ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

compiled & edited by Arch. Jenaro A. Villamor, uap

Definitions of ACOUSTICS:
1. branch of physics concerned with sound
2. deals with the production, control, transmission, reception, and effects of sound
Almost all acoustical situations are described in 3 parts (elements):
1. Sound Source ( e.g. human speech, HVAC equipment)
2. Transmission Path (e.g. air, earth, building materials)
3. Receiver (e.g. humans, animals, sensitive medical equipment)
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
1. technology of designing spaces, structures and mechanical systems to meet hearing needs
2. effect of building design on the control of sound in buildings
3 Aspects of Acoustical Design in Buildings
1. Planning to keep noise sources as far as possible from quiet area
2. Internal acoustics of rooms
3. Structural precautions to reduce noise penetrations
Essential Elements of Architectural Acoustics:
1. Room Acoustics – the qualities or characteristics of a room, auditorium, or concert hall that determine the
audibility of speech or fidelity of musical sound in it
• Cubic volume (and coupled spaces)
• Shape and proportion (length-to-width, height-to-width)
• Finishes (selection and placement)
• Audience layout ( floor slope, speaker-to-listener distances)
• Special treatment ( suspended reflectors, resonant absorbers, quadratic-residue diffusers)
2. Sound Isolation – the use of building materials and construction assemblies designed to reduce the transmission
of airborne and structure-borne sound from one room to another or from the exterior to the interior of a building
(Sound Insulation)
• Site noise characteristics (sound level, character, duration)
• Outdoor barriers, nearby buildings, vegetation, and earth berms
• Location of activities within buildings (zoning, buffer spaces)
• Background noise criteria (HVAC system, electronic)
3. Mechanical system noise and vibrations
• Equipment noise characteristics
• Location of mechanical equipment
• Vibration isolation ( springs, pads)
• Air duct and pipe treatment ( linings, mufflers, laggings)
• Background noise from air outlets (coordination with sound isolation)
4. Electronic sound systems
• System compatibility with room acoustics
• Loudspeaker selection, placement and orientation
• System components and controls
• Background masking (loudspeaker layout, sound spectra)

Definitions of SOUND 2
1. physical wave in an elastic medium, usually air
2. the sensation stimulated in the organs of hearing by mechanical radiant energy transmitted as longitudinal
pressure waves through the air or other medium
3. a vibration in an elastic medium such as air, water, most building materials, and the earth
4. physically, sound is a rapid fluctuation of air pressure
Types of Sound
1. Wanted Sound (speech, music) – heard properly
o considered desirable
o heard properly
2. Unwanted Sound (noise) – annoyance
o annoyance
o not desired or objectionable
Characteristics of Sound
1. Audible
2. Inaudible
Basic Principles of Sound - understanding the characteristics of sound is essential in designing for good acoustics)
1. Generation
o sound is generated when an object vibrates, causing the adjacent air to move, resulting in a series of pressure
waves radiating out from the moving object
o Wave – a disturbance or oscillation that transfers energy progressively from point to point in a medium or space
without advance by the points themselves, as in the transmission of sound or light
o Sound Wave – a longitudinal pressure wave in air or an elastic medium esp. one producing an audible sensation
2. Frequency
o the no. of times the cycle of compression and rarefaction of air occurs in a given unit of time (e.g. 1000 cycles in
the period of 1 second = 1000 cps = 1000 Hertz)
o the no. of cycles per unit time of a wave or oscillation
o the no. of complete cycles per second (frequency of vibration)
o the rate of oscillation of molecules by sound (frequency of vibration) measured in cycles per second (Hertz)
o Pitch – frequency of sound vibration; the predominant frequency of a sound as perceived by the human ear
o Vibration – the back and forth motion of a complete cycle
o Cycle – full circuit by a displaced particle
o Period – the time required for one complete cycle
o 20 – 20,000 Hz – approx. audio frequency range of human hearing;
o 600 – 40,000 Hz – critical frequency for speech communication
o Tone – composed of a fundamental frequency with multiples of the fundamental, called Harmonics
o Pure Tone – sound composed only of 1 frequency
o Musical sounds are combination of many pure tones
o Frequency bands – used to express division of sounds into sections (Octave bands are the most common)
o 9 Octave Bands – 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 Hz
3
3. Velocity
o varies according to the medium of transmission; approx. 1100 fps in air at normal temperature and pressure
4. Wavelength
o Distance between similar points on successive waves; the distance the sound travels in one cycle
o Relationship between wavelength, frequency, and velocity:
Λ = c/f
Λ = wavelength, ft.2
c = velocity of sound, fps
f = frequency of sound, Hz (cps)
o Low frequency sounds: characterized by long wavelengths
o High frequency sounds: characterized by short wavelengths
o Sounds with wavelengths ranging from ½” – 50’ can be heard by humans
5. Magnitude
o Sound power (watts) – amount of energy produced by a source
o Intensity – describes the energy level; unit is watts/cm2
o Loudness (what is perceived) – related to the Intensity Level (IL) or Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
o The Sound Pressure Level (SPL) is equivalent to the Sound Intensity Level (IL)
o Intensity Level is expressed in decibels
o Decibel – dimensionless unit used to express the ratio of two numerical values of a logarithmic scale
Comparison of decimal, exponential, and logarithmic statements of various acoustic intensities
Intensity (watts/cm2) Intensity Level
Decimal Notation Exponential Notation Logarithmic Notation Examples
0.001 10-3 130 dB Painful
0.0001 10-4 120 dB
0.00001 10-5 110 dB 75-piece orchestra
0.000001 10-6 100 dB
0.0000001 10-7 90 dB Shouting at 5 ft.
0.000000001 10-9 70 dB Speech at 3ft.
0.00000000001 10-11 50 dB Average office
0.0000000000001 10-13 30 dB Quiet unoccupied office
0.00000000000001 10-14 20 dB Rural ambient
0.000000000000001 10-15 10 dB
0.0000000000000001 10-16 0 dB Threshold of hearing

o The fundamental relationship that determines the decibel level is ten times the logarithm to the base 10 of the
numerical ratio of the two intensities. For example:
IL = 10 log I
I0
IL = intensity level
I = intensity, watts/cm2
I0 = reference intensity, 10-16 watts/cm2
4
6. Time Characteristics of Sound
o Some sounds remain constant with time (e.g. fan may produce a sound with constant frequency and intensity
characteristics – a steady state sound)
o Sounds (traffic, voices, musical instruments) vary as a function of time
o Vehicular traffic sounds: maximum levels/levels exceeded for 90% of the time
o Speech sounds: 1% peaks
o Orchestra’s sound: long-term average levels
Behavior of Sound in a Free Field
• Sound intensity is reduced to one-quarter each time the distance doubles:

I1 and I2 are the intensities at distances d1 and d2 from the source

• The intensity of a sound at a distance from the source is expressed as the power (P) of the source divided by the
area over which it has spread (A)
I = P/A
• If the sound radiates freely in all directions from a source the area is a sphere. The intensity is represented as:
I=P
4π r2
P = power in watts
r = distance from source in cm
In English units, the conversion factor is 930 cm2/ft4π r2Using this, the equation for spherical direction is:
I = P/930 x 4π r2
As the intensity is reduced to one-quarter with each doubling of distance, the sound pressure level (IL) is reduced by
6 dB. Quartering the intensity reduced the intensity level by 6 dB
• Sound attenuation is due to distance, absorption, or barriers
• Barriers, to be effective must be solid, quite large as compared to the wavelength of sound and near to the source
or receiver
• Shrubs, hedges, small groves: visual barriers only; no value acoustically
• Sound Combining. Sounds from separate sources may combine. Two violins produce a louder sound than 1
instrument; 3 violins are louder still. Decibels are not added directly to make the perceived level twice as loud for 2
sources or 3 times as loud for 3. The level for combined sources is determined by adding powers, intensities or
pressures; and subsequently converting to decibels. Doubling of intensities results in a 3 dB increase (e.g. 50 dB plus
50 dB is 53 dB, not 100 dB)

5
ROOM ACOUSTICS
Sound Indoors – Acoustics of Room
• Sound in an enclosure radiates out from the source until it hits a surface that reflects or absorbs it
• If the source is continuous, a state of equilibrium will be reached
• Levels are constant throughout most spaces except at points very near the source (for a given source, the built-up
or reverberant levels will be highest in a space with a few absorptive surfaces – lobby with marble walls/floors; in a
space with large areas of sound absorbing materials, the levels will be lowest
1. Sound Absorption
• Materials varying sound absorption characteristics
 Some absorb low frequency energy
 Some absorb high frequency energy
 Others absorb energy equally over a broad spectrum
• Mechanism of Absorption: 3 families of devices for sound absorption; all types absorb sound by changing sound
energy to heat energy
 Fibrous materials (Porous materials): absorption provided by a specific material depends on thickness, density,
porosity, resistance to air flow (e.g. materials must be thick to absorb low frequency sounds effectively; suspending
an acoustical ceiling tile a foot below the structure results in better broad band absorption than cementing the tile
directly to the structure; “acoustic” paints with sand or walnut shells are useless as sound absorbers
 Panel resonators: built with a membrane (thin plywood, linoleum in front of a sealed airspace); panel is set in
motion by the alternating pressure of the impinging sound wave; sound energy is converted into heat through
internal viscous damping; used where efficient low frequency absorption is required/ mid and high frequency
absorption is unwanted; used in recording studios
 Volume resonators
• Coefficient of Absorption (α): Knowing the amount of absorption at different frequencies for each material in a
room is essential in designing the room acoustics
 The absorption coefficient is the fraction of incident energy that is absorbed by a surface expressed as
α = Ia
Ii
Ii = incident energy, watts/cm2
Ia= absorbed energy, watts/cm2
α = absorption coefficient (no units)
 Total absorption (A) provided by a surface (S) is expressed in sabins
A = Sα
A = Total absorption, sabins
S = Surface area, sq ft
α = Coefficient of absorption

6
Coefficients of General Building Materials and Furnishings
Coefficients for absorption in auditorium is shown for both empty and occupied seating conditions

• Many products are prefabricated for sound absorbing treatment (suspended ceilings/wall mounted treatments
• 3 kinds of custom-designed treatments that are often used in auditoriums/churches (the deep air space insures
adequate low frequency performance

2. Noise Reduction by Absorption

• Noise levels in a room are highest for a given source if the room’s surfaces are primarily sound reflecting; lowest if
there are large areas of sound absorbing materials (e.g. sound absorbing ceilings
3. Reflections
4. Reverberation

Electrical Notes:
COULUMB (C)
- The SI unit of electric charge equal to the quantity of electricity transferred along the conductor by a current of one
ampere in one second
WATT (W)
- the SI unit equal to one joule per second or to the power represented by a current of one ampere flowing across a
potential difference of one volt
W= V x A

WATTAGE
- an amount of power especially the power required to operate an electrical device or appliance, expressed in watts

KILOWATT (kW)
- a unit of power equal to 1,000 watts

KILOWATT-HOUR (kWh)
- a unit of energy transferred or expanded by one kilowatt in one hour a common unit of electric power
consumption

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf)

- the energy per unit charge available for conversion from a chemical, mechanical or other form of energy into
electrical energy or vice versa in a conversion devise as a battery, generator or a motor

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
- the voltage difference between two points that represents the work involved in the transfer of a unit charge from
one point to the other

POTENTIAL
- the work required to move a unit charge from a reference point to a designed point

VOLTAGE
- potential difference or electromotive force expressed in volts: analogous to pressure in water flow

VOLT (V)
- the SI unit of potential difference and electromotive force, defined as the difference of electric potential between
two points of a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere, when the power dissipated between the
points is equal to one watt

CURRENT
- the rate of flow of electric charge in a circuit per unit time measured in amperes

AMPERE (A)
- the basic SI unit of electric current, equivalent to a flow of one coulomb per second or to the steady current
produced by one volt applied to one resistance of one ohm

AMPERAGE
- the strength of an electric current measured or expressed in amperes: analogous to the rate of water flow

RESISTANCE (R)
- the opposition of a conductor to the flow of current, causing some of the electric energy to be transformed into
heat and usually measured in ohms
OHM
- the SI unit of electrical resistance, equal to the resistance of a conductor in which a potential difference of one volt
produces a current of one ampere

OHM’S LAW
- that law that for any circuit the electric current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to
the resistance
I= V/R

JOULE’S LAW
- the principle that the rate of production of heat by direct current is directly proportional to the resistance of the
circuit and to the square of the current

RESISTIVITY
- the resistance per unit length of a substance with a cross sectional area. Also called specific resistance

CONDUCTIVITY
- a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct electric current, equal to the reciprocal of the resistivity of the
substance. Also called specific conductance

CIRCUIT
- the complete path of an electric current including the source of electric energy

SERIES
- an arrangement of components in an electric circuit in which the same current flows through each component in
turn without branching

PARALLEL- the arrangement of components in an electric circuit in which all positive terminals are connected to a
second conductor, the same voltage being applied to each component

BATTERY - a group of two or more cells connected together to produce electric current

CELL- a device for converting chemical into electric energy usually consisting of a receptacle with electrodes in an
electrolyte. Also called electric cell

ELECTROLYTE- a non metallic conducting medium in which current is carried by the movement of ions

ELECTRODE- a conductor through which a current enters or leaves a non metallic medium

ANODE- the negative terminal of a primary cell or storage battery

CATHODE- the positive terminal of a primary cell or storage battery

GENERATOR- a machine that converts mechanical energy into electric energy

ALTERNATOR - a generator for producing alternating current

ELECTRIC MOTOR
- a machine that converts electric power into mechanical energy

ARMATURE
-the main current-carrying winding of a motor or generator in which electromotive force is induced
DIRECT CURRENT (DC)
- an electric current in one direction only having a magnitude that does not vary or varies only slightly

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

- an electric current that reverses direction at regularly recurring intervals, having a magnitude that varies in a
sinusoidal manner

VOLT AMPERE (VA)

- a unit of electric measurement equal to the product of one volt and one ampere, equivalent to one watt for direct
current system and a unit of apparent power for alternating current systems

TRANSFORMER
- an electric device consisting of two or more winding wound on the same core, which employs the principle of
mutual induction to convert variations of alternating current in a primary circuit into variations of voltage and
current in a secondary circuit

STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
- a transformer having fewer turns in the primary winding than in the secondary, serving to transform low voltage to
high voltage

STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
- a transfer having a greater number of turns in the primary winding than in the secondary, serving to transform high
voltage to low voltage

LINE VOLTAGE
- the voltage supplied by a power line, measured at the point of use

SERVICE CONDUCTOR
- any of several conductors extending from a main power line or transformer to the service equipment of a building

SERVICE
- the supply of utilities, as water, gas and electricity, required or demanded by the public

HIGH VOLATGE
- operated on power by or transmitting high voltage

SUBSTATION
- an auxiliary power station where electrical current is converted, as from DC to AC or where voltage is stepped up or
down

SERVICE DROP
- the overhead portion of service conductors extending from the nearest utility pole to a building

SERVICE LATERAL
- the underground portion of service conductors extending from a main power line or transformer to a building

LINE DROP
- the decrease in voltage between two points on a power line, usually caused by resistance or leakage along the line
SERVICE ENTRANCE CONDUCTOR
- the portion of a service conductor extending from a service drop or service lateral to the service equipment of a
building

WATT- HOUR METER

- a meter for measuring and recording the quality of electric power consumed with respect to time

TRANSFORMER VAULT
- a fire-rated room housing a transformer and auxiliary equipment for a large building, usually located on grade or
below ground and ventilated directly to the outside air

SWITCHGEAR ROOM - a room containing the service equipment for a large building

SERVICE EQUIPMENT
- the equipment necessary for controlling, metering, and protecting the electric power supply to a building, located
near the entrance of the service conductors and usually consisting of a main disconnect switch and secondary
switch, fuses and circuit breakers

STANDBY GENERATOR
- a generator for providing emergency power during a power outage. Also called emergency generator

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY

- an emergency system designed to provide power automatically and instantaneously upon failure of the normal
power supply

SWITCHBOARD
- one or a group of panels on which are mounted switches, over current devices, metering instruments, and buses
for controlling and protecting a number of electric circuits called switchgear

UNIT SUBSTATION
- a free standing enclosure housing a disconnect switch, a step-down transformer and switchgear for a number of
electric circuit

FEEDER
- any of the conductors extending from the service equipment to various distribution points in a building

WIRE
- a pliable metallic strand or twisted or woven assembly of such strands often insulated with a dielectric material and
used as a conductor of electricity

CONDUCTOR - a substance, body or devise that conducts heat, sound or electricity

INSULATOR
- a material that is poor conductor of electricity used in operating or supporting conductors to prevent the undesired
flow of current

CABLE - a single insulated conductor or a bound or sheathed combination of conductors insulated from one another
ARMORED CABLE
- electric cable consisting of two or more insulated conductors protected by flexible, helically wound metal wrapping.
Also called BX

MINERAL ISULATED CABLE

- electric cable consisting of a tubular copper sheath containing one or more conductors embedded in a highly
compressed, insulating refractory mineral

NON- METALLIC SHEATED CABLE

- electric cable consisting of two or more insulated conductors enclosed in a non- metallic, moisture resistant, flame
retardant sheath. Also called ROMEX

COAXIAL CABLE
- a cable for transmitting high frequency telephone, digital or television signals consisting of an insulated conducting
core

SHIELDED CABLE - an electric cable enclosed within a metallic sheath in order to reduce the effects of external
electric or magnetic fields

CONDUIT - a tube, pipe or duct for enclosing and protecting electric wires or cable

RIGID METAL CONDUIT

- heavy-walled, tubular steel conduits joined by screwing directly into a threaded hub with locknuts and bushings

ELECTRICAL METAL TUBING (EMT)

- thin-walled, tubular steel conduit joined by compression or setscrew couplings

FLEXIBLE METAL CONDUIT

- flexible, helically wound metal conduit, used for connections to motors or other vibrating equipment. Also called
Greenfield conduit

RACEWAY - a channel expressly designed to hold and protect electric wires and cables
SURFACE RACEWAY - a raceway designed to exposed installation in dry, non-hazardous, corrosive locations
MULTI- OUTLET ASSEMBLY - a surface mounted raceway designed to house the electrical wires for a circuit and a
series of receptacles

DUCT - an enclosed runway for housing conductors or cables

BUS DUCT - a rigid metal housing for a group of buses insulted from each other and the enclosure. Also called
busway
CABLE TRAY - an open metal framework for supporting insulated electrical conductors
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
- the minimum applied voltage at which a given insulator breaks down and permits current to pass

DIELECTRIC STRENGTH - the maximum voltage that can be applied to a given material without causing it to
breakdown, usually expressed in volts or kilovolts per unit of thickness

DIELECTRIC - a non-conducting substance

JUNCTION BOX
- an enclosure for housing and protecting electric wires or cables that are joined together in connecting or branching
electric circuits
KNOCKOUT - a panel in a casing or box that can readily be removed, as by punching, hammering or cutting to provide
an opening into the interior

GROMMET - a rubber or plastic washer inserted in a hole in a metal part to prevent grounding of a wire passing
through the hole

BUSHING - an insulating and protective lining for one or more conductors passing through a hole
UTILITY BOX - for lighting outlet and convenience outlet
PULL BOX - to facilitate pulling
OUTLET BOX - where cable ends
CUT OUT BOX - metal box with hinge & enclosure. House or fuse box
INSULATOR - used as supports and for additional protection for wires

GENERAL WIRING
RHW Moisture and heat resistance rubber Dry and wet locations
T Thermoplastic Dry locations
TW Moisture resistant thermoplastic Dry and wet locations
THHN Heat resistant thermoplastic Dry locations
THW Moisture & heat resistant thermoplastic Dry and wet locations
THWN Moisture & heat resistant thermoplastic Dry and wet locations
XHHW Moisture & heat resistant cross linked Dry and wet locations
SA Silicone asbestos Dry locations
AVA Asbestos and varnished cambric Dry locations only

CONDUIT FITTINGS:
1. elbow (long sweep)
2. tee
a. LB Condulets (angle & bended)
b. LR (angle to the right)
c. TF (tee front)

CONDUITS:
1. RIGID CONDUITS- cannot be bended
metal- RSC/ EMT
non-metal- PVC

2. FLEXIBLE
metal- BX

http://www.cgpinoy.org/t4313-architectural-board-exam-reviewer