.
The next paragraphs describe the various types of articulation mechanisms and their main
characteristics.
5.6.6.2 Articulation Mechanisms

5.6.6.2.1 Mechanisms Using Elastomer
Most spacer damper design use an energy absorption mechanism based on the
deformation of some elastomer elements. Each articulation contain one or more elements
which are deformed by the relative movement of the arm with respect to the central frame
of the spacer damper. Depending on the articulation design, the deformation of the rubber
elements can result in compression or shear stresses. In practice, both type are present,
with one of them prevailing. The design of the articulation greatly influences the damping
capacity as well as the endurance of the spacer damper.
In some articulation mechanisms, a friction component is also present, although generally

not intentional. The contribution of this component in the overall energy absorption may
not be negligible, and as it is generally not controlled, a reduction of the damping may be
experienced as the result of the wear of the rubber surface.
The exact positioning of the arm with respect to the spacer body is generally positively
defined by the geometry of the components, preventing assembly error. However, in
some designs the position of the arm is ensured by bonding the rubber elements to the
metallic surfaces of the arm and of the body. It has been shown that with time the bond
may deteriorate and the arm may slip out of position. The overall performance of the
spacer-damper may be significantly affected.
48
5.6.6.2.2 Mechanisms without Elastomer
A few spacer dampers without elastomer have been developed, and some are still
commercialised.
In one case, messenger cables were used to connect the spacer clamps to the body. As in
Stockbridge dampers, the energy absorption comes from the friction between strands.
Such design is characterized by a high flexibility in all directions, which has sometimes
be a problem, when the amplitude of the arm displacement was not limited by means of
some mechanical stops. Early designs experienced severe fatigue problems. Increase in
cable size and better material has solved the problem. This spacer damper is no more
commercialised.
In the early days of bundled lines, some spacer damper prototypes using springs and
friction disks have been proposed. They have had a limited use.
Some spacer damper articulations, mostly from Asia, are using a coil spring to apply an
axial pressure between the arm extremity and the spacer body. Energy absorption comes
from the friction between the two surfaces. (Asahi model, ref CEA fig 1.2.-5)
5.6.6.3 Flexibility (capacity to accommodate displacements in all

directions)
Spacer dampers have to withstand loads related to the environmental conditions and to
accommodate movements due to the vibrations and oscillations of the conductors.
Ice accumulation and ice shedding can induce relative longitudinal movements between
the subconductors. The resulting longitudinal load applied on the spacer damper can be
reduced if the spacer damper articulation provides some flexibility in the longitudinal
direction. Possibility of damage to the spacer damper and to the conductors is then
reduced.
With regards to vibrations and oscillations, the contribution of the damping capacity and
of the stiffness of the articulation has been described in Section 5.6.4.2. One important
aspect is the direction of the movement. For aeolian vibrations, the movement is mainly
vertical, while for subconductor oscillation, it is mainly horizontal, or elliptical with the
major axis nearly horizontal. In old spacer damper design, the arms were oriented
horizontally. This was appropriate for aeolian vibrations, but for subconductor
oscillations, the spacer damper appeared very stiff. Later, most manufacturers adopted a
45° configuration.
Theoretical investigations indicated that more complex modes of vibrations were

possible, such as movements oriented toward the center of the bundle. In such case,
spacer arms at 45° are very stiff. Analytical prediction of the performance of such spacer
damper indicated that this particular mode of vibration could not be adequately
controlled. However, performance tests on full scale test lines did not confirm this
theoretical assessment. Some spacer dampers with double articulations have been
49
developed and commercialised (Damp model, ref CEA fig. 1.2-8a). However, worldwide
competition favours simpler and less costly configuration.
5.6.6.4 Fatigue Endurance (Both Aeolian Vibration and Subspan

Oscillation)
Fatigue of the rubber elements is one of the problems that have been reported. Fatigue
will generally occur under large repeated movements of the spacer arm. Such movement
may occur under severe subconductor oscillations, when the system efficiency is
inadequate. Severe environmental conditions may contribute to the initiation or the
development of the fatigue damage. Small amplitude movements, typical of Aeolian
vibrations are less likely to induce fatigue damage.
Besides the choice of the rubber material, discussed previously, the design of the
articulation can influence greatly the fatigue endurance. In general, it is recognized that
rubber material are more sensitive to shear stresses than to compression stresses. For
articulation using elastomer mainly in torsion, it is quite important to minimize the stress
concentrations. This is illustrated in Figure 4.6-1 showing results of fatigue tests done on
two spacer damper articulations, one favouring compressive stresses and the other one,
shear stresses. The graph shows the variation of the articulation stiffness as a function of
the number of cycles.
Figure 5.6-1 Variation of the articulation stiffness as a function of the number of cycles.
50
For elastomer-free articulations, there are very little information available. It is well
known that the original version of the messenger cable type was experiencing fatigue of
the cable. No data is available for the coil spring type.
5.6.6.5 Electrical Resistance (Conductivity to Avoid RIV and Electrical

Discharges)
The electrical characteristics of spacers and spacer-dampers have been described in detail
in Section 5.6.4.4. The importance of ensuring that each metallic component be
connected to a subconductor via a conductive path has been pointed out.
For spacer damper articulation using elastomer elements, there are different ways to
provide this conductive path. The most common way is to make the elastomer material
semiconductive. This is done by adding carbon particles to the rubber compound. In the
past, some other means have been used, such as having a metallic element (e.g. a spring)
to make a direct connection between the arm and the spacer body. In another case, a
semiconductive rubber sleeve concentric with the non conductive damping element was
used to electrically connect the arm with the body. Unfortunately, due to the movement
of the arm, this sleeve was subjected to rapid wear. It has also been the case for some
metallic shunts.
5.6.6.6 Effect of Climate

As described previously, climate and environment may affect significantly elastomer
properties. Some effects, such as extreme low or high temperature can only be
counteracted by a proper selection of the elastomer compound. In the case of atmospheric
contaminants (ozone, UV, salt, sand,...) some shielding can also be provided by the
design of the articulation housing or the frame.
51
5.6.7 Spacer Damper Main Frame
5.6.8 Standard and Recommendation for Spacers
5.6.9 Test methods for Spacers
5.6.10 Criteria for Spacer Distribution along the spans
5.6.11 Spacer Damper Installation
5.6.12 Damping Systems for Expanded Bundles
5.6.13 Spacers for Jumper Loops
5.6.14 Current Practice and Field Experience
(*To be completed*)
52
H
CHAPTER 6, OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLES
H-1
Chapter 6 Overhead Fiber Optic Cables
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Include background and purpose of overhead fiber optic cables
6.2 TYPES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLES
6.2.1 Optical Ground Wire
Optical Ground Wire, or OPGW, has the dual performance functions of a ground wire with
telecommunications capabilities. There are multiple acceptable designs of optical ground wire.
Typically, they consist of one or more layers of metallic wires stranded about a cable core
comprised of components such as tubes, wires and/or slotted rods and optical fibers in optical
fiber units. The wires are normally a combination of aluminum alloy, aluminum-clad steel and or
galvanized steel. The proportions of wires are designed to achieve the required tensile strength
and sag characteristics as well as conduction of fault currents and lightning currents without
damage. OPGW is the most common type of overhead fibre optic cable it is also the most durable
with the longest life expectancy of any fiber optic cable type.
Photo of a typical OPGW cable is shown in Figure 6.2-1.
Figure 6.2-1 Typical OPGW cable.
1
6.2.2 All-Dielectric Self Supporting Cable
All-Dielectric Self Supporting Cable, or ADSS, was developed for use on telecommunications
purposes on high voltage power lines. ADSS cable contains no metallic or electric conducting
elements yet contains sufficient strength from dielectric strength members such as aramid or
fibreglass yarns to be suspended between supports without the need to be lashed to or integrated
with a steel messenger cable. ADSS has the advantage over OPGW that it can be installed live.
Consequently, ADSS is commonly used to retrofit communications capability to a line that
cannot be de-energised. The service life of ADSS is determined by the sheath. Typically, ADSS
life time is 10 to 15 years.
Include Photo
6.2.3 Wrapped and Lashed Fiber Optic Cable
Wrapped and lashed fiber optic cables are all-dielectric cables that are either wrapped around or
lashed to a messenger cable. The fiber optic cable has little tensile strength and relies on the
messenger cable for support. Wrapped fiber cable is wrapped snugly around the messenger cable
in a helix with a pitch ranging from ___ to ___ m. Wrapped cable is used to retrofit
communications capability by lashing the fiber optic cable to the existing conventional ground
wire or phase conductor. Figure 6.2-2 shows lashing fiber optic cable to a 333kV phase
conductor.
Figure 6.2-2 Lashing fiber optic cable to a 333-kV phase conductor.
2
Lashed fiber cable is lashed snugly below the messenger cable by a lashing cord.
construction and materials

when are they used
6.2.4 Optical Phase Wire
Optical fiber is contained inside the phase conductor. The challenging aspect of this type is the
transition from line voltage to ground. The electric field gradient must be controlled and also the
buildup of contaminants to avoid dry band arcing. Due to these considerations, the maximum
voltage for Optical Phase Wire is 132kV.
Figure 6.2-3
6.2.5 Optical Attached Cable
6.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLE
Fiber optic cables installed on overhead electric power lines have the purpose to provide
telecommunications capacity utilizing optical fibers. In the case of OPGW, they also serve to
protect the transmission system from lightning and to serve as a conductive medium for carrying
fault currents to ground.
As such, fiber optic cables are required to withstand the effects from installation and long-term
in-service exposure to mechanical, electrical and environmental loads without significant
degradation in performance.
3
6.3.1 Electrical Requirements
ADSS fiber optic cables must be designed to withstand the effects of high electric fields such as
sheath damage due to dry band arcing.
An OPGW cable must be designed so that fault currents due to short circuits do not damage the
integrity or impair the functionality of any component of the cable and its optical, electrical and
mechanical performance.
An OPGW cable must also be designed so that lightning arcs striking the cable do not impair the
long term functionality of any component of the cable and its optical, electrical and mechanical
performance.
6.3.2 Mechanical Requirements
The following are recommended as minimum sag and tension criteria when designing fibre optic
cables.
a) Fiber optic cable sag should be co-ordinated with the phase conductor sag to prevent mid
span flashover or clashing.
b) The Maximum Rated Design Tension of the cable shall not be exceeded. The cable should be
applied to ensure that the zero strain limit of the optical fibers is not exceeded. Mechanical
loading in excess of this value will increase optical attenuation and may cause failure of the
optical fibers.
c) Cable sags should be such that the tensions do not exceed the limits for open supply
conductors, which are given in the latest edition of the National Electrical Safety Code
(NESC) or appropriate national code(s) for the country where installed. These limitations are
based on the use of recognized methods for reducing the likelihood of fatigue failures by
minimizing chafing and stress concentrations.
d) It is recommended that tension limits for a specific application be chosen through a
coordinated study that should include the requirements of the user, recommendations from
the cable supplier, and recommendations from the supplier of all supporting hardware.
4
Sag and tension recommendations regarding vibration protection should be obtained from the
cable supplier or from a vibration protection hardware supplier approved by the cable supplier.
The cable must be designed such that it can withstand aeolian vibrations with either permanent or
temporary attenuation increases less than the criteria indicated in the Aeolian Vibration Test.
6.3.3 Optical Requirements
An optical budget should be prepared for each communications hop making allowance for joint
attenuation. Upon receipt of the cable from the supplier, it is recommended that the purchaser
perform acceptance tests in order to verify that the optical characteristics of the fiber meet the
order requirements and to determine if optical fibers have been damaged during shipment. The
results of these tests and the supplier’s certified quality control information, which is attached to
each reel, should be compared to the fiber requirements specified in the purchase order. An
optical test after jointing is also required to verify end to end performance.
Optic fiber attenuation is very sensitive to mechanical strain and moisture. Every effort should be
made to ensure that the optical fibers are not subjected to mechanical strain or moisture.
6.3.4 Environmental Requirements
The cable must be able to withstand the natural elements that exist at its installation location. The
corrosive nature of installation sites can vary vastly from location to location. Therefore, some
fiber optic cable designs are more suitable for certain locations than other designs. Locations that
are basically low corrosion sites such as deserts do not require extreme corrosion protection for
problems like dissimilar metals or thin aluminum coatings. Whereas, high corrosion sites such as
high moisture zones, salt water zones, industrial corrosion zones, volcanic sulfur zones, or
combinations of zones require special protection from corrosion. Marine pollution build up on
ADSS can cause dry band arcing and subsequent sheath failure.
The optical fiber cable should be checked to ensure that it can withstand the likely maximum
wind and ice loads without optical or mechanical damage.
5
Low Corrosion Installation Sites
These areas are defined as installation locations that have low or very low levels of corrosive
materials such as moisture, salts, industrial pollution, volcanic pollution, naturally occurring
atmospheric/animal corrosive pollutants or any combinations of these materials. Care must still
be taken when considering a cable that may be affected by other corrosive or damaging elements
such as: wind blown sand.
High Corrosion Installation Sites
These areas are defined as installation locations that receive high or very high levels of corrosive
materials such as: moisture, salts, industrial pollution, volcanic pollution, naturally occurring
atmospheric/animal corrosive pollutants or any combinations of these or other non-listed
corrosive materials. Care must be taken when considering cables that may be affected by
additional corrosive or damaging elements such as wind blown sand.
6.3.5 Installation Requirements
It is recommended that IEEE Std 524-2003 [2] and the OPGW cable supplier’s recommended
procedures be used for the installation of an OPGW cable.
Use of Anti-Rotation Device
When a cable supplier does not recommend an anti-rotation device be used during installation the
following information shall be provided to the end user:
i) the maximum stringing tension

ii) the maximum number of cable rotations per unit of length
iii) the maximum affect on strain margin
6.3.6 Hardware Requirements
6
Suspension and dead-end hardware, some types of vibration damper hardware, and bonding
clamps are usually designed to accommodate a small range of sizes of a particular type of fiber
optic cable.
Factors that may influence the interaction of the hardware to cable interface are as follows:
a) Excessive contact pressure under hardware can exceed the designed crushing limits of the
cable.
b) The current transfer capability of the connection between hardware and the cable could be
exceeded if there is insufficient contact area.
c) Contact between dissimilar materials may cause excessive corrosion in some
environments. It is therefore recommended that hardware and other accessories
connected electrically and mechanically to the cable are compatible for the cable being
used.
d) Corona from the tips of armor rods can erode the sheath of ADSS. If the ends of the
armor rods are not aligned so that they all terminate at the same location along the cable
length, then the sheath can be burnt by corona at protruding armor rod tips.
6.4 FIBER OPTIC CABLE MOTIONS AND SOLUTIONS
6.4.2 Aeolian Vibration
Aeolian vibration is caused by an alternating wind force which arises from a pressure
difference associated with a regular formation of vortices behind a fiber optical cable.
The main characteristics of Aeolian vibration are high frequency and low amplitude,
mainly in the vertical plane.
Solutions:
6.4.3 Galloping
7
Galloping is a low frequency, large amplitude, wind-induced vibration of overhead
cables, with a single or a few loops of standing waves per span. It is always caused by
moderately strong, steady crosswind acting upon an asymmetrically-iced cable surface.
Solutions:
6.4.4 Buffeting
6.4.5 Short Circuit Force Caused Motion
6.5 HARDWARE FOR OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLES
6.5.1 Suspensions
A suspension is used to suspend or support the fiber optical cable at each structure. It
must hold high vertical loads, transverse loads due to wind, and withstand a small amount
of longitudinal loading.
Fiber optic helically formed suspension is intended for use on OPGW and ADSS cable.
They are designed to reduce static stresses at the support point as well as ensure that the
cable is cushioned against the dynamic stress of Aeolian vibration. The combination of
the Armor Rods and Reinforcing Rods provides protection against cable bending stress.
The two housing halves easily assemble around the EPDM insert and are held firmly in
place by the assembly strap. A ground attachment can be installed by utilizing a
mechanical lug that is attached to the housing by a threaded bolt.
8
The following is a typical suspension assembly of a fiber optic cable - Single Layer
Suspension:
Figure 6.5-1
6.5.2 Dead-ends
Dead-ends maintain line tension of 95% RTS and terminate the cable. Fiber optic dead
ends may be installed once as a temporary (less than 30 days) pulling device prior to its
final installation; as long as it is not stressed over 50% of its rated strength.
The following is a Bolted Bilateral Dead End with Splice
9
Figure 6.5-2
6.5.3 Vibration Dampers
Dampers reduce Aeolian vibration to levels that the cable can endure for indefinite time
periods (endurance limit).
Stockbridge type dampers:
SVDs:
6.5.4 Galloping Control Devices
Generally, helical fittings are applied to ADSS and OPGW for suspension and strain
attachment to prolong fatigue life by stiffening the cable and ensuring bending stress is
spread over a long length of cable. If the ends of the armor rods are not aligned so that
they all terminate at the same location along the ADSS cable length, then the sheath can
be burnt by corona at protruding armor rod tips. If the ends of the armor rods are not
aligned so that they all terminate at the same location along the cable length, then the
sheath can be burnt by corona at protruding armor rod tips.
The fatigue endurance limit of ADSS cable type has not yet been established so it is
prudent to apply vibration protection conservatively.
10
Based on damping efficiency, stockbridge vibration dampers are installed on cables with
diameters greater than 12.5mm while spiral vibration dampers ( abbreviated SVCs )are
installed on cables with diameters less than 12.5mm that vibrate at high frequencies that
cannot be damped by stockbridge dampers. ADSS diameter is such that spiral vibration
dampers are fitted to control aeolian vibration and must be separated from the armor rods
by at least 3m in a location where the electric field parallel to the sheath is less than 2
kV/cm. The fatigue endurance limit of ADSS cable type has not yet been established so it
is prudent to apply vibration protection conservatively. Under damping with SVCs can
cause damage to the outer surface of the cable as the SVC hits the cable and wears away
the surface. It is recommended that armor rods be installed under the clamps of
stockbridge dampers to prevent crush damage to OPGW. As the armor rods stiffen the
cable, more dampers must be applied to ensure adequate damping. Fiber optic joint boxes
must be vandal, gun fire and weather proof to prevent moisture ingress. Joint boxes must
also be re-enterable for testing and repair.
6.6 OTHER PROBLEMS
6.6.1 Electric Field Effect for ADSS
An ADSS sheath is at earth potential at each pole. At the center of the span the sheath is
capacitively charged from phase conductor voltage. For an uncontaminated sheath, only
capacitive current flows. When the sheath is contaminated with pollution and moistened,
current flow increases due to resistive current through pollutants and dry band arcing can
occur which could erode the sheath and cause failure. The operational life time of ADSS
is largely determined by the sheath performance. Two types of sheath are available. The
standard polyethylene sheath is suitable for up to 12 kV space potential and a higher cost,
tracking resistant sheath is suitable for 25 kV space potential.
11
6.6.2 Ice Accretions
6.6.3 Clearance Requirements
For under slung, the ADSS or OPGW mounting position must be sufficient to avoid
vehicles and conductor contact. ADSS has a much lower weight to mass ratio than the
metal phase conductors so will be blown out almost vertical with even modest winds.
Consequently, there is a risk of ADSS contacting conductors during windy conditions.
This will cause failure of the sheath and ultimately the whole cable. Similarly, OPGW is
often lighter than ACSR conductor and will be blown more than the conductor. OPGW
placement and sag must be chosen to ensure there will not be flashovers to phase
conductors.
In the case on top mounted OPGW, the OPGW must be strung with less sag than the top
phase conductors to prevent mid span flashovers.
Long spans
Wind loading on long spans can cause the tension to increase excessively for OPGW and
ADSS. It is advisable to check that cables have adequate mechanical strength and zero
optical fiber strain margins for long span application. A special cable may be required
for the long span situations.
6.7 TESTS FOR OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLES
Many tests have been developed to demonstrate the good design and performance of fiber optic
cables. Many of these tests have been specified by international standards writing bodies such
as IEEE and IEC. Tests include:
6.7.1 Cable Characteristics Tests

Creep Test
Stress-Strain Test
Strain Margin Test
12
Ultimate Tensile Strength Test
DC Resistance Test
6.7.2 Installation Tests

Sheave Test
Crush Test
Bend Test
Twist Test
6.7.3 In-Service Tests

Aeolian Vibration Test
Galloping Test
Short Circuit Test
Lightning Test
Water Ingress Test
Seepage of Flooding Compound Test
Temperature Cycle Test
Salt Spray Corrosion Test
6.8 FIBER OPTIC CABLE VIBRATION CONTROL
6.8.1 Control Technologies

6.8.2 Control Devices
13
EXAMPLE OPGW DAMPER PLACEMENT
The following calculation is an example of how to calculate the location of vibration

dampers on a 14mm diamter OPGW.
Input Data
CBL ≡ 70⋅kN Calculated Breaking Load of wire
edt ≡ 18⋅% Every day tension in %
−1
Wt ≡ 0.529⋅kg⋅m Weight of wire per unit length
dia ≡ 14.0⋅mm Diameter of wire
−1
vmax ≡ 6.7⋅m⋅sec Max wind velocity where aeolian vibration is experience
Calculations
Tens := edt ⋅CBL Every day tension
Tens = 12.6kN
vmax
Freq := 0.185⋅ Aeolian vibration frequency
dia
Freq = 88.536Hz
Tens
Vt := Travelling wave velocity
Wt
Vt = 154.333msec -1
Vt
λ := Wavelength
Freq
λ = 1.743m
1
Looplength:= ⋅Vt Loop length ( 0.5 wavelength )
2 ⋅Freq
Looplength= 872 mm
Damper Placement
Damper1 := 0.7⋅Looplength Clamp to first damper distance
Damper1 = 610mm
Damper2 := 0.6⋅Looplength First to second damper distance
Damper2 = 523mm Round this to 525mm
Damper3 := 0.9⋅Looplength Second to third damper distance

Damper3 = 784mm Round this to 785mm
6.9 FIELD EXPERIENCE
Source: Utilities, Manufacturers, Literature Search
14
Case Study #1
OPGW Selection for a 345kV Double Circuit Transmission Line
Scope
A new 345kV double circuit line with some communications capacity is required
between an existing substation and a new substation site. The communications path is
required to carry power system protection, supervisory control and data acquisition,
telephone calls and computer network traffic. Some additional capacity would be
desirable to rent out to third parties. This capacity is external to the power system
regulations and can produce non-regulated profit.
Requirements are as follows:
· Line construction is double circuit lattice steel towers with twin AAAC conductor
and twin overhead ground wires as shown in Figure 1.
· High lightning activity.
· Terrain is flat to undulating without much natural shielding.
· Line life required is 50 years.
Overhead Ground wires
One conventional ground wire and one OPGW (-optical fiber in ground wire) are to be
installed to provide shielding from lightning. The OPGW provides the communications
path.
To ensure electrical and mechanical matching, the ground wire and OPGW should have
similar diameters and aluminium to steel ratios. The ground wire and the OPGW should
be electrically matched as close as possible so that fault currents are shared evenly
between the two wires, and no one ground wire is electrically overloaded due to disparity
15
in resistance or fault rating. Ground wires and OPGW should have a minimum individual
strand size of no less than 3 mm, to avoid breakage from direct lightning strikes.
The OPGW and ground wire should also be mechanically matched as close as possible so
they sag the same. To prevent mid span flashovers, the sag of the OPGW and
groundwires should be less than the conductor sag. A typical value is 80% the sag of the
conductor. To reduce wind loading, the diameters of the OPGW and ground wires should
be minimised and to reduce the strength requirement and consequential cost of the strain
tower, the maximum wire tensions should be kept to as low a value as possible. The
OPGW everyday tension should be kept below 20% of its calculated breaking load to
ensure long fatigue life. The OPGW maximum tension must be kept below the
manufacturers limit for zero strain on the fibers.
One 14mm ACSR ground wire and one 14mm OPGW with 24 fibers are selected.
Hardware Selection
The terrain is flat to undulating, with little natural shielding of the line, and wire tension
is high so aeolian vibration needs to be controlled to prevent fatigue failure of conductor
and ground wire strands. Stockbridge type dampers are applied to the conductor, ground
wire and OPGW. Line guards are applied over the OPGW under the vibration damper to
prevent possible crushing damage to the OPGW. To make maintenance easier, line
guards and the same size damper as on the OPGW, are installed on the ACSR
groundwire. As line guards stiffen the groundwire, more dampers are applied to
compensate for their reduced efficiency. The dampers are de-rated to one damper per
150m of span for the OPGW and ground wire. Eg. For a span of 400m, three dampers
will be required. For suspension attachment, armor grip suspension units are installed on
the groundwire, OPGW and conductor to give longer fatigue life.
Wedge strain fittings are used on the ground wire and OPGW. Compression splices are
installed on the ground wire.
16
OPGW is spliced with extra cable length looped up into the tower. This extra length
allows splicing at ground level in an air-conditioned vehicle and sufficient extra length is
provided to enable splicing to be redone twice.
Case Study #2
ADSS Selection for Retrofitting on a 161kV Transmission Line
Scope
Extra communications capacity is required to a mine. There is an existing unshielded

161kV single circuit pole line supplying the mine. The line route runs parallel to the
marine coast and is between 3km and 10km from the sea shore. No icing occurs on the
line. As the 161kV line is the only supply for the mine, extended outages are not possible.
The remaining life in the mine is 12 years. The chosen solution is to retrofit All Dielectric
Self Supporting ( abbreviated ADSS ) cable to the transmission line. ADSS has a lower
capital cost than an equivalent OPGW and can be installed live where as, in most cases,
OPGW cannot safely be installed live. Furthermore, the shorter life expectancy of ADSS
would be acceptable for the remaining 12 year life of the mine. There is some concern
that ADSS and associated fittings may be chewed by birds but this is considered to be a
low risk. A 48fibre ADSS with 14.5mm diameter was selected for retrofitting.
ADSS Position
ADSS can be installed below the lowest conductor level or at the top of the existing
structure, possibly on a riser.
For under slung, the ADSS mounting position must be sufficient to avoid vehicles and
conductor contact. ADSS has a much lower weight to mass ratio than the metal phase
conductors so will be blown out almost vertical with even modest winds. Consequently,
there is a risk of ADSS contacting conductors during windy conditions. This will cause
17
failure of the sheath and ultimately the whole cable. The under slung solution is ruled out
because there is insufficient ground clearance.
A top mounted ADSS could be fitted to the top of each pole above the top phase
conductor. The exact height and mounting position of the ADSS is selected based on the
electric field. ADSS is subject to sheath failure from dry band arcing. Capacitive currents
flow from the energised conductors onto the ADSS, along the sheath to the poles. If a low
electric field position is found, then less sheath current will flow and the ADSS will have
a longer service life. The operational life time of ADSS is largely determined by the
sheath performance. Two types of sheath are available. The standard polyethylene sheath
is suitable for up to 12kV space potential and a higher cost, tracking resistant sheath is
suitable for 25kV space potential.
As the line traverses terrain with a low isoceraunic level, there is a low probability that a
top mounted ADSS will be hit and damaged by lightning.
Based on a structural analysis of the poles for different ADSS mounting heights and
electric field modelling, it was decided that the ADSS could be placed in a region with
11kV space potential. Although this is less than the maximum for the standard sheath, it
was decided to purchase the track resistant sheath because exposure was such that marine
salt contamination would be deposited on the sheath. When wet the salty contamination
layer on the sheath will have increased conductivity. The sheath is at earth potential at
each pole. At the centre of the span the sheath is capacitively charged from phase
conductor voltage. For an uncontaminated sheath, only capacitive current flows. When
the sheath is contaminated with marine pollution and moistened, current flow increases
due to resistive current through pollutants and dry band arcing can occur which could
erode the sheath.
Pole strength was checked with the additional loads imposed by the ADSS cable and it
was found that most of the poles had adequate strength. A few poles with long spans
would have to be replaced live.
18
The ADSS will be installed above the conductors on a steel riser bracket bolted to the top
of the pole. As the ADSS is mounted above the level of the top phase conductors, there is
less chance of contact with phase conductors.
Hardware Selection
Helical fittings are used for attachment at both suspension and strain positions. If the ends
of the armor rods are not aligned so that they all terminate at the same location along the
cable length, then the sheath can be burnt by corona at protruding armor rod tips.
The fatigue endurance limit of ADSS cable type has not yet been established so it is
prudent to apply vibration protection conservatively. Spiral vibration dampers are fitted
to control aeolian vibration and must be separated from the armour rods by at least 3m in
a location where the electric field parallel to the sheath is less than 2 kV/cm.
Maintenance
Eventhough ADSS is made of all insulating materials, contamination can make the sheath
surface conductive which can be an electrical safety hazard to maintenance personnel.
Precautions should be taken by maintenance personnel to prevent electric shock.
Sags & Tensions
The selected ADSS has the following properties :-
Weight 200kg/km
Calculated breaking load ( abbreviated CBL ) 39kN
Diameter 14.5mm
Area of FRP ( ie. Fibre reinforced plastic ) strength member 128mm2
Modulus of Elasticity for FRP strength member 17.9GPa
Thermal coefficient of linear expansion for composite cable 4.6 x 10-6 /°C
19
Maximum tension for zero optical fibre strain 36% CBL
For the longest span of 450m the ADSS was strung to achieve an everyday tension at
20°C of 14% CBL which is 5.46kN and the sag is 9.1m. The tension rises to the zero
fibre strain limit at a wind pressure just over 700Pa at 10°C ambient. The tension is
13.8kN under 700Pa wind at 10°C and the sag is 18.9m. Under everyday and maximum
wind, the ADSS sag and blow out was checked against the top conductor sag and blow
out to ensure there is an adequate margin to prevent clashing.
References
CIGRE papers
CEA project
IEEE guide 1138
More to be included.
20
I
CHAPTER 7, TRANSIENT MOTIONS
I-1
CHAPTER 7
Transient Motions (Possible alternative title: Conductor Motions due to Other
Causes)
The chapter covers dynamic behavior of overhead conductors under other causes that can
create fatigue and damage of conductors, hardware and structures. A number of
procedures to ameliorate the effects and safeguard against extensive damage are
discussed. Also the analysis of some instabilities can be used to improve design of lines
to reduce the level of damage.
The chapter also includes a discussion on the dynamic behavior of substation tubular
buses due to wind induced motions.
7.1 Short Circuit Forces—Spacer Frame Strength Requirements

Author: Lilien
Reviewer: Pon
The section will deal with the impact of short circuit forces on overhead lines and
substation buses. The major differences will be explained and three major effects,
namely, tension increase, clearance problem and spacer compression will be discussed.
The CIGRE brochures will be referred to. Further simple formulation developed for the
increase of tension due to short circuit forces developed by Lilien and Papailiou will be
detailed and its validation on short circuit tests will be discussed. Also, the research on
interphase spacers loads due to short circuit forces will be presented.
7.2 Bundle Rolling

Author: Wang
Reviewer: Havard
This section will introduce bundle conductor configurations in relation with dynamic
motions. A new bundle conductor model and bundle collapse mechanism will be
described. The spacing for spacer/spacer damper and the quantity for a bundle conductor
line will be discussed. This section will also include Ontario Hydro test and analysis due
to heavy ice loads and wind.
7.3 Ice Drop

Author: Farzaneh
Reviewer: Rawlins
Ice shedding is the physical phenomenon that occurs when a mass of ice accumulated on
overhead cables and conductors suddenly drops off. The detachment mechanism is
affected by a number of factors and parameters, such as ice morphology, meteorological
conditions and structural design of lines, as well as cable and conductor characteristics.
1
Ice shedding from transmission lines may result in high-amplitude vibrations, applying
excessive transient dynamic forces to the suspension structures sometimes leading to
severe structural damages or to flashover between conductors. Therefore, it is important
to predict the maximum jump height of the unloaded span and the maximum drop in the
span that remains loaded. As well, it is necessary to predict the maximum cable tension
and the maximum swing by the insulators string during the oscillation of the conductor.
In this section, the process of ice shedding and the consequent jumps and oscillations of
the conductors are described, and the related predicting models are presented. Also
included are parameters affecting ice drop mechanism, impact on conductors and
structures, and safeguards against the damaging effect of ice drop.
7.4 Gust Response

Author: Havard
Reviewers: Douglass
This section will cover the response of conductors and structures to wind gusts, and
safeguards against damaging effects.
7.5 Wind Action on Members

Authors: Legeron/Havard
Reviewer: Goel
This section will cover the response of structure members to conductor motions, case
studies, and design practices to safeguard against negative effects.
7.6 Noise From Wind

Author: Wang
Reviewer: Havard
This section will discuss dynamic interactions between conductors and towers, between
conductors and hardware due to wind. Different self-damping conductors will also be
discussed.
7.7 Earthquake
Authors: Legeron
Reviewer: Havard
This section will discuss possible earthquake effects on overhead lines, including
earthquake ground motion, the response of a conductor to earthquake motion, and current
mitigation practices.
7.8 Corona
Author: Farzaneh
Reviewers: Chisholm
2
The mechanical vibrations of HV transmission line conductors initiated by corona
discharges are usually observed under rain conditions, but also under wet snow and
intense fog. This kind of vibrations usually occurs in the absence of wind or with a very
mild wind.
The oscillation of conductors, as any other type of vibrations, can cause metal fatigue,
especially at supports or clamps, which may eventually lead to failure. This phenomenon
has been observed and mentioned in a number of publications or reports. According to
these observations, the critical voltage gradient causing the phenomenon is between 15
and 23 kV/cm. The amplitude of the vibrations is generally less than 10 cm, with a
maximum observed of about 120 cm. The frequency of the vibrations is lower than 10
Hz. In this section, this phenomenon and the conditions under which the vibrations occur
are described, and several mitigation methods are proposed.
7.9 Station Bus Vibrations

Authors: Havard/ Goel
Reviewer: Rawlins
The section deals with the vibration of substation buses due to wind. A brief description
of the theoretical, experimental and field trials will be presented. Reference will be made
to the work done at Ontario Hydro, CIGRE and the recent study done for Hydro One. The
industry practices to minimize the impact of these vibrations are also discussed.
3
J
GLOSSARY AND INDEX
A Glossary and Index will be developed in 2006 by the Editorial Committee.
The Glossary will provide brief definitions of key terms conforming to IEC and IEEE norms.
The Index will provide an alphabetical listing of subject areas covered in the book, with page
number or section number locations. Different fonts will be used for text references, figures, and
tables.
J-1
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Wind Induced Conductor Motion - EPRI

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Wind Induced Conductor Motion - EPRI

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Updating the EPRI Transmission Line Reference

Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion

2005 Progress Report

Technical Update, October 2005

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion

Please send responses to John Chan at jchan@epri.com.

1. Clarity of Sections. Identify sections that are not clear.

3 PROGRESS AND FUTURE PLANS ......................................................................................3-1

A MINUTES OF MEETINGS, 2005 .......................................................................................... A-1

B TENDER DOCUMENTS ....................................................................................................... B-1

C CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. C-1

D CHAPTER 2 AEOLIAN VIBRATION .................................................................................... D-1

E CHAPTER 3 FATIGUE OF OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS ................................................... E-1

F CHAPTER 4 GALLOPING CONDUCTORS ..........................................................................F-1

G CHAPTER 5 BUNDLE CONDUCTOR MOTIONS................................................................ G-1

H CHAPTER 6 OVERHEAD FIBER OPTIC CABLES ............................................................. H-1

I CHAPTER 7 TRANSIENT MOTIONS .....................................................................................I-1

J GLOSSARY AND INDEX .......................................................................................................J-1

1. Development of Tenders and Awarding of Contracts

Table 1-1 Revised Table of Contents

Current Edition Revised Edition

Development of Tender and Awarding of Contracts

Authors Meetings and Conference Calls

Orange Book Editorial Committee

Thursday, February 3, 2005

2. Plan for 2005.

Friday, February 4, 2005

The meeting was adjourned in mid-afternoon.

Prepared by: Jonas Weisel

1. Outstanding Items from Last Meeting

Orange Book Authors Meeting

Summary of Main Points

Project Background: John Chan

Editorial Issues: Jonas Weisel

Overview on Assigned Chapters: Dave Havard and John Chan

Chapter 4, Galloping: Jean-Louis Lilien

Deviations from skeleton outline:

Jean-Louis said he could provide a video of galloping to be included in the CD accompanying

Chapter 3, Fatigue of Overhead Conductors: Louis Cloutier

Deviations from skeleton outline:

Issues raised about several contractual Terms and Conditions:

The authors will include Craig Pon and Tony Gillespie.

Deviations from skeleton outline:

Wednesday, May 25, 2005

Chapter 2, Aeolian Vibration: Giorgio Diana

Deviations from skeleton outline:

Chapter 5, Bundle Conductors: (To Be Determined)

Chapter 1, Introduction: Editorial Committee

Work will begin on this chapter this year, time permitting.

1. Welcome & Introduction

Summary of Main Points

Summary of Main Points

Torsional Stiffness of Bundles

REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL & QUOTE (RFP&Q)

To: Recipients of RFP&Q:

User Name: Orange

The estimated period of performance:

Your proposal should be in response to the attached documents:

Listed below is supporting documentation and reference.

Your response should include:

The Selected Contractor may need to supply the following: