CHAPTER -3

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The present study is an attempt to examine the lives of children

belonging to economically disadvantaged families, specifically living in
urban slums. The study aims to facilitate children to develop effective
skills to improve upon the areas of anger, anxiety and self-esteem.
Recent research consistently reports that persistent poverty has more
detrimental effects on IQ, school achievement, and socio emotional
functioning than transitory poverty, with children experiencing both
types of poverty generally doing less well than never-poor children. It
would be a matter of interest and due research relevance to study the
impact of life skill programme since it can further enhance
understanding of the current educational problems faced in our
country, especially for the economically disadvantaged. An exhaustive
over view of relevant researches concerning the interest areas have
been presented in two sections. The first section deals with empirical
evidence in the three poignant areas of self esteem, anger and anxiety,
including the review on gender differences in these three areas. The
second section includes a review of various research works on life
skills interventions.

3.1 Self-esteem in Children

In generic terms Self-esteem implies to the value ascribed by the

individual to himself, the quality of the may be views about himself or
self-evaluation. Like other aspects of the self, it is learnt and builds up
by interacting with the significant others. Self-esteem is a relatively
permanent positive or negative feeling about the self that may become
more positive or negative as a person encounters success or failure in
daily life. Self-esteem research examines how individuals come to feel
as they do about themselves. Psychologists seek to understand how
self-esteem develops and what can be done to change negative views

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of the self once they have been established. Self-esteem is the
structural entity of personality, which organizes behaviour and
integrates experiences and perception on the basis of beliefs regarding
one's own self. It describes the values beliefs and attitudes we have
towards ourselves. It reflects the overall opinion we have about
ourselves. Our opinion may be positive (e.g., I am a worthwhile
person") or it may be negative (e.g., I am an incapable person). Healthy
self esteem is about ourselves for who we are.

Edington (1970) in a review of literature on disadvantaged

rural youth states that the type of residence i.e. urban or rural is
strongly related to educational status of the adolescents which further
affects their self esteem. Urban residents are almost always better
educated than rural residents, regardless of gender, age, maturity,
race, or parentage.

Saxena (1981) found t h e socio-economic s t a t u s h a d the

most significant effects on self -concept, study habit a n d school
attitude of different divisioners a s well a s failure of high school.

Brockner (1983), states that children with low self-esteem are

more sensitive to socially relevant cues than those with high self-
esteem.

Whitbeck, Simons, Conger, Lorenz, Huck and Elder (1991) in

study on family economic hardship, parental support, and adolescent
self-esteem showed that economic variables may have weak direct
effects on the self-esteem of early adolescents; the indirect effects of
such variables on young people' immediate environment may be more
consequential. Low self-esteem has been shown to increase
adolescents' risk for later loneliness (Olmstead, Guy, O'Malley and
Bentler, 1991).

Although people with high self-esteem claim to be more

accepted by their peers, as shown in strong positive correlations

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between self-esteem and perceived social acceptance, this may not
always reflect reality. Indeed, individuals may only see w h a t they
already believe is true, based on their self-esteem (Kenny and
DePaulo 1993). On the one h a n d , individuals with low self-esteem
may be more likely to engage in certain behaviors t h a t directly
deteriorate actual social acceptance, such a s r e a s s u r a n c e seeking
(Joiner, Katz and Lrew, 1999) or aggressive behavior (Donnellan,
Trzesniewski, Robins, Moflitt and Caspi, 2 0 0 5 ) . On the other h a n d ,
low self-esteem may colour adolescents' perceptions of others'
reactions (e.g., more anticipated rejection; A n t h o n y , Wood and
H o l m e s , 2 0 0 7 ; Murray, Rose, Bellavia, H o l m e s and Kusche, 2 0 0 2 ) ,
resulting in lowered perceived social acceptance.

Morrison (1994) reports t h a t one factor t h a t distinguishes

resilient children from non-resilient children is reported to be self-
concept. The a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t if self-concept can be improved,
p e r h a p s a child would become less at risk a n d less likely to develop
emotional problems.

Willingham (1994) identifies the effect of discouragement a n d

e n c o u r a g e m e n t on at risk elementary s t u d e n t s ' self-esteem, s t u d e n t s
do not perceive a sense of belonging, and this discouragement leads to
low self-esteem. The inferiority feelings lead to low self-esteem a n d self
defeating behaviours at school and home.

Smith (1994) examined the relationship between early

adolescents' social relations and psychological well-being of 206
school children. The results reveal t h a t children's reports of the social
support, satisfaction, and conflict in their relationships with p a r e n t s
were generally predictive of global self-worth. Children who perceived
themselves as more socially skilled were generally less lonely a n d h a d
higher self-esteem t h a n did children who believed they were less
skilled.

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 Theo (1994) suggested t h a t self-esteem can be enhanced
though c l a s s r o o m / g r o u p self-esteem building exercises.

A study by Willingham (1994) identified that e n c o u r a g e m e n t by

teachers, p a r e n t s a n d other a d u l t s in the s t u d e n t ' s life affect the
s t u d e n t s ' self-esteem positively in school setting. It was observed
S m i t h (1994), t h a t children who perceived themselves as more
socially skilled were generally less lonely a n d had higher self-esteem.
Further self-esteem positively related to t h e loving a n d d e m a n d i n g
dimensions of maternal behavior (Vila-Jaine, 1996).

Clopton (1995) explored how well elementary school peer

nominations of social behavior a n d peer acceptance could predict
adolescent maladjustment. It w a s observed t h a t early disruptive
behavior was uniquely predictive of externalizing problems s u c h as
delinquent behavior, offensive interpersonal behavior, hyper activity
and immaturity, a n d poor academic performance. Early internalizing
behaviors were linked to adolescent outcomes such as depression, low
self-esteem, loneliness, and social incompetence. Early peer
perceptions of being helpful, good looking, and academically
competent broadly predicted a d j u s t m e n t in junior high school, with
lack of these positive skills predicting unfavourable adjustment. Peer
acceptance in elementary school showed a modest relationship to
adjustment in junior school.

Dobson (1996) explored the effectiveness of a social skill

training program in promoting self-esteem in emotionally distributed
girls. Results indicate t h a t the self-esteem a n d desired behavior
increased significantly during the course of the study. Findings
suggest t h a t social skills training may be of assistance in a t r e a t m e n t
programme to increase self-esteem and appropriate behavior in
children who are seriously emotionally distributed.

Vila-Jaime (1996), examined the relationship between child

rearing practices and the self-esteem of children exclusively within

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low-income samples. Results conclude that children's self-esteem is
positively related to the loving and demanding dimensions of maternal
behavior and negatively related to the punishment dimension. That is,
greater the empathy and acceptance given by mothers to their
children the higher the self-esteem of the children. The results also
reveal the dimensions of granting autonomy as a correlate of self-
esteem in children and the detrimental effects of harsh discipline and
corporal punishment.

Tomaszeluski (1996) examines and describes the

characteristics and attitudes of at-risk and non at-risk adolescents
and their families. At risk female parents reported significantly greater
difficulty with self-confidence than that reported by at-risk fathers and
the control parents. Although, no significant findings produced on
self-esteem, both at risk population and the control population
reported difficulty in their perception of self-esteem.

Spellman (1996) assessed the relationship between life stress,

psychological functioning and the role of the self-esteem and social
support. A sample of 58 children participated in the study. Results
reveal that children and adolescents who reported many stressful
events in the previous year had more behavioural symptoms as
assessed by the teachers and residential staff. Children and
adolescents who reported having high level of social support had fewer
behavioural symptoms, high self-esteem moderated the psychological
dysfunction of the children and adolescents.

Geetanjli (1998) Showed that disruption in social

relationships h a d significant effect on s e l f - e s t e e m .

Traditional view holds that low self-esteem causes aggression

but recent work has not confirmed this. In adolescents self-esteem
has been seen to be related to higher extroversion and
conscientiousness (Fickova, 1999).

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 It was observed children with learning disabilities have higher
levels of aggression and lower self-esteem (Montaya, 2000; Sadovnik,
2000).

Gupta and Rastogi (2001); Trived (2001) revealed t h a t

the highest percentage of adolescents whose mother were
employed and h a d a s higher Socio-Economic s t a t u s h a d no
significant differences in t e r m s of self-esteem.

Raj (2003) found no significant relationship between self -

esteem a n d socio-economic s t a t u s .

Lin (2003) in study on avoiding anxiety, being in denial, or

simply stroking self-esteem reported that if strategic consideration
maintain or enhanced self-esteem leads to the self-positivity bias then
it is possible that individuals who are prone to these effects may also
demonstrate over-confidence in their estimate as a self-defense
mechanism that allows them to hold on to their unrealistic optimism.
The pattern suggested that self-positivity is attenuated in conditions
that implicate self-esteem.

In an Indian study, Thenmozhi and Karunanidhi (2000)

conducted a comparative study between the adolescents of single
parent family and intact family on the aspects of behaviour problems,
self-esteem, adjustment problems, academic achievement and
interfamily relationship. The analyses of the results showed that
adolescents from the single parent family have low self-esteem,
behaviour problems, adjustment problems low academic performance
and poor family Inter relationships compared to adolescents from
intact family. The psychosocial Intervention program included 20
sessions of 60- 70 minutes duration spread over 2 months. The
program included Self-esteem training, Study skills training,
Interpersonal relationship Skills training, behavioral counseling
and parent counseling. Results at the post assessment indicated

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effect of psycho-social intervention in significantly reducing behavioral
problems, a d j u s t m e n t problems, a n d led to Improvement in self-
esteem, academic achievement a n d interfamily relationship.

Lane, Lane and Kyprianou (2004) investigated relationships

between self-esteem, self-efficacy, performance accomplishments a n d
academic performance among students. Participants completed
m e a s u r e s of p a s t performance accomplishments, self-esteem a n d self-
efficacy, at t h e s t a r t of 15 week course. Correlation results indicated
significant relationships between self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Multiple regression results indicated t h a t self-efficacy mediated the
relationship between performance accomplishments a n d academic
performance settings.

Empirical s t u d i e s generally confirmed t h e strong association

between self-esteem a n d perceived social acceptance in adolescence,
both concurrently a n d longitudinally (Bellmore and Cillessen 2 0 0 6 ;
Harter 1 9 9 9 ; Keefe a n d Berndt, 1996). Adolescents with high self-
esteem may be intolerant of t h r e a t s to the self, a n d they m a y act
aggressively toward those who criticize t h e m (Baumeister , B u s h m a n
and Campbell, 2 0 0 0 ; Baumeister, Smart and Boden ,1996;
Menon, Tobin, Menon, Corby, Hodges and Perry, 2 0 0 7 ) , which
likely decreases actual—but not perceived—social acceptance. Earlier
cross-sectional studies indicating t h a t perceived, rather t h a n actual,
social acceptance predicted maladjustment (Zimmer-Gembeck,
Hunter, and Pronk, 2 0 0 7 ) .

Karatzias, Chouliara, Power and Swanson (2006) in a study on

predicting general well-being from self-esteem a n d affectivity showed
t h a t affectivity a n d self-esteem are important predictors of general well
being in adolescents, although home self-esteem seems to be one of
the most important predictors of well being. It might be the case t h a t
low self-esteem shapes individuals' perceptions, in that they
anticipate, expect, or perceive t h a t others do not like them, w h e r e a s
no actual rejection is occurring. Low self-esteem h a s been related to

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various indices of maladjustment such as depression, eating
disorders, engagement in risk behaviors, and lower academic
performance (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger and V o h s (2003);
Harter 2 0 0 6 )

A few studies pointed out t h a t people are motivated to maintain

or enhance feeling of self-esteem, continuity, distinctiveness,
belonging, efficacy a n d meaning in their identities. (Vignoles, Regalia
and Manzi, GoUedge and Scabini 2 0 0 6 ) . Low self-esteem h a s been
related to various indices of m a l a d j u s t m e n t s u c h a s depression, eating
disorders, engagement in risk behaviors, and lower academic
performance (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger and Vohs 2 0 0 3 ;
Harter 2 0 0 6 )

Sinha and Gupta (2006) examined self-worth protective

subjects who intentionally withdraw effort from situations reflecting
low ability on occasions when failure is unavoidable; self-worth
protective subjects attribute their failures to internal attributions. This
learned helplessness leads to low self-esteem, low self-concept,
hopelessness a n d worthlessness. The sample of study consisted of
100 subjects. Pre-post-test design w a s u s e d . To test the effect of
individual counseling high self-worth protective subject were selected.
Counseling was given in order to modify the distorted perceptions of
self-worth protective subjects. Results showed significant increase in
internal attributions of high self-worth protective subjects.

Ashtian, Ejei, Khodapanahi and Tarkhorani (2007)

examined some of the personality characteristics of adolescents a n d
their association with academic achievement. Result indicates t h a t
self-concept is correlated with self-esteem a n d these two have positive
impacts on a u g m e n t of academic achievement. Moreover, the increase
of self-concept and self-esteem are related to the decrease of anxiety
and a negative significant relation exists between self-concept, self-
esteem a n d depression which decrease academic achievement.

Vanhalst, Luyckx, S c h o l t e , Engels and G o o s s e n s (2013)

reveal that low self-esteem h a s been shown to relate to c o n c u r r e n t a n d

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later feelings of loneliness in adolescence. The direction of effects
between loneliness and self-esteem was investigated in two
independent longitudinal studies. Results indicated that self-esteem
and loneliness influenced one another in a reciprocal manner.
Furthermore, the dominant path from self-esteem to loneliness was
partially mediated by perceived—but not actual—social acceptance.

Children from slum areas due to the deprivation of wholesome

nurturing environment may lack certain skills that enable them to
have holistic personality. The quality of contextual influence of
adequate parental support, supportive home environment, school
climate that encourages high education and peer support can
sometimes act as deterrents for the proper physical and mental
development of the children. Experiencing low self-esteem and feeling
lonely are common and interrelated problems in adolescence. Low
self-esteem has been shown to relate to concurrent and later feelings
of loneliness in adolescence (Vanhalst, Luyckx, Ron, Scholte
Rutger, Engels and Goossens, 2013).

3 . 1 . 1 Gender and Self-esteem

Brockner (1983) found that children with low Self-esteem are

more sensitive to socially relevant cues.

Felson and Zielinski (1989), in a review of literature on

children's self esteem and parental support, mention that in
adolescent girls and boys, the self esteem of both girls and boys is
more strongly affected by parental support and that both mother and
father have equivalent influence on their children. Thus, there is a
positive relationship between supportive parental behavior and the
self-esteem of children and if this support is missing then adolescent's
self esteem is likely to be impacted. Others indicate that boys have
significantly higher self-esteem in terms of general, social and
academic self-esteem than girls. Girls are more defensive than boys.
Boys show a higher participation in (Competitive) activities that are
based on group identities, compared to girls, who mainly belong to
small groups that are based on interests and interpersonal attraction.

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 Harter (1993) has found that lower perceptions of physical
attractiveness among girls contribute to their lower global self-esteem.
Others have argued and shown that already in early adolescence,
gender inequality in society, demanding role expectations, and early
puberty development leave their mark on global self-esteem of girls in
particular.

In a study by Feingold (1994) four meta-analyses were

conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the
literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known
personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more
assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females.

Hoglund (1995) examined gender differences in the stability of

self-esteem and the relationship between academic achievement and
self-esteem in males and females from 8-14 years of age. Results show
significant age-related changes in global self-esteem on both
measures. Global, social and academic self-esteem scores were stable
during school transition for both genders. A positive relationship
emerged between self-esteem and academic achievement for females
at all ages, and at ages 12 and 14 for males.

Steitz (1995) observed self-esteem is directly related to high

academic achievement, different component of self-esteem tend to be
significant for boys and for girls depending upon their individual
stages of development.

Bender (1996) investigated the impact of attendance in a

multiage elementary program, on academic achievement and self-
esteem. The results indicate that no academic differences were found
between the groups based on gender. Students in both groups
reported no differences in the areas of self-esteem as a result of
program attended, gender of students, or school attended.

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 Vasuki a n d Reddy (1997) explored the self-esteem of single
children using a n expo-facto design, on a sample of 4 0 (20 boys a n d
20 girls) in the age group of 9-15 years. The results reveal that most of
the children h a d high self-esteem. No gender difference in the self-
esteem of 12-15 years old w a s found. However, overall boys showed
higher self-esteem. Results also indicate significant differences in the
self esteem of boys of the two age groups, whereas the same w a s not
observed in the case of girls.

Boys were found to have significantly higher self-esteem in

terms of general, social a n d academic self-esteem t h a n girls. Positive
relationship emerged between self-esteem a n d academic achievement
(Hoglund, 1 9 9 5 ; S t e i t z , 1 9 9 5 ; Vasuki and Reddy 1997)

Earlier research consistently indicated that girls, on average,

have lower self-esteem t h a n boys (Kling, Hyde, Showers and Buswell
1999).

Gender differences were found concerning anger, anxiety a n d

self-esteem in studies conducted by Nangia (1987); Indian I n s t i t u t e
of Public Opinion, New Delhi (2000); Progressive Education
S o c i e t y , Chandigarh (2000) with more educational opportunities for
boys t h a n girls.

The self-esteem h a s a central role to play in the personality

organization. Self-esteem manifests outwardly by personality a n d
inwardly by how are feels a b o u t oneself Feeling of a sense of self-
esteem inspires confidence a n d security. This added worthiness a n d
adequacy bring still higher sense Gupta and Rastogi, (2001)
assessed the self-esteem, self-centrality a n d identification a m o n g boys
and girls found t h a t exposure to parental influence or socio-economic
s t a t u s in early life h a d no profound effect on the relatedness of
children with self-esteem.

Certain r e s e a r c h e s reveal no difference between the self-esteem

of boys a n d girls.

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3.2 Anger in Children

Children exposed to frequent parental conflicts at h o m e become

more prone to adult anger (Cummings, Pellegrini, Notarius a n d
Cummings, 1989).

Conflict between parents, whether in intact or divorced families,

is a risk factor for externalizing a n d internalizing behavior problems,
low school achievement and low social competence (Cumming and
Davies, 1 9 9 4 ; Grych and Finchum, 1990).

Adolescents report stronger negative reactions, including anger,

fear, s a d n e s s and s h a m e when exposed to increasing intensity of a d u l t
conflict (Grych and Finchum, 1990).

Peg (1994) in a study investigated the relationship between

global self-worth a n d emotional experience in 9-11 years old children.
The results of the study reveal moderate s u p p o r t for the existence of a
relationship between global self-worth and the emotions of enjoyment,
s a d n e s s , s h y n e s s , s h a m e , and self-directed hostility.

Children exposed to marital conflicts are more likely to exhibit

high risky behaviors including angry o u t b u r s t s in their everyday
activities (Cummings and Davies, 1994).

Crawford (1995) examined withdrawn children in object conflict

and group-entry situations. During these situations aggressive
children displayed more intense anger a n d more frequent anger
blends, while withdrawn children were observed to show more intense
s a d n e s s and more frequent fear-sadness blends. Displays of negative
affect were related in theoretically meaningful ways to p a t t e r n s of
children's social behavior.

Hubbard (1995) in a study to examine children's emotional

expression d u r i n g peer interaction reveals t h a t rejected children
expressed both h a p p i n e s s and anger to a greater extent t h a n average
children, across facial, verbal intonation and nonverbal modalities.

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 Walsh (1995) states t h a t adolescents who have been exposed to
community violence develop varying level of distress and varying levels
of expression of anger t h a t are differentially mediated by whether they
were a victim on previous history of child a b u s e , gender and ethnicity.
A previous history of sexual a b u s e was significantly related to higher
distress scores a n d expression of internalized anger.

Studies have revealed t h a t rejected children are aggressive a n d

displayed more intense anger (Peg, 1 9 9 4 ; Crawford, 1 9 9 5 ; Hubbard,
1995) previous history of sexual a b u s e h a s been found to be
significantly related to higher d i s t r e s s scores and expression of
internalized anger (Walsh, 1995) it was observed children with
learning disabilities have higher levels of aggression a n d lower self-
esteem (Montaya, 2 0 0 0 ; Sadovnik, 2 0 0 1 ) . The anger experience of
children h a s been described a s a mixture of negative feelings i.e.
disappointment, s a d n e s s , frustration, powerlessness and worry (Tsai,
2000).

Montoya (2000) explains t h a t children with learning disabilities

have higher level of aggression a n d lower self-esteem. Aggressive
behavior is often a cover for low self-esteem. A child who feels he h a s
failed may vent his anger to others. A child who does not feel good
about himself may derive satisfaction from exhorting power over
others. Such a child may get into fights, bully other children, or
engage in a r g u m e n t s a n d make critical r e m a r k s about his siblings a n d
others.

Tsai (2001) in a study on live experience of anger with a parent-

child interaction, describes the anger experience of children a s a
mixture of negative feelings i.e. disappointment, s a d n e s s , frustration,
powerlessness a n d worry, justified response to road blocks, and
compliance. Overall, the child participants described being angry
when they felt they had not been heard or were misunderstood by
their p a r e n t s , when their r e q u e s t s were denied, when their voices were
insignificant, when their needs were not met, on when there were
u n r e a s o n a b l e expectations imposed on them.

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 They tended to believe t h a t their anger was justified a n d t h a t
they m u s t fight for their own rights, acceptance, a n d a u t o n o m y . Many
children complained when they felt intimidated by the little power they
had or when they perceived a need to protect themselves.

Children who do not manage anger are at higher risk of weight

gain, food addiction, drug a b u s e , aggression, hypertension, diabetes,
cancer, etc. (Knox, Siegmund, Weidner, Ellison, Adelman, and
Paton, 1 9 9 8 ; Scherwitz and Rugulies, 1992; Thomas, Groer,
Droppleman, Mozingo and Pierce, 2000).Children often are self-
centered a n d c a n n o t consider the other's point of view while reacting.

Children often do not care a b o u t others feeling a n d do not take

responsibility of their actions. Children who expressed their anger to a
moderate degree were m u c h less likely to have a d j u s t m e n t problems,
especially externalizing problems, compared with children who
expressed their anger either too m u c h or too little (Cole, Zahn-Waxler,
Fox, Usher a n d Welsh, 1996).

Bhave and Saini (2009) state t h a t children of working p a r e n t s

are also likely to develop some deviant behaviors b e c a u s e they may
not get proper parental attention and guidance in everyday problems.
Such children seek sensations in deviant behaviors s u c h a s fast
driving, drinking, strikes, fights, and in control behaviors. These
children express their feelings by kicking, screaming, swearing, hitting
or throwing things. They do not know other ways to express their
angry feelings that can get them parental attention.

Bhave and Saini (2009) state that children who do not do well
academically or in extracurricular activities often feel depressed
frustrated and angry and these result in aggressive behaviors.

Anger c a u s e s h a r m both to the person who gets angry a n d

person who bears the b r u n t of the anger. Anger related issue c a u s e
loss of h a p p i n e s s , peace a n d h a r m o n y at home, c o m m u n i t y and
workplace. Hence anger is one negative emotion t h a t needs control
and m a n a g e m e n t .

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 Many skills, techniques a n d interventions can be applied for
anger m a n a g e m e n t . In the p r e s e n t study Life Skills are used a s a
mode of intervention for anger m a n a g e m e n t .

3.2.1 Anger Management Intervention in the School

Context
Anger m a n a g e m e n t intervention is very popular in school
setting. There are few published research reports on anger
m a n a g e m e n t intervention in middle or senior high school settings
(Feindler and Scalley, 1998).

One of s u c h program is the "Think First Program" developed by

Feindler and her colleagues. This program combines the elements of
anger control a n d social problem solving specifically oriented toward
school-related inter-personal aggression. This 10-session program h a s
been used extensively in high school settings, and s t u d e n t s receiving
t r e a t m e n t s were found to manifest significantly fewer s u s p e n s i o n s and
administrative referrals for disruptive behavior t h a n s t u d e n t s in the
control group (Larson, 1998).

Keeping Cool

A group for eight teenage boys with documented emotional and

behavioral difficulties (Dwivedi and Gupta, 2 0 0 0 ) were assembled.
The eight-session program modeled after Feindler and Ek;ton (1986)
was implemented by the school psychologist and a special education
teacher. Anecdotal feedback indicated t h a t all of the participants
became aware of aggressive triggers a n d feelings.

Multiple Baseline Single-Subject Design (Whitfield, 1999)

Eight male students having problems with self-control of

disruptive behavior were matched to eight male control subjects. The
five basic components of the Feindler and Ecton (1986) -self-
instruction, self-assessment, self-evaluation, arousal management,
and adaptive skill development-were incorporated in 12 o n e - h o u r

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individual sessions. All subjects completed self-report measures each
week (the Anger Control and Anger Expression subscales of the STAXI
and the Self Control Rating Scale) and the staff completed a daily
report on aggressive episodes and specific instances of rule violations.
Results indicated that patterns of improvement on the self-report
measures were noted for four treatment subjects while three remained
unchanged and one showed a pattern of deterioration.

Children's Self-Management of Academic Behavior

Self-management interventions are helpful for children with

aggression and conduct problems. It teaches children skills in self-
monitoring, self-evaluation, and sometimes self-reinforcement. It
involves increasing on-task behavior, work-completion behavior rates,
and accuracy of academic work. Children develop skills that increase
their engagement in learning activities and results in greater learning.
Children are trained to observe and objectively record their own
behavior (self-monitor), compare their behavior to a set of standards
(Self-evaluation), and administer a reward if they determine they have
met the standard (self-reinforcement). Self-management techniques
have produced positive effects on academic behaviors for children with
behavioral problems (Levendoski and Cartledge, 2000; Nelson,
Smith, Young and Dodd, 1991).

3.2.2 Gender Difference and Anger

Gender differences in aggression until recently have been

consistent with the idea that males on the average show a lower
threshold of aggression than females (Fesbach and Feshbach, 1969;
Sears, 1961; Taylor and Epstein, 1967). It has sometimes been
proposed that women are truly the gentle sex relatively free from
aggressive urges (Baron and Byrne, 1988). Girls are more verbally
expressive of their emotions while boys express their emotions by
acting out in harmful ways such as hitting, throwing, and breaking

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things, etc. (Lohr, Hamburger and Bonge, 1988). Seemingly straight
forward issue of whether or not there might be gender differences in
anger expression, different studies have shown t h a t older girls express
anger more openly t h a n boys (Underwood, Coic, and Herbsman,
1992) and u s e more conciliatory strategies when angry (Murphy and
Eisenberg, 1996), t h a t girls are more h u r t by provocation, by n a m e -
calling and taunting. Females in general found to be associated with
the subtle forms of indirect aggression anger t u r n e d inward associated
more with female gender (Murphy and Eisenberg, 1 9 9 6 ; Anderson,
1 9 9 5 ; Kobayashi, S a k a m o t o , Hinokuchi and S a k a m o t o , 1999).

Anger is found to be appropriate for boys t h a n for girls a n d

p a r e n t s are found to have more acceptance of anger in boys t h a n in
girls. Boys are encouraged to act out their angry feeling while girls are
encouraged to keep down their angry feeling. In American culture
anger generally is viewed a s more appropriate for males t h a n females
(Kollar, Groer, T h o m a s and Cunningham, 1991). Girls s u p p r e s s
their negative emotions. These strong feeling becomes toxic kept
inside. This suppressed feeling then finds other alternatives in the
form of resentment, hostility, suspicion, impulsiveness, a n d other
physiological irregularities. These suppressed feeling are the
important factors in relational aggression, marital conflicts, a n d also
the root cause of other family, social and workplace d i s t u r b a n c e s at
later stages of life.

Under anger including situation, boys are more likely to directly

vent their anger, b u t girls are more likely to u s e coping strategies that
are less inflammatory (Fabes and Eisenberg, 1992). Mothers identify
young children being u p s e t as 'sad' if the child is a girl and 'mad if the
child is a boy (Fivush, 1 9 8 9 ; Kuebli and Fivush, 1992). It is
generally found t h a t factor accept or even reward girls for expression
of s a d n e s s and fear, b u t p u n i s h boys for the expression of the s a m e
emotions. Mothers become more negative a b o u t aggression in their
d a u g h t e r s and more tolerant to aggression in their sons, a s children
grow (Stevenson-Hinde, 1 9 9 9 ; Mills and Rubin, 1992).

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 Hubbard (1995) examined the n a t u r e of children's emotional
expression during peer interaction, with a focus on socio-metric s t a t u s
differences, level of aggressiveness differences, and gender differences.
Results state t h a t rejected children expressed both h a p p i n e s s a n d
anger to a greater extent t h a n average children, across facial, verbal
intonation, a n d non-verbal modalities. However, boys expressed more
anger t h a n girls across all three modalities.

It is indicated t h a t relationship between sex roles a n d anger

expression differed by sex. Higher masculinity scores were associated
with lower levels of anger turned inward for females, although the
opposite was true for males (Anderson, 1995).

Tomar (1999) studied aggression as a function of economic

s t a t u s a n d gender on a sample of 40 (20 boys and 20 girls). Results
reveal that gender differences were found in aggression when
economic s t a t u s was controlled. Aggression was greater a m o n g boys
from low economic s t a t u s .

In a n o t h e r study by Tomar (1999), boys from low economic

s t a t u s have been found to be more aggressive showing higher levels of
direct physical aggression. Whereas, girls appeared to view aggression
a s cathartic discharge of built u p anger. For boys aggression h a s been
a m e a n s of obtaining a n d exercising power in order to gain social
reward a n d feeling of satisfaction (Tapper and Boulton, 1999).

Studies have found evidence for sex differences in aggression.

Whereas boys show higher levels than girls of direct physical
aggression (such as hitting & kicking) the reverse is the case for girls,
more subtle forms of indirect aggression (such as saying nasty things
a b o u t victims behind their backs). Other studies have also found
evidence for sex differences in children's belief a b o u t aggression. Girls
tend to view it as a cathartic discharge of built u p anger a n d believe it
to be associated with feeling of guilt. Boys on the other h a n d , tend to
view aggression a s a m e a n s of obtaining and exercising power in order
to gain social rewards and believe it to be associated with feeling of
satisfaction.

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 Tapper and Boulton, 1 9 9 9 state t h a t Peer, self a n d teacher
report studies of aggression have suggested t h a t girls employ more
indirect or relational forms of aggression whilst boys tend to rely on
over or direct forms of aggression. Research h a s also suggested t h a t
indirect aggression may increase with age, peeking at approximately
11-12 years in girls.

Gehlback (2001) examined the relations between emotional

state, social cognition a n d aggression in boys. A large body of
empirical literature h a s found t h a t aggressive children are more likely
to ascribe malicious intent to a n o t h e r child in social interactions when
a negative outcome occurs, even when the intent of the other child
was not hostile. The results state t h a t more aggressive participants
were affected by feelings of anger to a greater extent t h a n less
aggressive participants in relation to increase aggressive responding
and accurate encoding.

Gender roles affect a number of aspects in our lives.

Emotional expression including anger is one of s u c h aspect. Research
in gender difference in expression of anger is conflicting. "These
gender differences in anger expression may be d u e to developmental
or socialization differences among boys and girls". Social upbringing of
boys and girls affects anger expression (Anderson and Lawler, 1 9 9 5 ;
Brody, 1 9 9 6 ; Howells and Day, 2 0 0 2 ; Piko, K e r e s z a t e s and Pluhar,
2006)

It is generally seen t h a t girls are socialized to be nice, not to be

angry at any cost. Generally, females are expected to be emotional,
sensitive, and nurturing in interpersonal relationships, which
differentiate them from males in their behaviors. T h r o u g h o u t their
development, girls internalize their negative feelings b e c a u s e they are
aware t h a t anger expression is likely to results in social rejection a n d
emotional distress. Typical anger-response style of males and females
differ due to gender-role expectations (Labouvie-Vief, Lumley, J a i n ,
and Heinze, 2 0 0 3 ) . Boys tend to vent their angry feeling by physical

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activities while girls usually spent their time being alone or talking to
someone close (Taylor and Novaco, 2005).

Research studies show that girls may feel angrier than boys. This
may be because girls are more aware of their emotions or that they
face more angry situations than boys do (Saini, 2006a).

Social upbringing of boys and girls affects anger expression

(Anderson and Lawler, 1995; Brody, 1996; Howells and Day, 2002;
Pike, Kereszates and Pluhar, 2006).

• It is generally seen that girls are socialized to be nice, not to

be angry at any cost. Generally, females are expected to be
emotional, sensitive, and nurturing in interpersonal
relationships, which differentiate them from males in their
behaviors.
• Throughout their development, girls internalize their negative
feelings because they are aware that anger expression is likely
to results in social rejection and emotional distress.

3.3 State-Trait Anxiety and Children

Anxiety has become an essential part of modern living and

seems to permeate all spheres of life. Anxiety has been defined as an
emotional state in which there is a vague, generalized feeling of fear,
with physiological and psychological indications. Anxiety is described
as a crippling, debilitating, cognitive risk factor for development. We
are living in an age of anxiety. Anxiety is the official emotion of our age
(Schlesinger, 1948). One cannot dispute the fact that anxiety is
'pervasive psychological phenomena' of the present day society. In
fact, the world seems literally to dip with anxiety. It originates during
the period of infancy with the fear of the unknown and the yet
experienced life and continues till death, only the origin and source
change. As we grow from infancy to adulthood and proceed towards
old age, anxiety continues to play an important role in our lives.

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 Anxiety h a s both a physiological a n d a psychological a s p e c t a n d
it is the psychological aspect t h a t affects the way we interpret
sensations (Clarke^ Davidson, Windsor a n d P i t t s , 2 0 0 0 ) . One c a n
become anxious in situations merely b e c a u s e one perceives a t h r e a t
even when there is none.

Sinclair (1969) on the basis of a n experimental s t u d y s t a t e s , "in

important examination, the high anxious student will be at a
considerable disadvantage-anxiety will act to interfere with a n d reduce
the level of his performance".

Olweus found that some children who were rejected by peers

were in fact the targets of other children's aggression a n d showed a
pattern of behavior characterized by anxiety a n d social withdrawal
(i.e., passive victims; Olweus 1978).

Ganguli (1983) reveals t h a t higher the anxiety lower the

performance or academic achievement, lower the anxiety higher the
performance or academic achievement.

Majumdar (1985) observes t h a t fear of rejection, interference

with physical activities, denial of s t a t u s , friction between a u t h o r i t i e s
and children leads to anxiety a m o n g children.

Matthews (1986) found t h a t although high anxiety hindered

performance on a creativity task, it was not a factor for scores on an
intelligence test.

Wehr and Kaufman (1987) assessed the effectiveness of

assertiveness training on m e a s u r e s of assertiveness, state anxiety in a
group of 96 highly anxious 9^^ grade adolescents. Results revealed
that assertiveness training resulted in increased assertiveness a n d
decreased state anxiety.

Strauss, Lease, Kazdin, Dulcan and Last (1989) reported

t h a t compared to controls, children who met the criteria for various
anxiety disorders(not including social anxiety) were rated by p a r e n t s

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and teachers as having lower levels of appropriate social skills and
higher levels of shyness. Parent ratings of social skills and
assertiveness have also been found to be lower specifically for children
with social phobia (Spence, Donovan and Brechman-Toussaint,
1999).

The transactional model of stress suggests that anxiety occurs

when individuals believe that they do not have the ability to handle
the demands of a situation (Reactive anxiety). Studies have indicated
that high levels of anxiety are related to low levels of confidence (Abel
and Larkin 1990). Mastery of task and anxiety are related.

Baumsteister and Tice (1990) state that anxiety is a natural

consequence of perceived threats to one's social bonds. Furthermore,
ambiguous stimuli may be more readily seen as threatening by
anxious subjects.

Yadav (1991) examined the impact of socio economic status

and cultural setting on anxiety of failures in high school examination.
Results indicated a significant impact of culture on anxiety level of
failures. Students who failed and belonged to the urban area had
more anxiety compared to those who belonged to the rural area. The
effect of socio-economic status was, however, not found to be
significant.

Using samples of children diagnosed with various anxiety

disorders including social anxiety, Chansky and Kendall (1997)
reported that anxious children were rated lower than controls on the
broad construct of sociability (e.g., shyness, withdrawal, acceptance)
by both parents and teachers, whereas Ginsburg, La Greca and
Silverman (1998) found that only girls who reported higher levels of
social anxiety were rated by parents as being lower in assertive and
responsible social behavior.

Ill
 There is fairly consistent evidence that regular activity can have
a positive effect upon the psychological well being of children and
young people. Reviewing literature in this area Mutrie and Parfitt
(1988) concluded that Life skill is associated with good mental health
other associations with regular activity that have been reported
include reduced stress, anxiety and depressions, all of which lend
support to Sallies and Omens' (1999) claim that life skill improves
psychological health in young people.

Sadovnik (2000) states that children with learning disabilities

have higher levels of aggression and lower self-esteem. A child who
feels he has failed may vent his anger on others. A child who does not
feel good about himself may derive satisfaction from exerting power
over others. Such a child may get into fights, bully other children, or
engage in arguments and make critical remarks about his siblings and
others.

Shand (2000) suggests that anxiety, in excess, has been found

to have a crippling and often debilitating effect on both adults and
children. It can affect all aspects of their lives and can lead to
psychiatric disorders. Reiss and McNally (1985), state that elevated
anxiety sensitivity (AS) is posited to be a cognitive risk factor for the
development and maintenance of anxiety disorders.

Rubin and Burgess (2001) state that anxiety symptoms lead to

avoidance of social situations, and this lack of peer interaction limits a
child's opportunities to develop and practice social skills. Poor social
skills lead to less effective peer interactions, heightened social anxiety,
lower expectations of performance in social situations, and decreased
self-esteem.

Bates (2001) explored predictors of anxiety problems in

children. Results reveal that a family history of anxiety, peer rejection,
female gender, and psychological control were the most significant
predictors of child and adolescent anxiety.

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 Researchers in the field of clinical psychology have examined the
impact of anxiety on academic, emotional, and interpersonal
functioning. Anxious children typically have poor academic
performance and difficulty attending school. They often avoid
participating in extra-curricular activities and social events (e.g.,
sleepovers, birthday parties), are less well-liked by their peers, and
tend to have poor social skills (Albano, Chorpita and Barlow, 2003).
In terms of prevalence rates, anxiety is common; as many as one in
five youth meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder Costello, Egger
and Angold (2004).

In a study the efficacy of a school-based intervention for social

anxiety disorder was examined in a randomized wait-list control trial
of 35 adolescents. Findings support the possible efficacy of school-
based intervention for facilitating access to treatment for socially
anxious adolescents. Another study revealed that separation anxiety,
generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, and specific phobia are the
anxiety disorders most commonly diagnosed among children and
adolescents. These disorders are often co-morbid with each other and
have overlapping features (Kingery and Walkup, 2005).

La Greca and Harrison (2005) found that lower scores on

positive friendship quality (e.g., companionship, disclosure, support,
reliable alliance) and higher scores on negative friendship quality (e.g.,
conflict, criticism) were associated with higher levels of social anxiety.

Studies have demonstrated that individuals who are classified

as behaviorally inhibited during early childhood are more likely to be
characterized as shy and socially anxious as adolescents (Kagan,
Snidman, Kahn and Towsley, 2007; Schwartz, Snidman and
Kagan 1999)

Luciano and Algarble (2006) conducted a study to assess

differences between repressors and non repressors in some aspects
associated with conscious thought control. Data analysis showed that

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subjects with low anxiety (repressors a n d low anxious) reported higher
perceived ability to control u n p l e a s a n t t h o u g h t s a n d less tendency to
s u p p r e s s t h a n did subjects with high anxiety (high a n x i o u s and
defensive high anxious).

Erath, Flanagan, and Bierman (2007) suggest, the

relationship between social performance expectations a n d anxiety is
likely reciprocal, a s negative expectations can hinder children's a c t u a l
behavior in social situations (e.g., lead to less positive affect, fewer
verbalizations), and these difficulties cause further increases in
negative expectations.

Adolescents tend to express their anxiety in the form of physical

complaints (e.g., h e a d a c h e s , s t o m a c h a c h e s ; Ginsburg, Riddle and
Davies, 2 0 0 6 ) , difficulty in sleeping (e.g., falling asleep, n i g h t m a r e s ;
Alfano, Ginsburg and Kingery 2 0 0 7 ) , d i s t u r b a n c e s in mood or
mental state (e.g., irritability, difficulty in concentrating), and
behavioral s y m p t o m s (e.g., clinging to p a r e n t s , t a n t r u m s , avoidance of
feared situations). Erath, Flanagan and Bierman (2007) suggest, the
relationship between social performance expectations a n d anxiety is
likely reciprocal, a s negative expectations can hinder children's actual
behavior in social situations (e.g., lead to less positive affect, fewer
verbalizations), and these difficulties' c a u s e further increases in
negative expectations.

Hannesdo'ttir and Ollendick (2007) explored the role of

children's feelings of self-efficacy in social situations and the relative
contributions of self-efficacy versus outcome expectations to social
anxiety in response to hypothetical situations with friends and
s t r a n g e r s . Results indicated that self-efficacy in interactions with
friends a n d strangers was a better predictor of social anxiety t h a n
outcome expectations, suggesting t h a t children's confidence in their
performance plays an especially important role in their anxiety a b o u t
social situations. While examining a different type of social

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expectations London, Downey, Bonica and Paltin (2007) considered
social anxiety a s a consequence of anxious a n d angry expectations of
rejection (i.e., extent to which y o u t h feel nervous a n d / o r m a d in
response to situations involving potential rejection by peers).

Raju and Asfaw (2009) investigated predictive n a t u r e of test

anxiety on achievement in the presence of perceived general academic
self-concept, study habits, parental involvement in children's learning
and socio-economic s t a t u s . Findings of the study indicate weak
correlation between test anxiety a n d achievement. Perceived general
academic self concept and study habits were positively and
significantly related to achievement.

The various skills needed to produce a competent social

response include behavioral (e.g., pro-social behavior, conversation
skills, assertiveness), emotional (e.g., encoding and decoding affective
cues, emotion regulation), a n d cognitive (e.g., perspective taking, skills
for processing/acquisition) abilities (Nangle, Grover, HoUeb,
Cassano and Fales, 2 0 1 0 ) . Unfortunately, y o u t h who experience high
levels of anxiety a n d tend to withdraw from social situations may have
limited opportunities to develop a n d practice social skills with peers.

A study was conducted to examine the factor s t r u c t u r e , internal

reliabilities, and concurrent validity of a revised form of the
Social Anxiety Scale for children. Results revealed a good fit for the
three-factor model of social anxiety. In addition, high-socially-anxious
children perceived their social acceptance a n d global self-worth to be
low. Neglected a n d rejected children reported more social anxiety t h a n
accepted classmates, t h e Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,
published an online report: 7 J u n e , 2 0 1 0 .

An epidemiologic a p p r o a c h was initiated to investigate rates,

symptoms, a n d behavioral concomitants of anxiety in 210 children
(aged 8, 12, or 17 years) from a community sample. Ss were evaluated
with structured diagnostic assessments. Anxiety was the most

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frequently reported type of psychopathology across all 3 age groups.
Although the prevalence of any anxiety symptom remained c o n s t a n t ,
specific types of anxiety varied with age. Age differences in n o n anxiety
behavior were found between Ss with a n d without anxiety, particularly
with regard to interpersonal dysfunction. Kashani, Javad, Orvaschel
and Helen (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA).

3.4.1 Gender Differences and Anxiety

Lakashmy (1980) observed t h a t girls displayed more anxiety a s

compared to boys.

Singh (1988) remarked t h a t bad housing conditions, lack of

suitable a n d a d e q u a t e nutrition may lead to feeling of insecurity a n d
development of marked sense of inferiority in children.

In a study by Feingold (1994) four meta-analyses were

conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the
literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known
personality inventories (1940-1992). Females were higher t h a n males
in anxiety. There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety.

La Greca and Lopez (1998) found that higher levels of social

anxiety were associated with involvement in fewer best friendships,
only for girls. In addition, girls with higher levels of social anxiety
reported experiencing less intimacy and lower levels of c o m p a n i o n s h i p
a n d s u p p o r t in their close friendships.

Sharma and Verma (1999) reveals t h a t children who are better

stress m a n a g e r s get higher grades and experience less of academic
anxiety. Further peer rejected, female gender, and psychological
control were revealed to be the most significant predictors of child a n d
adolescents anxiety (Bates, 2 0 0 1 ) .

In explaining their results, Erath, Flanagan and Bierman

(2007) emphasize that their study is a m o n g the first to examine

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gender differences in the relationship between social anxiety and peer
victimization. Relational victimization is a robust predictor of anxiety
for both boys and girls (La Greca and Harrison 2005; Storch, Nock,
Masia-Warner and Barlas 2003). These researchers point out that in
contrast to La Greca and Lopez (1998) who found that social anxiety
was more closely tied to fewer friends and lower quality friendships for
girls, their findings suggest that social anxiety may disrupt peer
relationships in a different way for boys. More specifically, boys who
exhibit passive and withdrawn behavior associated with social anxiety
may be particularly vulnerable to bullying and victimization by other
boys, as they are not conforming to socialization pressures to be
assertive and involved in the larger peer group.

The following section deals with review on life skills and the
effective use of life skills intervention programmes.

3.4 Life Skills

Life skills are used during every moment of our lives in various
situations like choosing friends/career, making and breaking
relationships, understanding one's needs, and interacting with
teachers and parents. Life skills, therefore, are the building blocks of
one's behavior and need to be learnt well to lead a healthy, meaningful
and productive life (Bharath and Kumar, 2002).

Life skills training is a people centered approach as it focuses on

the range of skills and competencies that all people require for their
survival, maintenance, and enhancement. Life skill training aims at
bringing about changes in behavior and enhancing competence in the
skill targeted (Jones, 2004).

3.4.1 Life skills based interventions

Interventions are very effective, particularly for children and

families from disadvantaged backgrounds (Manning, Homel and
Smith, 2006)

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 Children who live in poverty tend to perform worse in school
t h a n do children from more privileged background (Gray and Klaus,
1965). Therefore, s t u d e n t s from economically disadvantaged
b a c k g r o u n d s need to be given special facilitation s u c h a s intervention
p r o g r a m m e s to e n h a n c e their c h a n c e of success otherwise, m a n y of
them will fail needlessly (Steininger, Brown and Stanley, 1971).
With no intervention, the intellectual prognosis for children from
severely disadvantaged background is bleak (Ramey, 1979).

Rath a n d Patnaik (1979) examined the effect of intervention

programs on cognitive abilities of advantaged and disadvantaged
children in the age group of 9 years. The results showed t h a t both
groups scored significantly higher after training. The most i m p o r t a n t
thing to note is t h a t the disadvantaged reached the same level a s the
advantaged after the training.

Improvement in self concept was also reported by studies

through assertiveness straining. Waksman (1984) in a controlled
evaluation of a n assertion training package found t h a t adolescents
who received the assertion training significantly improved on self
concept both at termination and at one m o n t h follow u p . Another
study by Elias, Gara, Schuyler, Branden-Muller and S a y e t t e , (1991)
reported beneficial effects for students on indices of social
a d j u s t m e n t a n d p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y when compared to controls

Botvin (1985) h a s developed a curriculum based on Life Skills

Training Program (LST), the LST program incorporates a c u r r i c u l u m to
teach a wide range of personal and social skills in order to improve
youth's general competence and reduce potential motivations for
s u b s t a n c e a b u s e . He reported that by LST program, 50% reduction in
cigarette u s e a m o n g junior high school s t u d e n t s and it also h a s a
significant impact on the attitudes relating to smoking, alcohol, a n d
marijuana u s e . By participating in the programme, the student's
assertiveness, social anxiety, self-esteem, decision-making and social
coping skills have also developed.

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 In one of the studies, Mains and his colleagues (Hains, 1992;
Hains and Ellmann, 1994; Hains and Szyjakowski, 1990) designed
a school based prevention program to reduce "negative emotional
arousal" and other psychological problems associated with stress.
They evaluated the programme in a series of studies with high school
students. In the most recent evaluation (Hains and Ellmann, 1994)
the sample consisted of youth, exhibiting a combination of anxiety,
depression and anger. After participating in a 13 session programme
that emphasized cognitive restructuring, problem solving and
anxiety management, students who were at the higher levels of
stress before the intervention reported the most significant changes in
anxiety and depressive symptomatology. These changes were
considered clinically significant.

Another research by Verma and Mohan (1993) indicated

significant gains in the problem solving performance of deprived
children. The authors carried out a study and this group of children
was exposed to techniques of brainstorming, generation of
alternatives, and hypothetical problem solving for a period of 16
weeks. Consequently, the results showed significant improvement in
the problem solving skills of children.

Davies and Cohen (1995) explored means of incorporating

educational and psychological nature connecting methods and
materials with traditional recovery activities for people at risk as a
preventive. Results of the project were overwhelmingly positive. There
was a significant increase in self-esteem.

In another Indian study, Singh and Broota (1995) compared

the anxiety level and performance of 30 subjects in experimental
group and the 30 subjects in control group before and after study
skills counselling. The results suggested that study skills counseling
was quite effective in reducing test anxiety and in improving
performance.

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 Mayrovitz, and Larsen (1996) in a study reported that
significant psychological, behavioral a n d physiological improvements
can be achieved in middle school children through learning a n d
practicing effective emotional self-management techniques. And a s a
result the children showed increased satisfaction a n d control over
their lives while with friends, at school a n d a r o u n d their families.

Dadds, S p e n c e , Holland, Barrett and Laurens (1997) u s e d a

school based screening procedure to identify and then offer skills
training to high risk children. The children ranged from those who
were disorder free b u t showed mild anxious features to those who met
criterion for an anxiety disorder b u t were in the less severe range. At
pretreatment, approximately 7 5 % of children selected who were
interviewed met criterions for an anxiety diagnosis. At post
intervention, improvement was noted for both intervention and
monitoring groups. Children who received the intervention emerged
with lower r a t e s of anxiety disorder at 6 m o n t h s follow u p compared
with those who were monitored only of those who had features of b u t
no full disorder at pretreatment. 5 4 % progressed to a diagnosable
disorder at 6 m o n t h s follow u p in the monitoring group compared with
16% in the intervention group. The results concluded that the
intervention was successful in reducing r a t e s of disorder in children
with mild t o moderate a n x i e t y disorder a s well a s preventing the
o n s e t of a n x i e t y disorder in children with early features of a
disorder.

In a study, the effect of a Head Start program was observed (the

Project Head Start was begun by the US federal government in 1965).
The Head Start program provides children with a year or two of
preschool education, along with nutritional a n d medical services. A
study was conducted by Weikart (1998) to examine the impact of
Head Start program on the I.Q. level of economically disadvantaged
children and the results of the study indicated a significant
improvement in the group of children who were exposed to the

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program a s compared to the control group. Therefore, a n enriching
environment plays an important role in the p a t h w a y s to positive
adaptation.

N u m e r o u s empirical studies have revealed the importance of

study skills in adolescence. Trent (1998) evaluated a 12 week study
skills, personal life skills (time m a n a g e m e n t , goal setting) a n d self
a w a r e n e s s experiences a n d found t h a t adolescents after completing
the course indicated experiencing l e s s a n x i e t y a n d fewer distraction
when studying or taking exams.

The findings by McCraty, Barrios-Choplin, A t k i n s o n and

Tomasino (1998) clearly imply the need for interventional programme
in educational institutions to intellectually inspire the growing
individual. Their findings concluded t h a t a n interventional programme
given at the middle school level for a period of one m o n t h could bring
a b o u t noticeable changes, hence, there is no d o u b t t h a t long term
p r o g r a m m e s of s u c h n a t u r e especially if started at an earlier level of
education can go a long way in bringing noticeable life time c h a n g e s .
Hence it could be suggested that, educational institutions need to
provide cognitively stimulating activities if at all we need to m a k e the
present generation not j u s t data gatherers b u t data initiators. When
institutions of primary and secondary learning integrate life skills
education with the curriculum, the outcome need not merely be
e n h a n c e m e n t of academic competence, b u t creation of individuals
capable of meeting the d e m a n d s of life.

Ebersohn and Eloff (2001) designed a guidance a n d counseling

programme to enable people to effectively m a n a g e their own lives, by
m e a n s of the core life skills, conscious proactive self talk. The
theoretical a p p r o a c h e s of identity formation, rational behavior therapy
and emotional intelligence form the skeleton for designing training
programme. The completed t a s k s , refiective discussions, behaviour
c h a n g e s a n d clients daily progress served a s indications of the

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programme's effectiveness. Results indicated t h a t clients acquired
both intra-psychic a s well a s inter psychic skills. Intra-psychic skills
noted were self acceptance, self a w a r e n e s s a n d self regulation of
emotions, improved motivation, optimism a n d perseverance. Inter-
psychic skills acquired by clients included empathy, more effective
expression of emotions as well a s more effective interpersonal
behaviour .

Kumari (2002) studied development of life skills with

mathematical education. The researcher concluded t h a t middle class
students have developed problem solving skills by learning
m a t h e m a t i c s and s t u d e n t s were using this skill to deal with real world
environment a n d experiences.

In a study by Sala (2002) in which 25 children were given an

e n r i c h m e n t program for two m o n t h s to improve skills s u c h a s self
a w a r e n e s s , social a w a r e n e s s , self-management, and social skills, the
findings revealed that interventions were effective at improving these
skills.

Rowland (2002) conducted a study entitled 'every child n e e d s

self-esteem: The creative d r a m a builds self confidence through self-
expression'. This work illustrated t h a t how creative d r a m a , when used
with socially deprived children u n d e r the direction of trained outside
the classroom in a s t r u c t u r e d , informal setting, which emphasized
play a s a powerful way to learn, strengthened self-concept and
increased self-esteem.

A study was conducted by Varshney and Singh (2002) to

ascertain the effectiveness of the s t r e s s m a n a g e m e n t i n t e r v e n t i o n
programme in reducing the degree of stress amongst class nine
s t u d e n t s and thereby to reduce anxiety, a n d improving the coping
skills and academic performance. Sample consisted of 60 class nine
s t u d e n t s comprising both boys and girls into groups of 30 s t u d e n t s
each. Of these, 30 students were randomly assigned to the

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experimental group and a n o t h e r 30 s t u d e n t s to the control group.
The age group was 13 to 14 years. The intervention w a s carried o u t
for the period of five consecutive days. Session was being held within
one week, lasting for 50 m i n u t e s each. The post testing w a s carried
out after a s p a n of four weeks. The intervention p r o g r a m m e w a s on
the lines of the stress inoculation training developed by
Meichenbaum (1977) and consisted of three phases:
conceptualization; skill acquisition a n d rehearsal; application and
follow-through. Results revealed t h a t stress m a n a g e m e n t intervention
programme was successful in reducing the degree of stress of the
s t a n d a r d IX s t u d e n t s . The results also showed some improvement in
coping skills as well as in the performance of s t u d e n t s in the
examination, t h u s validating the hypothesis to forth. • An analysis of
the gender factor showed that female students had shown a
significantly higher reduction in stress, increase in effective coping
skills a n d improvement in performance, a s compared to their male
counterparts.

Frydenberg and Brandon (2002) in a study examined the

effectiveness of 8 week universal school based prevention program
designed to increase coping resources in preadolescents t h r o u g h the
modeling and optimistic thinking skills. 160 children were compared
to 135 children in 8 control groups. On post a s s e s s m e n t children who
participated in the programme reported significant improvement in
coping, efficacy and reductions in depressive attributions a n d u s e of
non productive coping strategies of worry, wishful thinking, not coping
and ignoring the problem when compared to controls. Of the s t u d i e s
which have utilized cognitive intervention to modify adolescent self
esteem a n d cognitive coping pattern ,a n u m b e r have found cognitive
restructuring to be highly effective in modifying negative self
perceptions a n d improving self esteem (Blonk, Prins, Pier a n d
Sergeant, 1 9 9 6 ; Heimburg, Klosko, Dodge, Shadick, Becker and
Barlow, 1 9 8 9 ; Verduyn, Lord and Forrest, 1990;Warren, Mclellarn,

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and P o n z o h a , 1 9 8 8 ) . Burns, Andrews and Szabo (2002) reported
that intervention t h a t teach cognitive skills are associated with a short
term reduction in depressive s y m p t o m s .

From a study conducted on 320 rural school s t u d e n t s (200

boys, 120 girls) for whom e n r i c h m e n t program for 4 m o n t h s w a s given
in order to improve their emotional intelligence, the findings revealed
significant differences in their pre a n d post test scores (Broota, 2 0 0 3 ) .

Roberts, Kane, T h o m s o n , Bishop and Hare (2003) in a

controlled trial evaluated a c o g n i t i v e skills prevention program t h a t
aimed at reducing depressive a n d anxious symptoms in rural school
children. 7 * grade children with elevated depression were selected.
Nine primary schools (n=90) were randomly assigned to receive the
program and 9 control schools (n=91) received their u s u a l health
education classes. Intervention group children reported less anxiety
and more optimistic explanations t h a n the control group after the
program. Intervention group p a r e n t s reported fewer child internalizing
s y m p t o m s at post intervention.

In a research cognitive stimulation was used to improve

performance on cognitive t a s k s . Girishwar and Tripathi (2004), in a
review of literature on the relationship between economic deprivation
and creativity, mentioned that such stimulation led to great
improvement in non-school going disadvantaged children. The a u t h o r
further found t h a t rich exposure to pictorial experience and training
influences the perceptual problem solving task performance of the
children.

Shangold (2004) c o n d u c t e d a study of Life Skills Training (LST)

programme for youth of high schools of Mississippi: this programme
catered to 530 high school children. LST programme included training
of coping skills, social skills and behavioural skills. The results
revealed significant development in coping skills for anxiety and
depression; interpersonal a n d cooperative skills; and hostility skills.

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 Frydenberg (2004) provided intervention to adolescents with
the Best of Coping: Developing coping skills program. Results
revealed t h a t compared to the control group the intervention group
receiving training showed significant decrease in non productive
coping or maladaptive coping.

A gender a n d age specific preventive intervention was designed

and evaluated by LeCroy (2004) for early adolescent girls. The 12
session c u r r i c u l u m was designed to a d d r e s s developmental tasks
considered critical for healthy psychosocial development s u c h as
achieving competent gender role identification, developing positive
resources, planning for future, learning to utilize resources, forming
satisfactory peer relationships. Results revealed significant differences
between experimental and control group on peer esteem, help
e n d o r s e m e n t s a n d common beliefs.

In a study conducted in Agra (India) in a school setting to s t u d y

the effectiveness of behavior intervention in e n h a n c i n g the self esteem
of children, the children having low self esteem were randomly
assigned to two groups. Group I was given behavior intervention a n d
Group II was a control group. Results showed t h a t there w a s a
significant increase in self esteem and decrease in behavioral
problems of G r o u p I children (Broota, 2 0 0 5 ) .

Kaur (2006) studied the effect of assertive communication

training program on teaching skills in relation to self-esteem and locus
of control among pupil, that incorporated a t t i t u d e s of security, identity,
belonging, purpose, and personal competence into the school
environment, achieved a significantly higher degree of self-esteem.
Further, children who participated in a 10-session program focusing
on understanding consequences of behavior, self-acceptance,
decisions making, a n d social responsibility, the results indicated t h a t
the programme was found to be effective in increasing their self-
esteem. Again, those children who participated in a 100 weekly
wellness promotion guidance activities significantly increased their
levels of self esteem.

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 The effect of intervention on development is well d o c u m e n t e d ,
the need in the area of developmental disabilities is the development
of services of "intervention" which are not only compensatory b u t are
preventive a n d remedial. These p r o g r a m s provide individualized core
training t h a t helps the child to achieve h i s / h e r full potential. The
enhanced competence gained t h r o u g h the intervention leads to the
development of positive self-image, independent decision-making,
healthy problem-solving, assertive communication, a n d constructive
coping (Persha, 2 0 0 7 ) .

Zollinger and C u m m i n g s (2007) investigated the impact of life

skills training curriculum on middle school students' tobacco. Students
completing the Life Skills Training Curriculum were more
knowledgeable a b o u t health effects a n d smoking. Program effects were
different for male and female s t u d e n t s as well as for white a n d black
students.

School interventions, t h u s , have positive educational, social,

psychological, cognitive, and economic impacts. Intervention
programmes have prominent effects on pupil outcome, including
adopting a health policy, a n d having a positive school climate. T h u s , it
provides a strong evidence for the potential for school-based
interventions (Cortina, Kahn, Fazel, Hlungwani, Tollman and
Bhana 2 0 0 7 ) .

Zimmer (2008) concluded in a case study that project based

learning (PBL) in 12"'^ grade social studies classrooms contributed to the
development of life skills for high school in seniors in this advanced and
globalised time. The study investigated s t u d e n t experience with PBL
methods for helping them acquire skills along with a case study of
successful PBL program. It was concluded that PBL method was
successful in teaching a n d building life skills in high school social
studies classrooms, and able to better prepare s t u d e n t s for life after
secondary education.

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 Scott and Jennifer (2009) studied a different type of success:
teaching important life skills through project based learning. The
research in this study showed that the selected U.S School was
excellent at teaching important life skills that help students succeed
in college and in life in general.

Mariachelvi and Jayapoorani (2010) monitored the efficacy of

the Life Skills Training (LST) programme provided to the street
children 'Don Bosco Anbu Illam' for boys at Ukkadam and 'Mariyalaya'
for girls at Ganapathy in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu were the study area.
The training programme demonstrated role-play of multiple scenarios
demanding assertive behaviour and accordingly enabled a substantial
increase in the overall percentage of the respondents in insisting upon
knowing why and when they were asked to do something (72% against
22%) and ask for clarification (65% against 11%). The LST programme
through its innovative teaching methods prepared them to assert
themselves in a positive manner by accepting criticism given away by
the colossal bloat in the overall percentage from 38 to 8 1 . It was
appalling to note the elevated percentage of the respondents with
regard to expression of personal opinion from 24 per cent to 82 per
cent after the successful intervention programme. This programme
made them understand and express certain polite ways of being
assertive through the pioneering teaching strategies.

Bhandari (2011) conducted a study to determine the effect of

Awareness Training Program (ATP) on life skills and personal values of
secondary school children in relation to their psychological hardiness.
The results based on qualitative analysis on preferences of selected
values revealed that shifts in priorities of personal values were more in
the experimental group as compared to the control group.

Based on the results of various studies that have been

discussed in the above section it is expected that intervention

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 programmes will produce positive outcomes that further result in an
improvement in the holistic development and well being of the
disadvantaged. Various studies have been conducted to analyze the
effectiveness of life skills based intervention programmes listed in the
table below.

Table: 3.1

The benefits of early childhood intervention

Educational/ Behavioural Health Ek:onomic Social Other
Cognitive outcomes outcomes outcome outcomes Positive
outcomes outcomes

Increase in Improve Children Increase in Decrease in Improved

intellectual school at-risk living teen parent-child
competence readiness identified conditions pregnancies relationships
earlier

Positive Reduction in Improved Increase in Reduction in Increased

h o m e / school juvenile knowledge work skills child a b u s e self respect
relationships delinquency of
nutrition

Parental Increase in Increase Increase in Elimination Acceptance

involvement child school in medical family of infant a n d of personal
in a child's engagement check-ups income child responsibility
schooling homicide

Improved Less Decrease Increased Development Mental

literacy disruptive in licit employment of social health
behavior in and illicit rates support benefits
classroom drug u s e networks Environment
with reduced
stress

Improved Improved Improved Decrease in Familiarity Self efficacy

school parent-child parental welfare with local
achievement relationships care dependence health
care/social
service
support
system

Less need for Reduced Less Improved Lower rates

remedial participation emergency peer of family
assistance in criminal home relationships adversity
activity visits and conflict

Less school Reduced

failure social
isolation

Higher school Improved

completion networks of
rates support

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 Empirical literature revealed multiple impacts of life skills
training Programmes. LST Programmes h a d been found to delay the
age of o n s e t of the a b u s e of tobacco, alcohol and m a r i j u a n a ( H a n s e n ,
J o h n s o n , Flay, Graham a n d Sobel,1988), prevented high risk sexual
behaviour (Kirby,1994; S c h i n k e , Blythe and Gilchrest,1981) t a u g h t
anger control (Deffenbacher, Getting, Huff and Thwarter , 1 9 9 5 ;
Deffenbacher, Lynch, Getting and Kemper, 1 9 9 6 ; Feindlerm
Ek:ton, Kingsley and Dubey, 1986), prevented delinquency and
criminal behaviour (Englander-Golden, J a c k s o n , Crane, Schwarkopf
and Lyle, 1989), improved health related behaviour and self esteem
(Young, Keley and Denny, 1997), promoted positive social
adjustment ( Elias, Gara, Schuyler, Branden-Muller and
S a y e t t e , 1 9 9 1 ) a n d prevented peer rejection ( Mize and Ladd,1991).
Improvement in psychosocial competence is by far the most heavily
cited goal of LST, however very few studies had focused on these
outcomes.

These researches provided some evidence for the effectiveness of

multi c o m p o n e n t life skills training programmes in achieving multiple
promotion a n d prevention goals.

According to Seligman (2011) and others (Frisch 2 0 1 2 a

and b; Diener 2006, 2012; Biswas-Diener 2010), empirical
validation of theories, a s s e s s m e n t s , and interventions is the most
i m p o r t a n t distinguishing feature of the field of well being or positive
psychology. The efficiency a n d effectiveness of interventions may be
e n h a n c e d through matching interventions to the needs of particular
clients, McNulty and F i n c h a m (2012).

Children enjoying basic amenities also experience anger,

anxiety, frustration, feel neglected, rejected, experience domestic
violence, sometime their self-esteem may be influenced. We are living
in a world t h a t is changing at an a s t o u n d i n g rate. Likewise a
developing child passes through a rapid physical, hormonal,

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intellectual, emotional and psychological growth. This can cause
emotional and behavioural instability in the developing personality. In
this state of constant flux, the child may well feel helpless, vulnerable
and unable to deal with life's demands. In a rapidly changing
background of an uncaring, ever demanding world, he could land
himself in what is now called a 'future shock' and 'Chronic anxiety'. It
becomes imperative to dispense psychological interventions, not only
for children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders, but also for
positive (preventive) mental health during their developmental stages.

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