•Big Bang Theory- how the

universe formed
•Acceleration- the rate at which
something speeds up
•Galaxies- clusters of solar
systems held together by
gravity
•Solar systems- planets orbiting
around a star, held in orbit by
gravity.
•Star- a cluster of dust and gas
going through nuclear fusion
•Planets
•The Nebular theory- how
planets formed by accretion of
dust
•Red shift- wavelengths received
from distant galaxies are
elongating, showing that
galaxies are moving away from
us
•Wavelengths- the distance
between two crests
•Frequencies- the amount of
waves in one second
•Doppler Effect- the apparent
change in frequency due to
relative motion of an object
from an observer
•Hubble’s Law- galaxies are
expanding, where more distant
galaxies are moving faster away
than galaxies closer to each
other
•a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary"
matter consisting of protons,
electrons, and neutrons that
comprises atoms, planets, stars,
galaxies, and other bodies
•b. Dark matter - matter
that has gravity but
does not emit light.
•c. Dark Energy - a source of
anti-gravity; a force that
counteracts gravity and
causes the universe to
expand.
•d. Protostar- an early stage
in the formation of a star
resulting from the
gravitational collapse of
gases.
•e. Thermonuclear reaction -
a nuclear fusion reaction
responsible for the energy
produced by stars.
• f. Main Sequence Stars - stars
that fuse hydrogen atoms to form
helium atoms in their cores;
outward pressure resulting from
nuclear fusion is balanced by
gravitational forces
•g. light years –
•the distance light can travel
in a year; a unit of length
used to measure
astronomical distance
 4 Basic Forces of Big Bang
1. Strong Force- short-ranged attractive force which binds the
nucleus
2. Electromagnetic Force- long-range force that binds atoms
which can either be attractive or repulsive
3. Weak Force- short-ranged force present in radioactive decay
4. Gravitational Force- weak, long-ranged, and attractive force
which binds the solar system
THEORIES
OF THE
ORIGIN
OF THE
UNIVERSE
 Holographic Theory
• This theory states that the entire universe is
just a hologram.
• If this theory is correct, it would also mean
that every living thing would also be a
hologram.
• This theory is far different from all of the
other theories because if it is true, all other
theories would be pointless because the whole
universe technically wouldn’t exist.
 Always Existed
• This “theory” states that the universe was
always here, and will always be here.
• Although not technically a theory, many
people believe this theory because no other
theory fully explains their theory.
• This theory would also solve any fears of an
end of the universe theory, as the universe
would always exist.
 The Pulsating Theory
• In this theory it is assumed that there is continuous
expansion and contraction in universe.
• Pulsating theory states that it is the possibility that after
some passage of time the expansion in the universe may
stop.
• Then their may be the possibility of contraction. When this
contraction approaches to a particular size, again the
explosion will take place.
• As a result of this explosion the expansion of universe will
start again.
• Hence it results in a pulsating universe in which there is
alternate expansion and contraction of universe.
 THEORY OF COINCIDENCE
• The word is derived from the Latin cum- ("with",
"together") and incidere (a composed verb from "in"
and "cadere": "to fall on", "to happen").
• is a collection of two or more events or conditions,
closely related by time, space, form, or other
associations which appear unlikely to bear a
relationship as either cause to effect or effects of a
shared cause, within the observer's or observers'
understanding of what cause can produce what
effects.
 Biblical Creationist Theory
• This theory does not believe in the idea
that the universe was formed by “chance”.
• People who believe in this theory trust
that God has created all universes; that
there is an omniscient force behind the
creation of the Earth
 Biblical Creationist Theory
•The Bible is the only
source for this
theory
 Intelligent Design Theory
• This theory is an offshoot of
the creationist theory.
• This theory says that
something above God and
outside of our knowledge
created the universe.
 String Theory
• The essential idea behind string theory is this: all of the different
'fundamental ' particles of the Standard Model are really just different
manifestations of one basic object: a string.
• We would ordinarily picture an electron, for instance, as a point with no
internal structure. A point cannot do anything but move. But, if string
theory is correct, then under an extremely powerful 'microscope' we would
realize that the electron is not really a point, but a tiny loop of string. A
string can do something aside from moving--- it can oscillate in different
ways.
• If it oscillates a certain way, then from a distance, unable to tell it is really a
string, we see an electron. But if it oscillates some other way, well, then we
call it a photon, or a quark, or a ... you get the idea. So, if string theory is
correct, the entire world is made of strings!
 M Theory
• The string theory requires objects other than just
strings
• These objects may be seen as sheets or branes
(membraes)
• Strings can attach to one or both ends of these branes
• The origin of the universe occurs as a result of the
contact of two hyperdimensional branes.
• Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow argue that
the collision of M-branes leads to a new universe
 Open Universe
• Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) discovered the galaxies
of the universe are moving farther apart.
• This means that the universe is getting continually
bigger or getting bigger forever. Alternatively, the
galaxies may come together, until finally they will
collide and explode. This event is called the “Big
Crunch”. If the Big Crunch occurred, the sky would
grow as hot as the sun. Finally, everything would
vanish into a blackhole.
 OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY
• is a cosmological model that combines
both the Big Bang and the Big Crunch as
part of a cyclical event
• That is, if this theory holds true, then the
Universe in which we live in exists
between a Big Bang and a Big Crunch.
 MULTIVERSE
• There are an infinite number of
universes, with possibly different
dimensions and laws of physics, in the
Multiverse.
• There is no defined end of the
Multiverse because new universes are
continually created.
 INTRODUCTION
Structure, Composition, and Age
• The universe as we
currently know it
comprises all space and
time, and all matter and
energy in it.
 INTRODUCTION
Structure, Composition, and Age

•4.6% baryonic matter

• 24% cold dark matter
•71.4% dark energy
 INTRODUCTION
Structure, Composition, and Age
• Dark matter can explain what may be
holding galaxies together for the
reason that the low total mass is
insufficient for gravity alone to do so
while dark energy can explain the
observed accelerating expansion of
the universe.
 INTRODUCTION
Structure, Composition, and Age

•Hydrogen,
•Helium, and
•Lithium
 The Big Bang Theory
• is the dominant scientific theory about the origin of
the universe. According to the big bang, the universe
was created sometime between 10 billion and 20
billion years ago from a cosmic explosion that
hurled matter and in all directions.
• First developed in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre
(1984-1966) • and coined and revised by George
Gamow (1904-1968)
 Time begins
• The universe begins
~13.7 Billion years ago
• The universe begins as
the size of a single atom
• The universe began as
• a violent expansion
– All matter and space
were created from a
single point of pure
energy in an instant
 ~ 3 minutes after big bang
• The universe has grown from
the size of an atom to larger
than the size a grapefruit
• energy froze into matter
according to Albert Einstein’s
equation.
• This basically says that like
snowflakes freezing, energy
forms matter into clumps that
today we call protons,
neutrons and electrons.
• These parts later form into
atoms
~ Several hundred thousand years
after Big Bang
• ATOMS form
(specifically Hydrogen
and its isotopes with a
small amount of
Helium.)
• The early Universe was
about 75% Hydrogen
and 25% Helium. It is
still almost the same
today.
~200 to 400 million years
after Big Bang
•1st stars
and
galaxies
form
 ~ 4.6 billion years ago
• Our
Solar
system
forms
The occurrence of the Big Bang resulted
into several events that lead to the
creation of forces and celestial bodies
known today
• Inflation epoch- the universe
expanded from the size of an
atomic nucleus to 10 35 meters in
width
• Formation of the Universe- the universe
continued to expand. It became distinct,
possessing gravity, strong nuclear force,
weak nuclear force, and electromagnetic
force. At first seconds, the universe was
made up of fundamental particles and
energy: quarks, electrons. Photons, and
neutrinos, among others
• Formation of the basic elements- protons
and neutrons combined to form hydrogen
nuclei. Then, hydrogen nucleic began to
combine in pairs to form helium nucleic. This
process is called nucleosynthesis
• Radiation era (10 000 years)- most of
energy in the universe was in the form of
radiation. These included different
wavelengths of light, x-rays, radio waves,
and ultraviolet rays. They formed what
was called the cosmic wave background
radiation
• Matter domination (300 000
years)- matter began to dominate at the
end of the radiation era. At this stage,
lithium atom began to be formed.
Electrons joined with hydrogen and
helium nuclei to make small atoms
• Birth of stars and galaxies (300 million years)- the
slightly irregular areas of gas cloud
gravitationally attracted nearby matter and
became denser. The dense gas clouds
collapsed and eventually gained enough mass
to ignite and produce light. The huge clouds of
gas could be the birthplace for dozen of stars.
The groups of stars became the galaxies
 4 Basic Forces of Big Bang
1. Strong Force- short-ranged attractive force which binds the
nucleus
2. Electromagnetic Force- long-range force that binds atoms
which can either be attractive or repulsive
3. Weak Force- short-ranged force present in radioactive decay
4. Gravitational Force- weak, long-ranged, and attractive force
which binds the solar system
 Evidences for the Big Bang Theory
• Galaxies moving away- In 1924, Edwin Hubble found that stars
are not uniformly distributed in space. Instead they gather
together, forming clusters called galaxies. By determining the
velocities of the galaxies based on the light they emit, he found
out that nearly all galaxies were moving away. The distance
between distant galaxies was increasing with time. If it was
expanding, they must have been closer together in the past,
and may even come from a single point in the beginning
 Evidences for the Big Bang Theory
• Abundance of light elements- elements like helium, hydrogen,
with trace amount of lithium and beryllium found in the
observable universe agrees with the hypotheses of the big
bang theory. Their abundance is checked from the spectra of
the oldest stars and gas clouds. The ratios of these light
elements match with what was expected from the big bang
nucleosynthesis
 Evidences for the Big Bang Theory
• Presence of cosmic microwaves background (CMB)- In 1960,
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a background radio
emission coming from every direction in the sky. This radiation
was speculated as the remnant energy left over the formation
of the universe. This energy probably dates back to the
recombination era, when atoms were just beginning to form.
The discovery of CMB placed an end to the steady- state
theory
 Steady Sate theory
• states that the counting of the galaxies in our
Universe is constant and new galaxies which
are forming continuously are filling the empty
spaces which are created by those heavenly
bodies which have crossed the boundary lines
of observable Universe.
• Proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold,
and Fred Hoyle in 1928
Three significant problems of BIG BANG
•The Flatness Problem:
•The Horizon Problem
•The Monopole Problem
Three significant problems of BIG BANG
• The Flatness Problem:
• WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
Probe) has determined the geometry of the
universe to be nearly flat. However, under
Big Bang cosmology, curvature grows with
time. A universe as flat as we see it today
would require an extreme fine-tuning of
conditions in the past, which would be an
unbelievable coincidence.
Three significant problems of BIG BANG
• The Horizon Problem:
• Distant regions of space in opposite directions of
the sky are so far apart that, assuming standard
Big Bang expansion, they could never have been in
causal contact with each other. This is because the
light travel time between them exceeds the age of
the universe. Yet the uniformity of the cosmic
microwave background temperature tells us that
these regions must have been in contact with each
other in the past.
Three significant problems of BIG BANG
• The Monopole Problem:
• Big Bang cosmology predicts that a very
large number of heavy, stable "magnetic
monopoles" should have been produced in
the early universe. However, magnetic
monopoles have never been observed, so if
they exist at all, they are much more rare
than the Big Bang theory predicts.
 Inflation Theory
• developed by Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhardt, and Andy
Albrecht, offers solutions to these problems and several other open
questions in cosmology
• It proposes a period of extremely rapid (exponential) expansion of the
universe prior to the more gradual Big Bang expansion, during which
time the energy density of the universe was dominated by a cosmological
constant-type of vacuum energy that later decayed to produce the matter
and radiation that fill the universe today.
• Inflation was both rapid, and strong.
• It increased the linear size of the universe by more than 60 "e-folds", or a
factor of ~10^26 in only a small fraction of a second!
• Inflation is now considered an extension of the Big Bang theory since it
explains the above puzzles so well, while retaining the basic paradigm of a
homogeneous expanding universe.
 HOW DOES INFLATION SOLVE THESE PROBLEMS?
• The Flatness Problem:
Imagine living on the surface of a soccer ball (a 2-
dimensional world). It might be obvious to you that this
surface was curved and that you were living in
a closed universe. However, if that ball expanded to the size
of the Earth, it would appear flat to you, even though it is
still a sphere on larger scales. Now imagine increasing the
size of that ball to astronomical scales. To you, it would
appear to be flat as far as you could see, even though it
might have been very curved to start with. Inflation
stretches any initial curvature of the 3-dimensional
universe to near flatness.
 HOW DOES INFLATION SOLVE THESE PROBLEMS?

• The Horizon Problem:

Since Inflation supposes a burst of exponential
expansion in the early universe, it follows that distant
regions were actually much closer together prior to
Inflation than they would have been with only standard
Big Bang expansion. Thus, such regions could have
been in causal contact prior to Inflation and could have
attained a uniform temperature.
 HOW DOES INFLATION SOLVE THESE PROBLEMS?
• The Monopole Problem:
Inflation allows for magnetic monopoles to exist as long as they were
produced prior to the period of inflation. During inflation, the density of
monopoles drops exponentially, so their abundance drops to undetectable
levels.

• As a bonus, Inflation also explains the origin of structure in the universe.

Prior to inflation, the portion of the universe we can observe today was
microscopic, and quantum fluctuation in the density of matter on these
microscopic scales expanded to astronomical scales during Inflation. Over
the next several hundred million years, the higher density
regions condensed into stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies.
ULTIMATE FATE OF OUR UNIVERSE
 BIG CRUNCH THEORY
• The opposite of the Big Bang, the Big crunch
is all the matter in the universe crashing back
in on itself.
• Because all the matter is crashing into itself,
the heat in the universe will be enormous
• Finally, everything will be smashed together
into an infinitely dense point, a singularity.
 BIG RIP THEORY
• The universe continues to expand until
every thing in it is ripped to shreds, atom
by atom, by an unknown “phantom
energy”, possibly anti-gravity or dark
energy, or even that over time the rate of
acceleration increases so much that
everything just falls apart.
 BIG FREEZE
• • The “Big Freeze” is a scientific theory of the end of the universe.
• Though it doesn’t entail gigantic tubs of ice cream drowning
everyone, it does spell disaster for everyone.
• • The universe has a fixed amount of energy in it, and as this
energy runs out—so the theory goes—the universe slows down. In
other words, there is a slow loss of heat, because heat is produced
by the movement of energy particles. • There is also a slowdown in
movement, and supposedly, everything would eventually come to a
halt. • Which brings to mind the lines by T. S. Eliot: “This is the
way the world ends: not with a bang but with a whimper.” •
Universe expands for an infinite amount of time. • Eventually,
after the last stars burn out, there is no more heat in the Universe .
• This would cause it to drop to absolute zero, the point where it
can’t possibly get any colder and nothing can move.