Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile

Engineering
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Reduction of NOx, smoke and brake specific fuel consumption with optimal injection timing and
emulsion ratio of water-emulsified diesel
J. W. Park, K. Y. Huh and J. H. Lee
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 2001 215: 83
DOI: 10.1243/0954407011525476

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 83

Reduction of NO , smoke and brake speci
c fuel

consumption withxoptimal injection timing and
emulsion ratio of water-emulsi
ed diesel

J W Park1, K Y Huh1* and J H Lee2

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Kyungbuk, Korea
2Engine R&D Division, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Chungnam, Korea

Abstract: This paper reports the test results of a diesel engine at diVerent engine speeds, injection
timings and emulsion ratios with water-emulsi
ed fuel. Results show that both NO and smoke may
x
be reduced signi
cantly at the same brake speci
c fuel consumption (b.s.f.c.) at high engine speeds
above 1400 r/min. At low engine speeds below 1000 r/min NO may be reduced slightly with minor
x
penalty in the b.s.f.c. with no overall gain in use of emulsion fuel. In the tested range of water–oil
ratio by volume of 0–40 there was no signi
cant deterioration in the HC and CO emissions and the
combustion stability in terms of cyclic variations of the peak cylinder pressure. It may be necessary
to employ accurate electronic control of the injection timing as a function of load and speed to
maintain the optimum operating condition with emulsion fuel.

Keywords: diesel engine, emulsion fuel, b.s.f.c., NO , smoke

x

NOTATION resulted in lower NO concentration and b.s.f.c. by

b.s.f.c. brake speci
c fuel consumption
BTDC before top dead centre
TDC top dead centre
W/O water–oil ratio by volume
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years the environmental concerns in urban
areas have imposed stricter regulations on the NO and
x emulsi
ed fuel in gasoline engines. There has been some
particulate emission of diesel engines. In some previous
research use of water-emulsi
ed diesel was shown to
reduce both NO and smoke and the b.s.f.c. [1–7].
x lysed the eVects of added water on NO in a direct
Tsukahara et al. [1–4] showed in their engine experi-
ments that emulsi
ed diesel reduced NO and smoke
x tion model. Increase in the speci
c heat and molecular
with no noticeable increase in the b.s.f.c. Micro-
explosion of tiny water droplets [1] resulted in evapor-
ation and combustion times shorter than those of a diesel
droplet measured on a at heating plate. The combustion
chamber con
guration with a lower intake ow velocity
The MS was received on 14 April 2000 and was accepted after revision
for publication on 19 May 2000.
* Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Pohang University of Science and Technology, San 31 Hyojadong,
Pohang, Kyungbuk, Korea.
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D04200 © IMechE 2001
x
aVecting the mixing condition of fuel and air [2]. It was
also shown that the NO concentration could be reduced
x
with emulsi
ed diesel without high pressure injection [3]
and in an engine with a low compression ratio [4].
Yoshimoto et al. reported that cooling loss could be
reduced with emulsion fuel [5] and recently tried a new
bio-diesel emulsion with frying oil [6 ]. Gunnerman and
Russell [7] carried out numerous performance tests with
their own emulsi
ed fuel called A-55 and reported
reduction of NO and particulate emission with a higher
x
thermal eYciency. They also suggested use of water-
other basic research concerning the eVects of water emul-
sion on the exhaust emissions. Ishida and Chen [8] ana-
injection (DI ) diesel engine by their two-zone combus-
weight of the burned gas accounted for a decrease in the
burned gas temperature and NO concentration. Dodge
et al. [9] developed a PC-based program for predicting
NO from DI diesel engines with emulsi
ed fuel, exhaust
x
gas recirculation ( EGR), water injection or humidity
eVects. Sheng et al. [10] showed group micro-explosion
of an emulsi
ed spray during the atomization, evapor-
ation and combustion processes in a high pressure, high
temperature combustion bomb. The fuel consumption
rate and exhaust emissions were investigated by
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part D
84 J W PARK, K Y HUH AND J H LEE

numerical simulation and engine tests for diVerent
emulsion ratios.
The injection timing and emulsion ratio have been
identi
ed as the two major parameters to determine the
operation characteristics with emulsion fuels, although
no systematic investigation has yet been made of their
eVects at diVerent engine speeds. Further investigation
is also needed on the fundamental aspects such as micro-
explosion or reduced ame luminosity and their rela-
tionships with the exhaust emissions and b.s.f.c. Park
et al. [11] reported micro-explosions with remarkable
reduction in the ame luminosity for an emulsi
ed diesel
spray in the Rapid Compression Expansion Machine
( RCEM ). In this paper the RCEM experiments are
extended to the performance tests of an actual diesel
engine. The contour plots of the NO concentrations
x cycles of the cylinder pressure with the encoder and
and b.s.f.c. will be provided to
nd the optimum oper-
ating condition with respect to the injection timing and
emulsion ratio at diVerent engine speeds.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
2.1 Engine
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the engine experi-
ment with emulsion fuel. The principal speci
cations of
a water-cooled six-cylinder DI diesel engine are listed in
Table 1. The engine was operated at 80 per cent of the
full load at each engine speed. The cylinder pressure was
measured by a piezoelectric pressure transducer mounted
Table 1 Test engine speci
cations
Engine type 4 cycle, water cooled, 6 cylinder
Stroke volume 8071 cm3
Bore Östroke 111 mmÖ139 mm
Rated output power 121 kW (2271 r/min)
Fuel injection timing 15ß BTDC
Compression ratio 17.6 : 1
as shown in Fig. 1. The injection timing was varied by
adjusting the shift angle between the two connection
plates of the crankshaft and the plunger pump. The
actual injection timing was con
rmed by the signal from
the needle lift sensor. A rotary encoder was connected
to the crankshaft to resolve the crank angle at an accu-
racy of 0.1ß. A 16-channel analogue-to-digital (A/D)
converter was used to display and store the data for 250
needle lift signals. The concentrations of NO , hydro-
x
carbon ( HC ) and CO in the exhaust gas were measured
by the HORIBA exhaust gas analyser. The smoke den-
sity was measured by the Bosch optical smoke meter.
The engine was operated at the cooling water tempera-
ture of 80 Ô 2 ßC and the lubrication oil temperature of
50 Ô 1 ßC. There are 125 test conditions with
ve rotating
speeds,
ve injection timings and
ve emulsion ratios as
listed in Table 2.
2.2 Fuel
The water–oil ( W/O) ratios of 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40
respectively represent volumetric fractions of water of

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the engine test with emulsion fuel

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 REDUCTION OF NO , SMOKE AND BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 85
x

Table 2 Experimental conditions Table 3 Volume and mass fractions of water in the emulsion
fuels of diVerent W/O ratios
Operating parameter Condition
Water fraction Water fraction
Engine speed (r/min) 700, 1000, 1400, 1800, 2200 Emulsion ratio by volume (%) by mass (%)
Emulsion ratio ( W/O) 0, 10, 20, 30, 40
Injection timing (BTDC ) 12ß, 15ß, 18ß, 21ß, 24ß 0 W/O 0 0
10 W/O 9.1 10.8
20 W/O 16.7 19.4
0/100, 10/110, 20/120, 30/130 and 40/140 in the emulsion 30 W/O 23.1 26.6
W/O
fuel. For example, 140 cm3 of the 40 W/O emulsion fuel 40 28.6 32.5

consists of 40 cm3 of water and 100 cm3 of diesel oil.

The volume and mass fractions of water in the emulsion
fuels of diVerent W/O ratios are listed in Table 3. Diesel
oil is mixed with water by a mixer of the centrifugal type
and directly supplied to the engine cylinders without any
stabilizing agent. There is not enough time for water
droplets to submerge since the emulsion fuel is consumed
steadily at a rate comparable with the capacity of the
emulsion mixer. Figure 2a shows a microscopic photo-
graph of the 40 W/O fuel, in which the sizes of water

Fig. 2 Microscopic photographs of 40 W/O fuel: (a) emulsion fuel containing water droplets; (b) injected
emulsion drops captured in silicone oil

Fig. 3 Pressure traces and net heat release rate curves of diVerent emulsion ratios at the injection timing of
15ß BTDC and 1400 r/min
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86 J W PARK, K Y HUH AND J H LEE
droplets are in the range between 5 and 40 ím. Figure 2b
shows a magni
ed image of the injected emulsion drops
captured in silicone oil. Numerous tiny water droplets
can be identi
ed in the emulsion fuel drops in Fig. 2b.
Micro-explosion occurs as these droplets evaporate
explosively during combustion and subsequently pro-
motes atomization and secondary mixing with air.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Combustion characteristics
Figure 3 shows the measured pressure traces and the
calculated net heat release rates for diVerent emulsion
ratios. They are all at the injection timing of 15ß before
Fig. 4 Cyclic variation with respect to the injection timing and emulsion ratio at 1400 r/min
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Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part D
top dead centre ( BTDC ) and the engine speed of
1400 r/min. Note that the fuel with a larger emulsion
ratio results in a longer ignition delay and a longer pre-
mixed combustion phase. Both the maximum rate of
pressure rise and the maximum heat release rate increase
as combustion occurs more impulsively with the fuel of
a larger emulsion ratio. A retarded injection timing and
excessive water content may cause late ignition to result
in a reduced peak pressure during the expansion stroke.
Therefore, it is necessary to advance the injection timing
to compensate for the longer ignition delay and premixed
combustion period with emulsion fuel. Figure 4 shows
the cyclic variations of the peak cylinder pressure for
diVerent injection timings and emulsion ratios at
1400 r/min. Cyclic variation of the peak cylinder pressure
represents stability of combustion and tends to show
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 REDUCTION OF NO , SMOKE AND BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 87
x

Fig. 5 NO concentration with respect to the injection timing and emulsion ratio at 1400 r/min
x

slight increase as the emulsion ratio increases or as the
injection timing is retarded. However, there was no
marked deterioration in stability of combustion within
the test ranges of the emulsion ratio in 0–40 W/O and
the injection timing in 12ß–24ß BTDC.
3.2 Emission characteristics
The NO concentration shows signi
cant decrease as the
x
emulsion ratio increases or as the injection timing is
retarded for all test cases in Fig. 5. A longer ignition
delay increases the amount of fuel–air premixture, which
leads to a higher peak pressure and higher NO emission.
x
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On the other hand, a higher content of water weakens
luminous ames and reduces the peak temperature
during the diVusion-controlled combustion phase. It
then leads to a lower peak pressure and a lower level of
NO emission. Note that the eVect of emulsion fuel is
x
dominant over the eVect of an advanced injection timing,
resulting in a decrease in the
nal NO emission. The
x
NO emissions of 30–40 W/O emulsion fuels injected at
x
18ß– 21ß BTDC are comparable with that of diesel
injected at 15ß BTDC in Fig. 5. The results at other
engine speeds tend to show similar trends to those at
1400 r/min in Fig. 5. Figure 6 shows a three-dimensional
plot of the NO concentration with respect to the emul-
x
sion ratio, engine speed and injection timing for all 125
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part D
88 J W PARK, K Y HUH AND J H LEE
Fig. 6 Three-dimensional plot of the NO concentration with respect to the injection timing, emulsion ratio
x
and engine speed
cases. It is obvious that the injection timing and emulsion
ratio are the dominant factors determining the NO
x x
emission in Fig. 6.
The measured HC concentrations in Fig. 7 reach the
minimum around the injection timing of 18ß BTDC at
1400 r/min. On the other hand, the HC concentrations
tend to increase as the emulsion ratio increases in Fig. 7.
There are several possible causes of HC emission in
normal operating conditions of a diesel engine. They
may be overmixing of fuel to a leaner composition than
the lean combustion limit or undermixing of fuel which
leaves the fuel nozzle later at a low injection velocity
[12]. Previous research [1, 2] indicates that mixing with
ambient air may be enhanced by mechanisms such as
micro-explosions, a larger amount of fuel undergoing
premixed combustion and larger momentum and pen-
etrating force of the fuel spray. Micro-explosions may
not only enhance the mixing process but also induce
quenching of local ames owing to a lower temperature
and inhibitory eVects of water vapour. Although emul-
sion fuel may either increase or decrease the HC emis-
sion, the negative eVects turn out to be dominant for the
tested conditions in Fig. 7.
Figure 8 shows the CO concentrations with respect to
the injection timing and emulsion ratio at 1400 r/min.
Note that the CO concentration shows a similar trend
to the HC concentration. The HC and CO concen-
trations are too low to aVect the b.s.f.c. as a result of
incomplete combustion and also low enough to be of
negligible concern in comparison with NO . Figure 9
x
shows the smoke densities at the same operating con-
ditions as those of Figs 7 and 8. The NO and smoke in
x
general have a trade-oV relationship with opposite trends
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Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part D
of variation. According to Murayama et al. [13] and
Greeves et al. [14], emulsion fuel could reduce both NO
and smoke, while the water fumigation method and the
direct in-cylinder water injection method could only
reduce NO but not smoke. It may be because the water
x
vapour of emulsion fuel is present on the fuel-rich side,
where dissociated water molecules attack soot precur-
sors. In the fumigation method or the direct injection
method, the water vapour is present on the fuel-lean side
and serves only to lower the bulk gas temperature, pre-
venting further oxidation of soot particles. In Fig. 9 the
smoke density tends to decrease with a larger emulsion
ratio, although there is no obvious trend with respect to
the injection timing.
3.3 B.s.f.c. and NO contour plots
x
Figures 10 and 11 show the contour plots of the b.s.f.c.
and NO concentration with respect to the emulsion
x
ratio and injection timing at diVerent engine speeds. The
full curves represent the b.s.f.c. while the broken curves
represent the NO concentration. There have been some
x
conicting results in the literature on the variation of
the b.s.f.c. for fuels of diVerent emulsion ratios [2–5].
In Fig. 10 all the operation conditions are
xed except
the emulsion ratio and injection timing.
Here the test cases are divided into two groups: the
low-speed group of 700 and 1000 r/min and the high-
speed group of 1400, 1800 and 2200 r/min. The test
engine in this experiment has the initial injection timing
of 15ß BTDC as the optimum operation condition
with diesel.
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 REDUCTION OF NO , SMOKE AND BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 89
x

Fig. 7 HC concentration with respect to the injection timing and emulsion ratio at 1400 r/min

3.3.1 Low-speed cases 3.3.2 High-speed cases

It is shown in Fig. 10 that emulsion fuel does not
improve the b.s.f.c. at the low engine speeds, 700 and
1000 r/min. The lowest b.s.f.c. occurs around the injec-
tion timing of 15ß BTDC and 0 W/O in both cases. The
optimum condition at the injection timing of 18ß BTDC
and the emulsion ratio of 30 W/O results in b.s.f.c. values
of 215.4 and 212.7 g / kW h and NO concentrations of
x
1068 and 1067 ppm at the two engine speeds respectively.
They correspond to increases by 1.1 and 0.9 per cent in
the b.s.f.c. and decreases by 4.5 and 9.5 per cent in the
NO concentration as compared with those at the initial
x
operating conditions with diesel.
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In Fig. 11 the minimum b.s.f.c. occurs around the injec-
tion timing of 21ß BTDC and the emulsion ratio between
0 and 10 W/O. The NO concentration is, however, 1.5–2
x
times higher than that obtained with diesel. There may
be two extreme ways of optimization from the initial
operating point with diesel in the contour plot. Firstly,
the point with the lowest b.s.f.c. can be located while
keeping the NO constant along the NO contour. For
x x
example, in Fig. 11b at 1800 r/min the lowest b.s.f.c. with
the same NO concentration can be found at the point
x
of 18.4ß BTDC and 29 W/O. At that point the b.s.f.c.
is 216.3 g / kW h, which corresponds to a reduction by
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part D
90 J W PARK, K Y HUH AND J H LEE
Fig. 8 CO concentration with respect to the injection timing and emulsion ratio at 1400 r/min
5.8 g / kW h or 2.6 per cent. Secondly, the lowest NO
x
concentration can be located while keeping the b.s.f.c.
constant along the b.s.f.c. contour. In Fig. 11b at
1800 r/min the lowest NO concentration with the same
x
b.s.f.c. occurs at the point of 17.6ß BTDC and 40 W/O.
There, the NO concentration is 560 ppm, which corre-
x
sponds to a reduction by 228 ppm or 28.9 per cent. These
optimum conditions are all listed at diVerent engine
speeds in Table 4.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The following conclusions are drawn from the para-
metric study to investigate the optimum operating con-
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Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 215 Part D
ditions of a six-cylinder DI diesel engine with emulsion
fuels:
1. According to the measured pressure traces and calcu-
lated heat release rates, a larger emulsion ratio results
in more impulsive combustion with a longer ignition
delay and a longer premixed combustion period. It is
shown that an advanced injection timing may com-
pensate for the eVects of a larger emulsion ratio with
no considerable deterioration in combustion stability.
2. According to the engine test results both NO and
x
smoke tend to decrease as the emulsion ratio
increases. The lower peak temperature due to the
water content in emulsion fuel accounts for lower
NO , while enhanced mixing with air by micro-
x
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 REDUCTION OF NO , SMOKE AND BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 91
x

Table 4 Optimum operating conditions with respect to b.s.f.c. and NO as compared with the initial condition with diesel at the
x
injection timing of 15ß BTDC

Engine speed (r/min) 700 1000 1400 1800 2200

Optimum at same NO level W/O 29 28 20 29 20

x
Injection timing (BTDC) (deg) 19.2 18.5 17.6 18.4 17.5
B.s.f.c. (g /kW h) 216.5 213.7 211.5 216.3 221.5
DiVerence in NO (%) +1.6 +1.4 Õ0.7 Õ2.6 Õ1.9
x
Optimum at same b.s.f.c. level W/O — — 25 40 20
Injection timing (BTDC) (deg) — — 16.5 17.6 15
NO (ppm) — — 890 560 660
x
DiVerence in b.s.f.c. (%) — — Õ13.6 Õ28.9 Õ23.3

Fig. 9 Smoke density with respect to the injection timing and emulsion ratio at 1400 r/min

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92 J W PARK, K Y HUH AND J H LEE

Fig. 10 Contour plots of the b.s.f.c. and NO concentration with respect to the emulsion ratio and injection
x
timing ( low-speed cases)

Fig. 11 Contour plots of the b.s.f.c. and NO concentration with respect to the emulsion ratio and injection
x
timing (high-speed cases)
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 REDUCTION OF NO , SMOKE AND BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
x
explosions accounts for lower smoke emission. The
HC and CO emissions have a similar trend of vari-
ation and show relatively little increase as the
emulsion ratio increases.
3. At low engine speeds below 1000 r/min the NO
x fuel. SAE technical paper 920464, 1992.
emission could be reduced by 9.5 per cent with
minor increase in the b.s.f.c. with no overall gain in
use of emulsion fuel. At high engine speeds above
1800 r/min the b.s.f.c. could be reduced by 2.6 per
cent at the same NO level while the NO could be
x x
reduced by 29 per cent at the same b.s.f.c. level as
that in the initial operating conditions with diesel.
Accurate electronic control of the injection timing
may be necessary to maintain the optimum condition
with emulsion fuel at diVerent engine speeds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was partially supported by KIMM ( Korea
Institute of Machinery and Materials) for use of the
engine test facilities in the Engine R&D division. The
authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of
Mr K. H. Kim in Chungnam National University for
collection and analysis of the measurement data.
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