Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

An investigation of the repetitive failure in an aircraft engine

cylinder head
Branimir Krstic a,⇑, Bosko Rasuo b, Dragan Trifkovic a, Igor Radisavljevic c, Zoran Rajic c,
Mirko Dinulovic b
a
University of Defence in Belgrade, Military Academy, Generala Pavla Jurisica Sturma 33, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
b
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kraljice Marije 16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
c
Military Technical Institute, Ratka Resanovica 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cylinder head (CH) failures in aircraft piston engine may have serious or fatal conse-
Received 3 June 2013 quences to the safety of the crew and the aircraft. Moreover, when failure becomes
Received in revised form 4 August 2013 undoubtedly repetitive and critical resulting in loss of aircraft, destruction of properties,
Accepted 29 August 2013
and first and foremost loss of human lives, the cause of the failure requires to be investi-
Available online 13 September 2013
gated using a scientific approach. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate and iden-
tify the root cause of a repetitive premature failure in an aircraft engine CH.
Keywords:
The piston engine of the training aircraft Utva-75 has malfunctioned during the flight
Aircraft
Cylinder head
due to the cracking of its aluminum cast CH. It has been the second engine failure of this
Failure analysis type of aircraft due to the cracking in the CH in a very short span of time. From the visual
Fatigue failure examination of the mating fracture surfaces, it has been possible to observe typical beach
Finite element analysis and ratchet marks indicating the occurrence of fatigue failure. The crack has initiated from
multiple origins located on the inner flange fillet on the exhaust side of the CH. Further
examinations by using scanning electron microscopy as well as energy dispersive spectros-
copy and metallography have shown that the fatigue had promoted from pre-existing
material defect due to a high concentration of shrinkage pores at the initiation crack site
and can be most likely associated with the manufacturing process of casting. The stress
analysis of the cylinder assembly, carried out by means of finite element analysis, has also
confirmed that the crack origin was located at the most stressed area of the cylinder assem-
bly i.e. on the inner flange fillet of the exhaust side of the CH.
This case study, together with the other recently reported, has definitely confirmed the
repetitive and therefore systematic problems with the CH of air cooled, horizontally
opposed, aircraft piston engines.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Aircraft powered by piston engine make up about 80% of the fixed wing fleet [1]. A large majority of these aircraft are
equipped with single, air cooled, horizontally opposed, piston engines. The mechanical failure in any of the piston engine
components, especially concerning fatigue failure of the CH made of an aluminum casting alloy, endangers the safety of
the aircraft and can result in loss of compression, total loss of engine power, an accident causing serious or fatal crew

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: University of Defence in Belgrade, Military Academy, Department of Military Aviation, Generala Pavla Jurisica Sturma
33, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia. Tel.: +381 11 3603 365, mobile: +381 60 52 07 981; fax: +381 11 3005 190.
E-mail address: branimir.krstic@va.mod.gov.rs (B. Krstic).

1350-6307/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.08.013
336 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

injures and the damage of the aircraft. Unfortunately, although the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of US Depart-
ment of Transportation stated in their Airworthiness Directive [2] that 45 engine failures with the CH separation due
to cracks at the CH to the cylinder barrel interface in the cylinder assemblies (CH and cylinder barrel) had been reported
until 2008, results of the investigation concerning the fatigue failures of the CH are not widely presented in scientific pa-
pers. Since 2000, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has examined numerous aircraft piston engine cylinder
assemblies that failed due to fatigue cracking that initiated in the root of the CH thread, eventually resulting in loss of
compression and/or separation of the CH into two pieces [3]. The examined cylinder assemblies are documented in the
following NTSB case numbers: ENG07WA032, ENG07SA033 and WPR09SA476. In 2009 and 2010 the Transportation Safety
Board of Canada – Operational Services Branch in engineering reports [4,5] presented in details the results of two inves-
tigations of aircraft engine failure involving the CH separation. In both cases it has been confirmed that the separation of
the CH occurred due to fatigue cracks developed at the root of the CH thread. On the other side, some experience has
shown that a CH can fail due to fatigue cracking that initiated away from the root of a CH thread. For example, in Ref.
[6], was reported that the CH failed due to fatigue that originated from multiple origins located on the inner flange fillet
of the CH.
The training aircraft Utva-75 (Fig. 1), with two pilots on board, was on a training flight when pilots reported an engine
problem. About 45 min after departing a home base, the engine began to run rough and started to vibrate. The engine work-
ing parameters degraded and pilots decided to perform a forced landing at the nearest suitable airport, approximately 80 km
away from the home base. The pilots were not injured and the aircraft sustained no damage as a result of the forced landing
on a grass runway. The inspection of the aircraft engine revealed a significant damage. The CH was cracked between the fifth
and the sixth cooling fins (counting from the cylinder barrel). The aircraft was transferred to the home base where the engine
was removed and the damaged cylinder assembly was sent to the Military Technical Institute, Structural and Technical
Materials Laboratory to determine the cause of the failure. It should be noted that it has been the second engine failure
of this type of aircraft due to the cracking in the CH in a very short span of time. The first failure, that had happened four
months earlier, was thoroughly described in reference [6]. Both engines were produced in the same period and accumulated
similar flight hours.
The failed CH presented in this work belongs to a four cylinder, direct drive, horizontally opposed, air cooled engine of
a training aircraft Utva-75 that had an accident. The cylinder assemblies are of conventional air cooled construction with
the two major parts, the CH and the cylinder barrel. The CHs are manufactured from an aluminum casting alloy 242.0
(according to American National Standard Institute designation system) with a fully machined combustion chamber,
and house the intake and exhaust valves, with their respective seats, guides and spark plugs. The cylinder barrels are ma-
chined from chrome nickel molybdenum steel AISI 4140 (according to American Iron and Steel Institute designation sys-
tem) forging with deep integral cooling fins and have a smooth bore that houses the piston. The CH and the cylinder barrel
are joined by heating the CH to about 350 °C then screwing it onto the cylinder barrel until specific surface make contact.
As the CH cools and shrinks onto the cylinder barrel, an interference fit is produced, locking the parts together at the
threads and at an adjacent plain diameter, which is commonly referred to as a shrink band (shrink bands are features
on the cylinder barrel and in the CH), Fig. 2. The nominal power output of this engine is 180 hp at 2700 rpm. The volu-
metric displacement is 5893 ccm.
The damaged cylinder assembly was installed on the engine in the number four position (Fig. 3). At the time of the occur-
rence flight, engine had accumulated 1389 flight hours since new and 189 h since overhaul. According to the technical spec-
ifications provided by the manufacturer, this engine’s time between overhauls (TBO) is 2000 h. The last periodic (50 h)
compression test was conducted at 1349 h of total flight time or 40 h before the accident. For the damaged cylinder assem-
bly, the result of differential pressure test was significantly below the minimum allowable value of 70 psi, required by the
manufacturer (compression reading for Cylinder no. 4 in Table 1).

Fig. 1. Utva-75 training aircraft.

 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 337

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section view of the cylinder assembly. Red and blue arrowheads showing shrink bands (adapted from [3]). (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 3. Utva-75 engine.

Table 1
Compression test.

Cylinder
Cylinder no. 1 Cylinder no. 2 Cylinder no. 3 Cylinder no. 4
Compression reading (psi) 70 76 78 64

2. Apparatus and instruments

This section presents the apparatus and instruments used to determine the root cause of the failure of the aircraft engine
CH.
For the purpose of determining the general state of the failed cylinder assembly, the complete assembly was subjected to
the external visual inspection by unaided human eye in the as-received condition. The location of the crack was identified and
documented. After detailed external visual inspection, the CH was mechanically opened under controlled laboratory condi-
tions using computer-controlled crack opening force in order to perform fractographic analysis of the fracture surface. The
fracture surface was examined by means of unaided human eye. After that, the fracture surface attached to the upper part
of the CH was cut off into ring shape to allow introducing it under stereomicroscope. The macroscopic analysis of the fracture
surface was undertaken using Leica M205A stereomicroscope at low magnification (650). The obtained ring with fracture sur-
face was subsequently cleaned ultrasonically in a citrus-based liquid degreaser followed by cleaning in acetone and ethanol to
eliminate residues produced by the combustion. The central portion of the fatigue fracture surface was cut off from the ring
and observed using scanning electron microscopy on a JEOL JSM-6610LV low vacuum, high-performance scanning electron
338 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

microscope (SEM). After completing the fractographic analysis the samples were cut perpendicular to the fracture surface and
the microstructure was analyzed and compared to the microstructure of the sample cut away from the fracture surface. The
metallographic preparations included wet mechanical grinding, using silicon carbide papers down to 2500 grit. This was fol-
lowed by polishing using 7/5, 5/3 and 3/2 lm diamond paste and final polishing with 1 lm diamond paste. The sample was
examined in the as-polished condition under LeitzMetalloplan light microscope. The objectives of microstructural analysis are
to determine the microstructures of the body of CH and to reveal the presence of any imperfections that might have led to
failure. The chemical composition of the CH material was determined by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) chemical
analysis method. The obtained results were compared with the standard specification for aluminum casting alloy specified
for production of air cooled cylinder heads. The Brinell hardness was measured around the ring circumference on the ring
plane opposite to fracture surface. The identification of stress concentration areas of the CH was carried out by applying
the linear static finite element (FE) analysis in CATIA V5R22 Generative Structural Analysis Workbench. For this purpose,
3D solid model of the engine, identical to the physical model of the engine, was developed using CATIA V5R22. The nominal
load of the engine was applied.

3. Results

3.1. Visual inspection

Post accidental visual examination of the damaged cylinder assembly (Fig. 4a) revealed that the CH had cracked between
the fifth and the sixth cooling fins (Fig. 4b). The observed crack was approximately 0.5 mm in width and extended about 75%
of the CH circumference. The crack propagation plane runs through the position of the top plane of the cylinder barrel
(Fig. 5). No evidence of macroscopic damage to the cylinder barrel was found.

3.2. Macrofractography

The CH was mechanically opened using computer-controlled crack opening force to perform fractographic analysis of the
mating fracture surfaces. The obtained parts, Part I and Part II, with associated fracture surfaces are shown in Fig. 6. In par-
ticular, Part I represents the upper portion of the CH fractured and separated from the cylinder assembly and Part II is the
remaining portion of the CH which stayed screwed and shrunk together with the cylinder barrel, respectively. Visual exam-
ination of the mating fracture surfaces was performed with unaided human eye and with Leica M205A stereomicroscope at
up to 50 magnification.
Three characteristic morphologies, marked as A, B and C in Fig. 7, can be noted on the mating fracture surfaces of the CH.
The sector A, located on the exhaust valve side of the CH, showed a rather smooth and flat surface with clearly visible ratchet
marks and concentric thumb-nail-shaped beach marks, which are usually characteristic of fatigue fracture. Ratchet marks,
observed at the inner edge of the CH (Fig. 8), represent steps between fatigue crack regions propagated from different origins
on slightly different planes. On the other side, by tracing back the beach marks (Fig. 9), the fatigue fracture origin area was
also found to be at the internal surface of the CH. This sector extends about a quarter of the CH circumference and appears to
cross the entire thickness of the CH wall in the middle. Sector A of the fracture surface was cut off, degreased and examined
under stereomicroscope. This examination confirmed that the fracture surface of sector A was indeed fatigue crack with
characteristic ratchet and beach marks (Figs. 10 and 11). However, this sector corresponds to the area over which the crack
propagated slowly and has a distinct arc-shaped boundary with the sector B. The fracture surface of unstable fracture, sector
B, exhibited a rough, dull with coarse grainy morphology, which is common for an overstress fracture mode. This final over-
stress fracture of the CH wall occurred when the total area of the crack had reached a critical size. Finally, the sector C is the
area of mechanically forced open fracture characterized by the bright appearance resulting from the reflective qualities of

Fig. 4. (a) Cylinder assembly photographed in the as-received condition and (b) close-up view of the crack in the CH (region marked in (a)).
 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 339

Fig. 5. (a) 3D solid model of the cylinder, piston and valve components and (b) close-up view showing the crack position in the CH (region marked in (a)).

Fig. 6. Macrograph of the Part I and Part II of the CH obtained after the crack was mechanically opened.

cleaved crystals. This sector is representing about 25% of the CH cross section. Also, the visual inspection disclosed a varying
degree of exposure the fracture surface to the combustion gases. Consequently, areas of apparent fatigue and overstress frac-
ture, sectors A and B, were significantly contaminated by these gases.

3.3. Microfractography

SEM examination of the sector A of the fracture surface has been performed to confirm the fatigue failure and identify the
related fatigue crack initiation. For this purpose, the central portion of the fatigue fracture surface was introduced under
SEM. Unfortunately, it was not possible to obtain detailed information about mechanism leading to failure, since the SEM
examination revealed large amounts of deposits on the entire fracture surface (Fig. 12), which were impossible to remove
using nondestructive methods. Deposits, visible in SEM images as bright areas, were analyzed by energy dispersive spectros-
copy (EDS) in SEM. A representative EDS Spectrum from such deposit on the fracture surface (region Spectrum 1 in Fig. 11) is
shown in Fig. 13. This Spectrum is similar to that shown earlier in [6], and is typical for aviation gasoline combustion prod-
ucts with lead and bromine giving the most prominent peaks. Aviation gasoline normally contains lead, while bromine is an
additive which scavenges lead by forming volatile lead bromide [7].
Trace amounts of lead, in addition to the aluminum alloy elements of the 242.0 composition, could also be detected on the
part of the fracture surface with significantly lower level of deposits (region Spectrum 2 in Fig. 12), Fig. 14. These findings
unambiguously indicate that the fracture surface was exposed to the gasoline combustion products for some time.
340 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

Fig. 7. Macrograph showing characteristic morphologies on the fracture surface. Part I.

Fig. 8. View of the sector A of the fracture surface depicting ratchet marks (arrowheads). Part I.

Fig. 9. Macro photograph showing fatigue beach marks in the sector A. Part I.

SEM examination revealed the fine ratchet marks along the entire fracture initiation region on the CH inner surface and
confirmed the macrofractographic observations about the existence of numerous fatigue fracture origin sites (Fig. 15), sug-
gesting that it was not a single particular defect that caused fatigue crack nucleation. In addition, the end of the fatigue frac-
ture at the outer surface of the CH is shown in Fig. 16.
 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 341

Fig. 10. Stereomacrograph showing ratchet and beach marks in the sector A. Part I.

Fig. 11. Stereomacrograph showing beach marks in the sector A. Part I.

Fig. 12. Morphology of the central portion of the fatigue fracture surface covered by deposits.

Fig. 13. EDS Spectrum from deposit on the fatigue fracture surface (region Spectrum 1 in Fig. 12).

3.4. Metallography

Four longitudinal metallographic samples, marked as I, II, III and IV and oriented perpendicularly to the fracture surface,
were prepared at the locations within the sector A (indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 17) and examined microscopically. They
discovered large amounts of interdentritic shrinkage porosity, grouped shrinkage pores surrounded by primary dendrites
and eutectic phase [8], near to the CH surface, Figs. 18–21. In addition, the microstructure revealed the typical structure
of an aluminum–copper casting alloy with intermetallic phases precipitates located at the grain boundaries [9], Fig. 22.
342 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

Fig. 14. EDS Spectrum from the fatigue fracture surface (region Spectrum 2 in Fig. 12).

Fig. 15. One of the fatigue origin sites on the inner surface of the CH. Part I.

Fig. 16. End of the fatigue fracture at the outer surface of the CH. A layer of paint is visible on the CH outer surface.

3.5. Chemical composition

Chemical analysis results of a CH sample indicated that the cast was actually made of a 242.0 aluminum casting alloy. In
Table 2 are shown the chemical composition of the CH material and the specification for 242.0 aluminum alloy taken from
[10].
 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 343

Fig. 17. View of the fracture surface with locations where metallographic samples were taken. Part I.

Fig. 18. Optical micrograph of the sample I.

Fig. 19. Optical micrograph of the sample II.

Fig. 20. Optical micrograph of the sample III.

344 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

Fig. 21. Optical micrograph of the sample IV.

Fig. 22. Optical micrograph of the CH microstructure.

Table 2
Cylinder head chemical composition (wt.%).

Content Element
Cu Mg Mn Si Fe Ni Ti Cr Zn Al
Cylinder head 4.05 1.49 0.03 0.33 0.21 1.89 0.20 0.19 – Bal.
Standard specification 3.5–4.5 1.2–1.8 60.35 60.7 61.0 1.7–2.3 60.25 60.25 60.35 Bal.

3.6. Hardness measurements

For the purpose of comparability of the testing results with the standard specifications [11], the Brinell hardness test was
performed in accordance to the standard requirements [12]. Hardness measurements were performed on a polished cross
section surface of the CH (ring plane opposite to the fracture surface) and the 8 measurement points were radially distrib-
uted around the CH wall circumference at the equal angular spacing of 45° (Fig. 23). The final hardness data that were ob-
tained from the testing are shown in the same figure.

3.7. Finite element analysis

In order to identify areas of high stress concentration, a structural FE model, in CATIA V5R22 Generative Structural Anal-
ysis Workbench, was implemented. For that purpose, the 3D solid model of complete engine of Utva-75, identical to the real
physical model of the engine, was developed, Fig. 24. Continuum of the previously modeled 3D geometry of cylinder assem-
bly (Fig. 25) was meshed by a 4-nodes linear tetrahedral solid elements generating FE model of 1378196 nodes and 5920151
elements, Fig. 26. The selected mesh size for the cylinder assembly FE model was 1.5 mm for the cylinder barrel and 1.0 mm
for the CH. Mechanical properties of the CH material, applied to the 3D geometry of the CH, were taken from [10] for 242.0
aluminum casting alloy, while the mechanical properties of the cylinder barrel, applied to the 3D geometry of the cylinder
barrel, were taken from [13] for AISI 4140 steel.
The inner surface of the cylinder assembly was affected by gas pressure which was represented by the mean effective
pressure. Based on classic models for an internal combustion engine and using available information of the engine [14],
the mean effective pressure was calculated. The obtained value of the mean effective pressure (998 kPa) is within the range
of typical values of the mean effective pressure for naturally aspirated spark ignition engines [15]. This pressure was applied
 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 345

Fig. 23. Distribution of the hardness measurement points around the CH wall circumference with obtained values.

Fig. 24. 3D solid model of Utva-75 engine.

Fig. 25. 3D solid model of the cylinder assembly (view from the front and rear side).

to all entities of the inner surfaces of the cylinder assembly geometry that are in contact with combustion gases, Fig. 27. The
appropriate contact definition has been assigned to the contact zone of the members of the cylinder assembly [16]. In accor-
dance with this and based on the previously mentioned method of mounting the CH on the cylinder barrel, the contact zone
346 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

Fig. 26. FE model of the cylinder assembly.

Fig. 27. Position of the continually applied gas pressure forces.

between the CH and the cylinder barrel was constructed as a pressure fitting connection with the appropriate overlap
parameter. In addition, the nodes of the cylinder barrel hold-down flange were fixed by restraining all degrees of freedom.
The rest of the cylinder assembly remained unrestrained.
The stress field of the cylinder assembly was obtained according to the Von Mises criterion. Finite element analysis con-
firmed that the origins of the crack in the CH are located at the highest stress area. The stress maximum value appears at the
fillet entity on the inner surface of exhaust side of the CH. The node where stress reaches the maximum value, Figs. 28 and
29, corresponds to the central portion of sector A, Fig. 7.

4. Analysis of the results

Fractographic examination highlighted fatigue as the root cause of the failure of the aircraft engine CH. The fatigue orig-
inated from multiple origins located on the inner flange fillet of the CH, which suggests that it was not a single particular
defect that caused fatigue crack nucleation. Also, the FE analysis confirmed that the fatigue crack origins were located in cor-
respondence of the most stressed area of the CH. The whole inner flange fillet of the CH was subjected to more or less high
 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 347

Fig. 28. Stress distribution on the longitudinal section of the FE model through the node with maximum stress value.

Fig. 29. Stress distribution on the cross section of the FE model through the node with maximum stress value.

stress concentration, due to sharp geometry, i.e. the small fillet radius. Hence, this entity of the CH can be undoubtedly indi-
cated as the most vulnerable to premature fatigue crack initiation.
Merging initially occurred cracks into the single one, the crack front profile grew across the CH wall with a semi-elliptical
surface shape. The fatigue crack propagated slowly in radial direction all the way through the CH wall. When the crack had
reached the outer surface of the CH, the gases from the combustion chamber started to leak outside through the crack. The
result of the last conducted periodic compression test and the presence of large amount of combustion residue that had been
deposited in the surrounding area of external edge of the crack and on the matting fracture surface support the assumption
that it is most likely that the engine continued work in that condition for some time. While the gas was leaking it was acted
on the matting fracture surfaces in both axial directions accelerating subsequent fatigue appearance. Then final overstress
crack of the remaining load-bearing cross section of the CH wall occurred when the fatigue crack grew beyond a critical size.
The final overstress crack did not totally separate CH into two parts due to sharp decrease of gas pressure caused by huge
leaking. They remained linked by non-fractured 25% of cross-section of the CH, which was subsequently mechanically
opened to examine the fracture surfaces.
Metallographic examination of four longitudinal samples, taken from the CH in the area where cracks initiated, discov-
ered a large amount of severe casting defects in CH material, in the form of interdentritic shrinkage pores. The results of
the investigation concerning the failures of aeronautical and engineering components due to the presence of casting defects
are widely presented in scientific papers [17–23]. A presence of casting porosities with irregular shapes and sizes distribut-
ing densely and irregularly in the aluminum alloys is the main factor controlling fatigue properties, when the size and
348 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349

quantity of porosity exceed some certain values [24–27]. The porosity reduces the cyclic strength especially at high number
of cycles through not only facilitating fatigue crack initiation but also shortening the propagation period [28]. The decrease in
fatigue life is directly correlated with the increase of defect size [29–32]. Besides the size and quantity of porosity, location of
porosity or its distance from a free surface can also determine the fatigue life to a great extent [33]. However, it is certain that
the fatigue life of cast aluminum alloys containing defects can be one or two orders of magnitude lower than in defect-free
cast components [34–40]. The complex geometry of the CH body, with distinct change in the section thickness, combined
with the casting process parameters (inadequate pouring temperature, insufficient number of pouring gates, inadequate gate
cross section, excessive pouring temperature, or inadequate feeding) also represent other sources of failure. Chemical com-
position, hardness and microstructure were found in conformity with those expected from the selected aluminum casting
alloy.

5. Conclusions

The fatigue seems to be the main reason for the failure of the CH, which was promoted by a pre-existing material defect
and identified as a high concentration of shrinkage pores in the most stressed region on the inner flange fillet of the exhaust
side of the CH. The defects were probably caused during the manufacturing stage of the casting. This case study, together
with others previously reported in [4–6], has definitely confirmed the repetitive and therefore systematic problems with
the CH of air cooled, horizontally opposed, aircraft piston engines.
Based on results of performed investigation following recommendations can be proposed:

 Changes in the CH design should include new geometry without sharp edges in the zone of high stress concentration.
 Locally increase the wall thickness of the CH in the zone of crack initiation.
 Introduce some necessary changes in casting process in order to avoid forming porosity in material.
 Strictly respect the prescribed maintenance procedures and periodically inspect presence of cracks.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Military Technical Institute (Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Serbia) for
experimental program. This research has been supported by the University of Defence in Belgrade within the Project No.
VA-TT/02/13-15 titled ’’Contribution to the development of the forensic engineering in the domain of the failure analysis
of cylindrical structures’’. The last but not the least, special thanks to the Transportation Safety Board of Canada – Opera-
tional Services Branch for providing free access to their engineering reports on similar investigation.

References

[1] National Research Council. Future flight: a review of the small aircraft transportation system concept – special report 263. Washington (DC): The
National Academies Press; 2002.
[2] Airworthiness Directive (AD) 2008-19-05. Federal Aviation Administration of the USA.
[3] Safety recommendation A-12-7. National Transportation Safety Board of the USA; 2012.
[4] Guertsman V, Dionne S, Crosby T. Engineering report number LP085/2009. Transportation Safety Board of Canada; 2009.
[5] Guertsman V, Dionne S, Crosby T. Engineering report number LP077/2010. Transportation Safety Board of Canada; 2010.
[6] Krstic B et al. Failure analysis of an aircraft engine cylinder head. Eng Fail Anal 2013;32:1–15.
[7] ASTM Standard D910-11. Standard Specification for Aviation Gasolines. ASTM International: West Conshohocken (PA); 2011. doi: 10.1520/D910-11.
<www.astm.org>.
[8] Anson JP, Gruzleski JE. The quantitative discrimination between shrinkage and gas microporosity in cast aluminum alloys using spatial data analysis.
Mater Charact 1999;43:319–55.
[9] Zolotorevsky VS, Belov NA, Glazoff MV. Casting Aluminum Alloys. 1st ed. Elsevier; 2007.
[10] Kearney AL. Properties of cast aluminum alloys. In: Properties and selection: Nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials, vol. 02. ASM Handbook,
4th ed., ASM International; 1995.
[11] Rasuo B. Aircraft production technology. Belgrade: Faculty of Mechanical Engineering; 1995 [in Serbian].
[12] SRPS EN ISO 6506-1:2011. Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test – Part 1: Test method (ISO 6506:1:2005). Institute for Standardization of Serbia;
2011. www.iss.rs.
[13] Brown Jr WF. Aerospace structural metals handbook. Columbus: Metals and Ceramics Information Center; 1989.
[14] Operator’s manual – Textron Lycoming O-360, HO-360, IO-360, AIO-360, HIO-360 & TIO-360 series aircraft engines. Part No. 60297-12, Rev. No.
60297-12-6. Textron Lycoming; 2000.
[15] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1988.
[16] Trifkovic D et al. Failure analysis of the combat jet aircraft rudder shaft. Eng Fail Anal 2011;18:1998–2007.
[17] Bhaumik SK, Rangaraju R, Venkataswamy MA, Bhaskaran TA, Parameswara MA. Fatigue fracture of crankshaft of an aircraft engine. Eng Fail Anal
2002;9:255–63.
[18] Bhaumik SK, Sujata M, Venkataswamy MA. Fatigue failure of aircraft components. Eng Fail Anal 2008;15:675–94.
[19] Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis. vol. 1. ASM International; 1994.
[20] Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis. vol. 2. ASM International; 1994.
[21] Bagnoli F, Bernabei M, Ciliberto A. Failure analysis of an aircraft auxiliary power unit air intake door. Eng Fail Anal 2011;18:284–94.
[22] Bagnoli F, Dolce F, Colavita M, Bernabei M. Fatigue fracture of a main landing gear swinging lever in a civil aircraft. Eng Fail Anal 2008;15:755–65.
[23] S. Boljanovic, Fatigue strength analysis of a semi-elliptical surface crack. Sci. Tech. Rev. 2012; LXII-1: p. 10–6.
[24] Wang QG, Apelian D, Lados DA. Fatigue behavior of A356-T6 aluminum cast alloys: Part I Effect of casting defects. J Light Met 2001;1:73–84.
 B. Krstic et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 34 (2013) 335–349 349

[25] Linder J, Axelsson M, Nilsson H. The influence of porosity on the fatigue life for sand and permanent mould cast aluminium. Int J Fatigue
2006;28:1752–8.
[26] Lados DA, Apelian D. Fatigue crack growth characteristics in cast Al–Si–Mg alloys. Part I. Effects of processing conditions and microstructure. Mater Sci
Eng A 2004;385:200–11.
[27] Buffière JY, Savelli S, Jouneau PH, Maire E, Fougèrs R. Experimental study of porosity and its relation to fatigue mechanisms of model Al–Si7–Mg0.3 cast
Al alloys. Mater Sci Eng A 2001;316:115–26.
[28] Li B, Shen Y, Hu W. Casting defects induced fatigue damage in aircraft frames of ZL205A aluminum alloy – a failure analysis. Mater Des
2011;32:2570–82.
[29] Petrasinovic D, Rasuo B, Petrasinovic N. Extended finite element method (XFEM) applied to aircraft duralumin spar fatigue life estimation. Tech Gaz
2012;19:557–62.
[30] Grbovic A, Rasuo B. FEM based fatigue crack growth predictions for spar of light aircraft under variable amplitude loading. Eng Fail Anal 2012;26:5–64.
[31] Rasuo B. Experimental techniques for evaluation of fatigue characteristics of laminated constructions from composite materials: full-scale testing of
the helicopter rotor blades. J Test Eval ASTM 2011;39:237–42.
[32] Grbovic A, Rasuo B, Vidanovic N, Peric M. Simulation of crack propagation in titanium mini dental implants (MDI). FME Trans 2011;39:165–70.
[33] Couper MJ, Nesson AE, Griffiths JR. Casting defects and the fatigue behavior of an aluminium casting alloy. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct
1990;13:213–27.
[34] Yi JZ, Gao YX, Lee PD, Flower HM, Lindley TC. Scatter in fatigue life due to effects of porosity in cast A356–T6 aluminum–silicon alloys. Metall Mater
Trans A 2003;33:1879–90.
[35] Yi JZ, Gao YX, Lee PD, Lindley TC. Microstructure-based fatigue life prediction for cast A356–T6 aluminum–silicon alloys. Metall Mater Trans B
2006;37:301–11.
[36] Gao YX, Yi JZ, Lee PD, Lindley TC. The effect of porosity on fatigue life of cast aluminium–silicon alloys. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 2004;27:559–70.
[37] Gao YX, Yi JZ, Lee PD, Lindley TC. A micro-cell model of the effect of microstructure and defects on fatigue resistance in cast aluminum alloys. Acta
Mater 2004;52:5435–49.
[38] Kuwazuru O, Murata Y, Hangai Y, Utsunomiya T, Kitahara S, Yoshikawa N. X-ray CT inspection for porosities and its effect on fatigue of die cast
aluminium alloy. J Solid Mech Mater Eng 2008;2:1220–31.
[39] Skallerud B, Iveland T, Harkegard G. Fatigue life assessment of aluminum alloys with casting defects. Eng Fract Mech 1993;44:857–74.
[40] Kaufman JG, Rooy EL. Aluminum alloy castings: properties, processes, and applications. American Foundry Society, ASM International: The influence
and control of porosity and inclusions in aluminum castings; 2004.