Chapter 4:

 Processed Foods: products that have been preserved so they will not spoil as quickly.
o Most raw materials are perishable and require processing
o Benefit: increases shelf-life
o Shelf stable foods are kept at room temperature
 Why are foods processed?
1. Reduce or eliminate harmful microbes in food
2. Stop the loss of nutrients due to enzyme action
 Sterilizing  Fermenting
 Pasteurizing  Blanching
 Processing Steps
o Unit operations: distinct steps for converting raw materials into processed foods
1. Material handling 4. Mixing
2. Cleaning 5. Packaging
3. Pumping
 Types of processed foods:
o Processed whole foods
o Formulated Foods
o Chilled Foods
o Prepared Foods
 Major types of processing

1. Heating: kills microbes, can destroy nutrients

 Methods:
 Cooking: kills microbes, but doesn’t sterilize
 Blanching :inactivates enzymes
 Pasteurizing: kills pathogens, but not spoilage microbes
 Canning: sterilizes product in container under pressure
 Aseptic Processing: sterilizes product before packaging

2. Freezing: milder treatment than heating with less loss of nutrients and quality

 Slows growth of microbes, but doesn’t kill them

 Freezing methods:
 Still air
 Forced air
 Indirect contact
3. Drying: removal of water/moisture
 Scraped surface
 Individual Quick Freeze (IQF)
 Cryogenic

 Reduces/halts microbial growth

 Water activity (aW): water that is available from microbial growth
 Canning Considerations:
o Headspace vacuum
 Most dangerous microbe: clostridium botulinum
o Heat treatment cold point
 Conduction: heat transfer through a material due to molecular movement
(typically in a retort of pressure cooker)
 Convection: heat transfer through movement of heated fluid from hot to cold
o Acidity of product: affects the amount of heat treatment
 Low acid food greater than 4.6
 Acidic foodsless than 4.6
 Acidified foods low acid which acids are added so the pH is higher than 4.6
 Concentrating: removal of water from a liquid food without changing it into a solid.
 Curing: decreased availability of water, decreases microbial growth
o Sodium nitrite and sodium nitrate are additional curing agents for curing meats
 Milling: grains milled into flour to improve digestibility
o Dry milling: separates seed into fractions based on anatomical structures
o Wet milling: separates components on an anatomical and solubility
differences/combination of specific components (starch and protein)
 Extracting: removal of a portion from the raw material (EX: coffee and tea)
o Oil extraction and processing steps:
1. Pressing: mechanical squeezing of oil from oil seeds
2. Refining
3. Degumming: removal of phospholipids by water at 122-140F
4. Bleaching: removal of colored substances from oil at 194F
5. Deodorizing: application of steam in a vacuum to strip odors
6. Hydrogenation: process of saturating double bonds to increase the melting
temp of foil
7. Interesterification: the rearrangement of fatty acids on the oil to affect its
melting
 Oils (liquid) and fats (solid at room temperature)
o All food lipids are mixtures of triglycerides
 Fermenting: process that depends on the growth of microorganisms (yogurt, dough, alcoholic
beverages)
o A starter culture is added to a perishable raw materials to change it into a more stable
food product
 Irradiating: a potent killer of microbes and can be used for foods as it induces little or no heat
(cold sterilization)
o Can be applied at high doses to sterilize a product or may be used at low doses
(radurization) to be the equivalent of pasteurization.
o Gamma radiation: has great penetration capability but requires elaborate safety
measures.
 o Electron-beam radiation: less penetration but fewer health risks
o Other processes
 High-pressure treatment
 Extrusion: a material is forced by compression to produce a continuous profile
 Roasting: dry heating of a raw material that will kill microbes and inactive
enzymes
 Microwave heating: provides a more uniform way of heating
 Consequences of processing:
o Shelf-life: length of time that a product may be kept before it should be discarded
(stored at room temperature)
 Canning and commercial sterilization
o Nutrition: vitamins are lost through leaching (dissolve in water during processing)
o Packaging: prevents recontamination
 Preservation techniques stops spoilage
o Quality: color, flavor, texture not the same
o Safety: sterile (canning and irradiation)=safest
 Not the most nutritional or highest quality

Chapter 5:
 Formulated foods: products that are mixtures of ingredients
o Why? Flavorful, convenient, preserved
o Benefits: shelf stable, safe, convenient
 Preservatives reduce microbial growth and increase food safety
o Formulation steps:
 Unit operations: steps in making formulated food are similar to those for
processed foods
 Yogurt processing:
1. Milk is pasteurized and 3. Cooled to 104F
homogenized 4. Inoculate with culture
2. Heated to 190F to 5. Incubate at 109-122F
denature proteins 6. Fill into containers
 Formulated products
o Baked goods
 Leavening: production of gases (CO2) in dough for it to rise and be fluffy
 Yeast  Baking powder
 Baking soda  Ammonium Bicarbonate
o Pasta and noodles
 Semolina (flour): from durum wheat (high protein hard wheat)
o Jams and jellies
 About 70% sugar
 Jam= whole fruit
Added sugar
 Jelly= uses juice
 Preservatives= whole fruit no sugar added
o Beverages
 Juices
 Soft drinks
 Sweetening agents, edible acids, natural or artificial flavors
 True soft drinks: colas, fruit-flavored drinks, ginger ale, root beer, soda
water, and tonic water
 Production of soft drinks:
1. Water treatment steps
a) Super c) Sand filter
chlorination d) Activated charcoal filter
b) Coagulation
2. Carbonation steps
a) Cascade over plates in chamber with CO2
b) Increase pressure and decrease temperature
o Sausages
 Fresh: breakfast links
 Cooked and smoked: bologna
 Fermented: pepperoni
 Steps: 1. Grind 2. Mix 3. Stuff
o Meat processing
 Further processed products:
- Bacon - Ham
- Frankfurters - Lunchmeat
o Production of hot dogs:
1. Grinding 5. Smoking/cooking
2. Mixing 6. Chilling
3. Chopping/emulsifying 7. Peeling
4. Stuffing 8. Packaging
o Preservation methods:
 For meat:
 Sodium nitrite  Salt/sugar/spice
 Phosphate  Sodium erythorbate
→ Meat curing: combination of salt, sugar, and nitrite
 Fermentation: addition of desirable bacteria to convert glucose into lactic acid
and lower pH below 5.3
  Smoking: desirable color and flavor, but preserves due to chemicals in the
smoke
 Vacuum packaging: inhibits aerobic organisms and rancidity
o Control of listeria:
 Incorporation of preservativesSodium diactate and Sodium Lactate
 Post-process treatment (high pressure application)
 Environmental control (clean room techniques)
o Ice cream
 Steps of production:
1. Blending of 4. Aging of the mix
ingredients 5. Freezing
2. Pasteurization 6. Packaging
3. Homogenization 7. Hardening
 Ice cream information
 Fat content≈ 12%
 Overrun: air is injected furing freezing to lighten texture
o Flours and grains
 Mainly used as a source of calories
 Gluten: protein in wheat flour
 Starches: (often modified) used in many products for texture
o Fruits and vegetables
 Ingredients in many formulated foods for nutrition, color, flavor, and texture
 Some provide dietary fiber, but might be removed
o Dairy and eggs
 Source of protein and provides functional properties
 Gelatin  Emulsification
 Milk protein: casein and whey
 Egg protein: albumin and lipovitelin
o Plant proteins
 Corn and beans: nutritional base for vegetarians
o Fats and oils
 Lipids that are organic substances that are relatively nonpolar
 Slightly soluble in water
 Lipophilic and hydrophobic
o Sweeteners
 Sugar: main source of calories
 Provide bulk, structure, and flavor
 Reducing sugars: it will brown and sucrose will caramelize
 o Artificial sweeteners
 Have an intense flavor and a small portion can sweeten large batches
 Sucralose  Stevioside
 Saccharin  Aspartame

Chapter 6:
 Chilled foods: fresh and perishable requiring refrigeration  cheap
 Prepared foods: ready to eat or ready to heat then eat
o Salads and sandwiches
o Pasta products
o Prepared entrées
 Distribution: everything that happens from production to consumption
 Unit operations: vital for maintaining quality and safety
 Staple and shelf-stable items are often located centrally in grocery stores
 Whole fresh fruit and veggies
o Picked live and continue to respire through distribution
o Post-harvest physiology: science of biological changes from harvest to consumption

 Terminology:
o Harvesting: collection of fruit and veggies at the peak, depends on species
o Climacteric: continue to ripen after harvest and have increased respiration (banana and
tomato)
o Non-climacteric: have peaked respiration prior to harvest (strawberry and squash)
 Ripening terminology:
o Maturity: when fruit is picked at ripeness
o Ripening: transformation from an immature stage to a palatable stage
o Respiration: production of energy, CO2 and H2O
o Transpiration: loss of moisture through pores
o Chilling injury: occurs in tropical fruits
 Fresh meats
o Meat: edible animal flesh (dead tissue)
o Postmortem physiology: the study of conversion from muscle to meat
 Meat quality color, tenderness, juiciness, flavor
o Connective tissue o Postmortem condition
o Adipose tissue o Packaging
 Postmortem conditions
o Rigor mortis: stiffening of muscle after death
o Cold shortening: toughening from rapid chilling of lean carcasses before rigor mortis
o Thaw rigor: similar defect if meat is frozen before rigor mortis occurs
 Additional postmortem:
o Pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat
 Rapid pH decline
 Water holding capacity of muscle protein is reduced
o Dark, firm and dry (DFD) meat
o
o
o
o Results from glycogen depletion prior to slaughter
o Elevated pH and water holding capacity in muscle occurs as lactic acid
production is low
 MAP
o Modified Atmosphere Packaging involves low oxygen atmosphere with high nitrogen or
carbon dioxide (and carbon monoxide)
 Spreads (butter and margarine)
o Margarine made from vegetable oil and contains emulsifiers and antioxidants
o Hydrogenation: addition of hydrogen to unsaturated double bonds in oil to produce a
solid that can be spread easily
 Prepared foods
o Convenience is provided by ready to eat and ready to heat
 Prepared food hazards
o Safety and quality changes rapidly
o Chilling has a high shelf life, but accelerates staling of sandwiches and pasta
o Hot entrées are not sterile and have high microbial growth
 Food service: operations that provide prepared food for consumption off-site or in house
o Casual dining restaurant o Caterers
o Cafeterias o Vending machine
o Fast food restaurants