Design Against Fluctuating Load

Dr. Benedict Thomas

School of Mechanical Engineering
 Fluctuating Stresses
• In many applications, the components are subjected to forces
that are not static, but vary in magnitude with respect to time.
The stresses induced due to such forces are called fluctuating
stresses.
• Fluctuating stresses (repeated over long period of time) will
cause a part to fail (fracture) at a stress level much smaller
than the ultimate strength (or even the yield strength in
some cases).
• Unlike static loading where failure usually can be detected
before it happens (due to the large deflections associated with
plastic deformation), fatigue failures are usually sudden and
therefore dangerous.

2
 Cyclic stresses
There are three types of mathematical model for cyclic stresses:
• Fluctuating or alternating stresses
1
• Repeated stresses Mean S tress   m   max   min 
2
• Reversed stresses 1
Stress Amplitude   a   max   min 
2

Fluctuating or alternating stresses Repeated stresses

3
Reversed stresses
 Fatigue Failure
 It has been observed that materials fail under fluctuating
stresses at a stress magnitude lower than the ultimate tensile
strength of the materials and sometimes even lower than the
yield strength of the material. Such type of failure of a material
is known as fatigue.
 Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic
loading.
 The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation
which are usually fine and of microscopic size. The failure may
occur even without any prior indication.
 The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component,
relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and the
number of load reversals.
 Endurance limit
 The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the
maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the
standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of
cycles without fatigue failure.
 Since the fatigue test can not be conducted for unlimited or
infinite number of cycles, so 106 cycles were considered as
sufficient number of cycles to define endurance
 The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the
standard specimen can complete during the test before the
appearance of the first fatigue crack.
 Endurance limit
 Endurance or Fatigue limit (Se) is defined as maximum value of
the completely reversed bending stress which a polished
standard specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite
number of cycles (usually 106 cycles).
 It may be noted that the term endurance limit is used for
reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the term
endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue
strength of the material.
 It may be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be
applied to the machine part working under actual conditions.
 S-N Diagram
 Fatigue strength of material is determined by R.R. Moore
rotating beam machine. The surface is polished in the axial
direction. A constant bending load is applied.
A record is kept of the number of cycles required
to produce failure at a given stress, and the
results are plotted in stress-cycle curve as shown
in figure.
A little consideration will show that if the stress is
kept below a certain value the material will not
fail whatever may be the number of cycles.
This stress, as represented by dotted line, is
known as endurance or fatigue limit (Se).
It is defined as maximum value of the completely
reversed bending stress which a polished
standard specimen can withstand without failure,
for infinite number of cycles (usually 106 cycles).
 S-N Diagram
S-N curve is the graphical representation of the
stress amplitude (Sf) versus the number of stress
cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log
graph paper. It is also called Wohler diagram.
 Notch Sensitivity
• It has been observed that the actual stress concentration in
fatigue, Kf, is less than the theoretical stress concentration Kt .
The fatigue stress concentration factor is defined as:
Endurance limit of notch free specimen
Kf 
Endurance limit of notched specimen

• Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of the a

material to succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising
notches in fatigue loading. The notch sensitivity factor q is
defined as follows:

Increase of actual stress over nominal stress

q
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress

K  1

q
 K f 0 0  q
f

 K t  1
 K t 0   0  Kf  1  q  K t  1
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s
Endurance Limit
• The endurance limit of a real machine component is lower than
the estimated of experimentally determined endurance limit
because the size, shape, surface finish, etc. of a components
are generally quite different from those of the specimens used
in testing. As such the following relationship is generally used
to determine endurance strength of real component.

Se = kakbkckdSe’
Where Se = endurance limit of component
Se’ = endurance limit experimental
ka = surface finish factor (machined parts have different finish)
kb = size factor (larger parts greater probability of finding defects)
kc = reliability / statistical scatter factor (accounts for random variation)
kd = modifying factor to account for stress concentration
 Relationship Between Endurance Limit and
Ultimate Strength
Ka is Determined from Figure 5.24 Aluminum

Kd= 1/ Kf

K f  1  q  K t  1

For N = 5x108 cycle

Kb
(Load type: bending or torsional)
Diameter d (mm) Kb
d ≤ 7.5 1.00
7.5 <d ≤ 50 0.85
d > 50 0.75
For axial loading 1.00
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

• Reliability factor, kc

The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and

uncertainty of material properties (endurance limit).
 REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR FINITE AND
INFINITE LIFE
 There are two types of problems in fatigue design:
(i) components subjected to completely reversed stresses, and
(ii) components subjected to fluctuating stresses.
 The mean stress is zero in case of completely reversed stresses. The stress
distribution consists of tensile stresses for the first half cycle and
compressive stresses for the remaining half cycle and the stress cycle
passes through zero.
 In case of fluctuating stresses, there is always a mean stress, and the
stresses can be purely tensile, purely compressive or mixed depending
upon the magnitude of the mean stress. Such problems are solved with
the help of the modified Goodman diagram.
 The design problems for completely reversed stresses are further divided
into two groups:
(i) design for infinite life, and
(ii) design for finite life.
Case II: When the component is to be
designed for finite life, the S-N
curve as shown in figure can be
used.
It consist of a straight line AB drawn from
(0.9Sut) at 103 cycles to (Se) at 106 cycles on a
log-log paper. The design procedure is as
follows:
 Locate point A with coordinates
[3,log10(0.9Sut)] as log10 (3)=3.
 Locate point B with coordinates
[6,log10(Se)] as log10 (6)=6.
 Join AB, which is used as a criterion of
failure for finite life problem.
 Depending upon the life N of the
component, draw vertical line passing
through log10(N) on the abscissa. This line
intersects AB at point F.
 Draw a line FE parallel to the abscissa. The
ordinate at the point E, i.e. log10(Sf), gives
the fatigue strength corresponding to N
cycles, which will be used for design
calculations.
Qu.1. A rotating bar made of steel 45C8 (Sut =630
N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed
bending stress. The corrected endurance limit of
the bar is 315 N/mm2. Calculate the fatigue
strength of the bar for a finite life of 90,000
cycles.
Qu.2. A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is
subjected to a reversed bending stress of 250
N/mm2.The bar is made of steel 40C8 (Sut =600
N/mm2). Calculate the life of the bar for a
reliability of 90%.
Qu.3. A rotating shaft, subjected to a non-rotating force of 5 kN
and simply supported between two bearings A and E is
shown in Fig. The shaft is machined from plain carbon
steel 30C8 (Sut =500 N/mm2) and the expected reliability
is 90%. The equivalent notch radius at the fillet section
can be taken as 3 mm. What is the life of the shaft.
Qu.4. A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 20C8 (Sut=540
N/mm2) is subjected to a completely reversed load of 1000 N
as shown in Figure. The notch sensitivity factor q at the fillet
can be taken as 0.85 and the expected reliability is 90%.
Determine the diameter d of the beam for a life of 10000
cycles.
 Fluctuating stresses
 The failure points from fatigue tests made with different steels
and combinations of mean and variable stresses are plotted in
figure as functions of stress amplitude(σa) and mean stress (σm).
 The most significant observation is that, in general, the failure
point is little related to the mean stress when it is compressive
but is very much a function of the mean stress when it is tensile.
 In practice, this means that fatigue failures are rare when the
mean stress is compressive (or negative). Therefore, the greater
emphasis must be given to the combination of a variable stress
and a steady (or mean) tensile stress.
 Soderberg and Goodman Lines
Using equation of straight line :
x y
 1
a b
For Soderberg Line:
m a
 1
S yt Se
For Goodman Line:
m a
 1
Sut Se
 a
Sy Yield line

Gerber curve
Se
Alternating
stress Goodman line

Sy Sut m
Soderberg line
Mean stress
 Modified Goodman Diagram:
 In the design of components subjected to fluctuating
stresses, the Goodman diagram is slightly modified to
account for the yielding failure of the components,
especially, at higher values of the mean stresses.
 The diagram known as modified Goodman diagram and is
most widely used in the design of the components
subjected to fluctuating stresses.
 Modified Goodman Diagram
 For the purpose of design the problem is classified into two groups:
1. Components subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stresses;
The region OABC, which is the region of safety, is called the modified
Goodman diagram.
a
tan  
m
Pa
a A Pa
Since,  
m Pm Pm
A
 M b a
Also it can be proved that, tan  
 M b m
The intersection point X (Sm,Sa) indicates the dividing line between the safe
region and the region of failure. The permissible stresses are:

Sa S
a  , and  m  m
 fs   fs 
 Modified Goodman Diagram
 For the purpose of design the problem is classified into two groups:
2. Components subjected to fluctuating torsional stresses;
The area OABC is the region of safety, and it is not necessary to construct a
fatigue diagram for fluctuating torsional stresses as AB is parallel to the X-
axis. Instead, a fatigue failure is indicated if,
 a  S se
And a static failure is indicated if,

 max   a   m  S sy
The permissible shear stresses are :
S se
a 
fs
S sy
 max 
fs
 Infinite life Problems
Qu.1. A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (Sut=600
N/mm2 and Syt=380 N/mm2) is shown in Figure. The force P
acting at the free end varies from -50 N to +150 N. The
expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2. The
notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9. Determine the
diameter ‘d’ of the beam at the fillet cross-section.
 Infinite life Problems
Qu.2. A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel (Sut=500 N/mm2
and Syt=300 N/mm2) is subjected to a fluctuating torque
which varies from -100 N-m to +400 N-m. The factor of
safety is 2 and the expected reliability is 90%. Neglecting the
effect of stress concentration, determine the diameter of the
shaft. Assume the distortion energy theory of failure.
 Infinite life Problems
Qu.3. A spherical pressure vessel, with a 500 mm inner diameter, is
welded from steel plates. The welded joints are sufficiently
strong and do not weaken the vessel. The plate are made from
cold drawn steel 20C8 (Sut=440 N/mm2 and Syt=242 N/mm2).
The vessel is subjected to internal pressure, which varies from
zero to 6 N/mm2. The expected reliability is 50% and the factor
of safety is 3.5. The size factor is 0.85. The vessel is expected
to withstand infinite number of stress cycles. Calculate the
thickness of the plate.
 Finite life Problems
Qu.4. A polished steel bar is subjected to axial tensile force that varies
from zero to Pmax. It has a groove 2 mm deep and having a
radius of 3 mm. The theoretical stress concentration factor and
notch sensitivity factor at the groove are 1.8 and 0.95
respectively. The outer diameter of the bar is 30 mm. The
ultimate tensile strength of bar 1250 MPa. The endurance limit
in reversed bending is 600 Mpa. Find the maximum force that
the bar can carry for 105 cycles with 90% reliability.
 FATIGUE DESIGN UNDER COMBINED STRESSES
 The problems discussed so far are based on the construction of the
modified Goodman diagram for the component, which is subjected to
either axial load or bending moment or torsional moment. Each type of
loading is considered separately.
 In practice, the problems are more complicated because the component
may be subjected to two-dimensional stresses, or to combined bending and
torsional moments. In case of two-dimensional stresses, each of the two
stresses may have two components— mean and alternating. Similarly, the
bending moment as well as torsional moment may have two components—
mean and alternating.
 Such problems involving combination of stresses are solved by the
distortion energy theory of failure. The most general equation of the
distortion energy theory is as follows:
 Combined stresses Problems
Qu.5. A machine component is subjected to two-dimensional
stresses. The tensile stress in the X direction varies from 40 to
100 N/mm2 while the tensile stress in the Y direction varies
from 10 to 80 N/mm2. The frequency of variation of these
stresses is equal. The corrected endurance limit of the
component is 270 N/mm2. The ultimate tensile strength of the
material of the component is 660 N/mm2. Determine the factor
of safety used by the designer.
 Combined stresses Problems
Qu.6. A transmission shaft carries a pulley midway between two
bearings. The bending moment at the pulley varies from 200
N-m to 600 N-m, as the torsional moment in the shaft varies
from 70 N-m to 200 N-m. The frequencies of variation of
bending and torsional moment are equal to the shaft speed.
The shaft is made from steel FeE400 (Sut=540 N/mm2 and
Syt=400 N/mm2). The corrected endurance limit of the shaft is
200 N/mm2. Determine the diameter of the shaft using a factor
of safety of 2.
 Problem for Practice

1. A hot rolled steel shaft is subjected to a torsional moment that varies from
330 N-m clockwise to 110 N-m counter-clockwise and an applied bending
moment at a critical section varies from 440 N-m to – 220 N-m. The shaft is
of uniform cross-section and no keyway is present at the critical section.
Determine the required shaft diameter. The material has an ultimate strength
of 550 MN/m2 and a yield strength of 410 MN/m2. Take the endurance limit
as half the ultimate strength, factor of safety of 2, size factor of 0.85 and a
surface finish factor of 0.62. (Ans. d = 39.5 say 40 mm)
 Problem for Practice
2. A steel cantilever is 200 mm long. It is subjected to an axial load which varies from
150 N (compression) to 450 N (tension) and also a transverse load at its free end
which varies from 80 N up to 120 N down. The cantilever is of circular cross-
section. It is of diameter 2d for the first 50 mm and of diameter d for the remaining
length. Determine its diameter taking a factor of safety of 2. Assume the following
values :
Yield stress = 330 MPa
Endurance limit in reversed loading = 300 MPa
Correction factors = 0.7 in reversed axial loading
= 1.0 in reversed bending
Stress concentration factor = 1.44 for bending
= 1.64 for axial loading
Size effect factor = 0.85
Surface effect factor = 0.90
Notch sensitivity index = 0.90

(Ans. d = 12.9 mm)