Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
November 2008
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study would not have been possible without the assistance and support
of those who have been actively involved in this research. First, the author would
like to thank GOD Almighty ALLLAH for his grace and mercy throughout this
research. It is by his hands and wisdom in guiding the author to finish in this study.
Second, the author would like to thank the honorable supervisor, Assoc Prof.
Dr. Abdul Kadir Marsono, for his support, encouragement, and academic guidance
during the study. The author would like to thank specially for his patience and
tolerance. His diligence, dedication and working attitudes are good example to
follow.
Third, the author would like to thank the co-supervisor Assoc Prof. Dr.
Masine bt. Md. Tap for her ideas and valuable suggestions which allowed the author
to gain a broader understanding and improvement for the research.
Last but not least, the author is grateful to his family members for their love,
support and encouragement, special thanks to my brother shu‘ab abdullatif bashir for
his support and encouragement during my study.
v
ABSTRACT
Construction is one of the most hazardous industries due to its unique nature.
Measured by international standards, construction site safety records in construction
are poor. Many construction companies around the world are implementing safety,
health, and environmental management systems to reduce injuries, eliminate illness,
and to provide a safe work environment in their construction sites. The increase in
both insurance costs and workers‘ compensation makes it necessary to reduce
eliminate worksite accidents. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 were
established to provide guidelines for safe worksite practices and to ensure the safety
of the workers. One of the best ways to avoid injuries and minimize costs is through
good planning and co-ordination – both before and on the job. On-site working
conditions, lack of proper training, and improper use of safety equipment often lead
to serious injury and even death. The involvement of scaffolds, ladders, heavy
equipment and in some cases dangerous chemicals, greatly increase the risk of
construction accidents.
vi
ABSTRAK
LIST OF TABLE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRAK v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Construction Fatality Rates in Europe 5
1.3 Problem statement 6
1.4 Aims and Objective of study 7
1.5 Significance of the Study 8
1.6 Research Methodology 8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Industrialized Building System (IBS) 9
2.2 Steel Framed and Precast Concrete Building 11
2.3 Benefits of IBS Component 12
viii
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 31
3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Conceptualization 33
3.3 Identification of Research Focus and Scope of Study 33
3.4 Data Collection 34
3.4.1 Study of Documents 35
ix
REFRENCES 73
xi
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Many accidents in the construction industry are due to bad planning, lack of
organization and poor co-ordination on construction sites. According to the European
Agency for Safety and Health at Work, in the European Union, construction work
leads to most serious accidents at places of work, with more than 1300 people being
killed in construction accidents every year. Worldwide, construction workers are
three times more likely to be killed and twice as likely to be injured as workers in
other occupations. As is evident in this Code of Practice, the costs of these accidents
are not borne by workers and employers only, but are also usually shouldered by the
owner or owners of the project, legally known as the ―client‖. These costs can
amount to a considerable share of the contract price.
3
The numbers of cases recorded are high, but they are decreasing year by year, partly
due to better awareness of safety.
In the field of occupational safety and health, Malaysia is now moving away
from the traditional approach whereby it is believed that all occupational hazards can
th
be controlled through detailed regulations. On 25 February 1994, Occupational
Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA) came in force providing protection on safety
and health for work activities in all economic sectors including public services and
statutory authorities, except those subjected to Merchant Shipping Ordinance and the
armed forces. Under Section 15 (1) and (2) Occupational Safety and Health Act
5
1994, employers have a duty to ensure, as far as practicable, that employees are not
exposed to any hazard at the workplace.
Even though there has been a marked reduction in the number of industrial
accidents and the rate of accidents per 1,000 workers since the introduction of the
OSHA 1994, there has not been a credible improvement over the last five years. The
rate per 1,000 workers has been at a pleateau of 9.5 to 10.5 persons, while for
developed nations, it is three to four persons per 1,000 workers. Even though
regulations on occupational safety and health in Malaysia are quite comprehensive,
the level of awareness and practicability of such regulations within the society of
construction industry are generally lower than what supposed to come in force.
The HSE (2001) reports that the European average fatality rate in
construction was 13.3 per 100,000 workers in 1996. In contrast with that figure, the
HSA (1999) has reported a rate of 8 fatalities for 100,000 workers for the Republic
of Ireland in 1996. Although under the European average of fatalities, Ireland still
shows a higher incidence than countries as France, the United Kingdom or Spain
(Table 1.1).
6
To address and highlights the hazards that are most commonly found at
our construction sites today.
To identify significantly the potential for construction accidents in the
individual's working practices, both the unsafe acts committed and the
unsafe conditions created.
To identify the requirements of the safety and health regulations in IBS
construction.
To simulate the construction process by Witness 2001 to study the time
effect on safety
8
The construction industry now is facing challenges in four aspects; time, cost,
quality and safety. Actually, safety is one of the most important factors in
construction industry where it will effect the time, cost and quality of any
construction project If safety to be breach.
Thus, this study will help to measure the safety management construction.
Moreover, the compliance of the safety regulations coupled with the knowledge of
safety management provides advantages to the construction companies. It decreases
the accidents and the project can be completed with high quality within the given
time.
The research methodology has been carried out to fulfill the objectives of the
study; which include the method of data collection such as the documents study, case
studies, and simulation by Witness 2001. It covers the procedure such as shown in
Figure 1.3
9
Books
Develop a process of IBS
construction
LITERATURE REVIEW
The frames system is very popular in many modern countries such as Japan,
United Kingdom, Australia and Germany. The construction system is more
mechanized and involving structural components and eventually less manual works.
The structural components are normally built using a combination of steel and
concrete materials such as steel beams, steel columns and concrete slabs. The two
12
materials are so compatible in many ways to the extent that they can provide good
composite action and corrosion protection, which eventually can increase the
performance of the over all structure. The skeletal frame mainly consists steel beam
and column components. Steel beams and columns are normally manufactured in
form of I and H cross sections in order to achieve large strength to weight ratio.
Structural steel is excellent for tall and slender buildings.
The beams and columns are joined using bolted or welded connection or
combination of both. There are numerous types of structural connections that can be
used for joining the components. The construction process involved the
transportation of steel components from fabrication yards to site, and then assembled
and erected on site to form a complete structure.
Most of the industry players fail to realize that IBS offers better alternative to
the traditional and labour intensive in-situ construction. The main benefits offered by
the usage of IBS elements are:
IBS products are manufactured in a casting area where critical factors including
temperature, mix design and stripping time can be closely checked and controlled;
and this will ensure that the quality of IBS products are better than cast-in-situ
concrete. A huge sum of money will be saved by not having to do rectification
works. Also due to factory-controlled prefabrication environment, many
13
IBS construction will save valuable time and helps to reduce the risk of
project delay and possible monetary losses. IBS design and production of elements
can be started while the construction site is under survey or earthworks. Production
are also unaffected by weather conditions due to the controlled environment of the
casting area. Also, the usage of large IBS panels will reduce the time taken to
complete the structural works. Therefore, other trades such as painting and electrical
wiring can begin work sooner.
14
The usage of prestressed precast solutions such as the Hollow Core slabs and
Double-T beams offer greater unobstructed span than the conventional reinforced
concrete elements. With having the lesser beams and columns in any structure, it will
provide larger open space. It is very ideal for the construction of places of worship,
warehouses, halls, car parks, shops and offices.
Prosperity and high economic growth in Malaysia has created a high demand
for construction activities. As a consequence, this has attracted huge number of
foreign workers into this country to take up employment on site as an unskilled
labour doing manual jobs. Despite their contributions, the country is in a quagmire
with a host of problems such low quality works, delays, wastages, social problems,
diseases. Currently it is the right time now for some form of government
intervention.
15
Systems to be accepted as part of IBS need to possess all of the above, as all
of the five characteristics are equally important to ensure the achievement of the
claimed benefits, (CIDB Malaysia 2001).
16
The reasons why health and safety should be well managed fall under the
three main following headings (Bateman, King and Lewis, 1994): humanitarian,
financial, and legal.
A lot of people are killed in workplace accidents or suffer major injuries due
to occupational illness. Beside this, there are still a number of uncountable people
who suffer from long term health problems due to their work. The economic costs
are considered later but it is clear that this scale of human suffering should be
acceptable in an advanced, civilized society. Fortunately, the picture is improving,
partly due to gradual raising of health and safety standards. However, the contraction
of the country‘s manufacturing and industrial base has also played a part.
may be unaware of the size of the premium being paid. While the hidden costs of
accidents are either impossible to quantify or their quantification would be totally
impracticable. However, the hidden costs are usually far greater than the measurable
costs, especially when the large numbers of minor injuries and non-injury accidents
are taken into account.
Health and safety risks are needed to identify, assess, and take certain action
to eliminate or minimize the probability of occurrence. In order to reduce the
accident or incident level and subsequently cut losses, it is important to ensure that
safe working practice is being observed (Radhlinah, 2000). Safe operation and
accident prevention form a good business practice.
primarily designed to protect the health and safety of individual workers or members
of the public. Traditionally, the responsibility of safety falls on the individual.
Building a safety culture on so many diversities is not an easy task. But it had
been proven that companies with good safety and health cultures have employees
with positive patterns of attitude towards safety and health practices. Companies
need to gather safety related information, measure safety performance and bring
people together to learn how to work more safely. Glendon and McKenna (1995);
Caborn (2005) also identified four critical indicators of safety culture. They are:
Malaysia put a special emphasis on OSH issues due to its speed of economic
development. There is a growing concern about safety and health at work. Until
1994, Malaysia still did not have adequate provisions to sure safety and health of
employees at the workplace. They were merely the traditional approach legislation
20
meant for technical aspects and lacked the human aspects of ensuring safety and
health at workplaces. Thus, the promulgation of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act 1994 has made further provisions for securing the safety, health and welfare of
any connection with the activities of the person at work. It is based on the concept of
self-regulation whereby the Act places certain duties on employers, employees, self-
employed persons, manufacturers, designers and suppliers.
It also places emphasis on the prevention of accidents, ill health and injury.
This is the main Act, which we hope can help to reduce occupational incidents and
accidents in the Malaysia.
The organization should formulate a plan to fulfill its safety and health policy
as set out in the Safety Statement. An effective management structure and
arrangements should be put in place for delivering the policy. Safety and health
objectives and targets should be set for all managers and employees.
22
c) Organizing
d) Measuring Performance
The organization should measure, monitor and evaluate its safety and health
Performance. Performance can be measured against agreed standards to reveal when
and where improvement is needed. Active self-monitoring reveals how effectively
the health and safety management system is functioning.
If controls fail, reactive monitoring should find out why they failed, by
investigating the accidents, ill-health or incidents that could have caused harm or
loss. The objectives of active and reactive monitoring are:
The organization should review and improve its safety and health
management system continuously, so that it‘s overall safety and health performance
improves constantly. The organization can learn from relevant experience and apply
the lessons. There should be a systematic review of performance based on data from
monitoring and from independent audits of the whole safety and health management
system. Understanding the concept of the OSH management system will help us to
understand the application of OSH management system and legislation needs to
follow by industry. The rules and legislation are always protecting the worker safety
and ensuring healthy workplaces. The main purpose of the rules and legislation is to
23
prevent accidents, ill health and injury at workplaces towards development of safety
culture. Many companies who have implemented OSH management system have
reported benefited from increased operational efficiencies, reduction in lost
workdays, fewer accidents and medical claims, recognition by insurers and
regulators and improved worker‘s retention and satisfaction. Organizations with
effective OSH management system earn positive returns and benefits on their health
and safety investment.
24
Organizing a) Responsibilities
b) Organization arrangements
c) OHS documents
a) General
Planning and
b) Risk assessment
Implementing
c) Legal and other requirements
d) OHS management arrangements
The safety practices encountered on construction sites are as varied as the sites
themselves. All construction sites have their own unique aspects of safety, which
must be considered. Larger construction projects generally are better organized from
a safety standpoint. These types of projects are often high profile. The companies
involved in such visible construction projects have reputations to uphold as well as
safety records to maintain; they are generally better prepared to manage the safety
aspects of a project. Almost all of the larger construction firms have a full-time
safety director or at least one person who is responsible for the company‘s safety
26
program. Having full-time safety personnel relieves the pressure, somewhat, on the
onsite construction project team. This may be accomplished by keeping the team
members informed of possible safety problems, by making sure that subcontractors
are implementing their safety programs adequately, and by assisting in the routine
day-to-day aspects of safety management. This allows the project personnel to focus
their efforts on the project itself.
In order to give the management team confidence that its construction sites
are properly organized, it is useful to have a standard system for setting up site safety
organization and for monitoring its effectiveness. This may be affected by certain
factors such as recruitment of competent person, certification and rewards, and
others, which are explained in detail regarding improvements. As mentioned by
Toole (2002), safety on a jobsite can be effectively enforced by putting several key
factors in place. The first factor to be concerned is to set a unit that is able to monitor
work on a frequent basis.
Second, the entity should know the relevant safety standards for the task that
would be performed. Third, the entity should have a formal or informal authority to
direct the actions of the workers. The implementation, operation, and monitoring
responsibility of the program, according to Hislop (1991), should be clearly defined
27
State clearly a worksite policy on safe and healthful work and working
conditions, so that everyone with responsibility at the site (and those at
other locations with responsibility for the site) fully understands the
priority and importance of safety and health protection in the
organization.
Establish and communicate a clear goal for the safety and health program
and define objectives for meeting that goal so all members of the
organization understand the results desired and measures planned for
achieving them.
a) Employee Training.
b) Supervisory Training.
Train supervisors to understand the key role they play in jobsite safety and to
enable them to carry out their safety and health responsibilities effectively. Training
programs for supervisors should include the following topics:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The research methodology has been carried out to fulfill the objectives of the
study; which include the method of data collection such as the documents study, case
studies, and simulation by Witness 2001. It covers the procedures such as shown in
Figure 3.2
33
Conceptualization
Literature Review
Documents Study
Case Study
3.2 Conceptualization
Conclusion &
Recommendations
I acknowledged that
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves
the right as follows:
36
With the collected data of the activities‘ duration, a model is made using
Witness 2001 software. Witness 2001 is simulation software with a simple icon base
set up and the start up window of the software is shown in Figure 3.4.The main
objective of the simulation is to find out the optimum time and resources for Single
storey link house construction Therefore, time and resources are the main concern in
the simulation
38
In Witness (2001) there are many elements can be used to build the suggested
models. In order to build the models related to this research, some of the elements
from the program have been used. The first element, and the most important one, is
Machine (activity), which represents a task or an activity that needs to be fulfilled at
the construction project. For example, civil engineering works, foundation, flooring
etc. all are activities or machines in Witness 2001. Second elements are Parts
(entities); in fact, parts are used to represent those items (100 houses) that move
around the model. The can be used to represent small components, large components.
Witness creates parts (entities) and introduces them into the simulation at the time
dictated by the model. Furthermore, it explains the flow of activities through the
39
model and represents the 100 houses that needed to achieve at the end of this project.
The third element is Buffers (queues) that are places where Parts can be held for
some time. In instance, the storage area for the parts (100 houses) and pushed out to
the next activities. Figure 3.5 shows the three elements that are used in building the
research models:
Figure 3.5: Elements used to build the models: Machine (activity); Buffers (queues);
and Part (house).
Using simulation, designers can see the impact of a time and change resource
that affect on an entire process. In complex systems with many interrelated activity, a
change in one process may affecting on another process. For example, reducing or
increasing activities time such as civil works, foundation, flooring time of activity
time may result in fluctuation times for other activities such as stairs, first floor
beam, roof and etc. By simulating complex processes, systems designers can see the
impact of changes of time made before implementing them. This in turn further
optimizes the process in the improved framework.
40
From the results of the simulation, it is interpreted to show the time needed to
complete the over all activities of multi story building from start of civil work up to
finishing the building with safety and without safety procedure.
4.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to identify hazards which are caused by both unsafe
acts and conditions that are most commonly found at construction site
Accidents occur due to primary causes which are unsafe acts and unsafe
condition and secondary causes which are Management system pressure and Social
Pressure as follows;
42
The primary causes of accidents in construction industry have been the target
of safety law for many years. But, addressing secondary cause of accident should be
made priority as well.
The above examples are the most common practices which do not conform to
policies and procedures of safety.
44
Unsafe practices and unsafe conditions are deviation from required safe
practices, but they must be seen as symptoms or more basic underlying indirect or
secondary cause which allow these deviations to exist and persist. Secondary causes
can be described as follows:
45
Financial restriction
Lack of commitment
Lack of policy
Lack of standard
Lack of knowledge and information
Restricted training
Poor quality control system
Group attitudes
Industry tradition
Society attitudes to risk taking
Acceptable behavior in work site
Commercial/financial pressure between contractors
46
Statistics indicate that nearly 1,000 construction workers are killed each year
while on the job. Of these, one-third or over 300 deaths will result from construction
site falls. Many of the deaths or injuries that result from these falls can and should be
prevented.
Common construction site falls include roof related falls, crane falls,
scaffolding falls, elevator shaft falls, falls resulting from holes in flooring, and falling
objects. Proper protection equipment and safety precautions are necessary to protect
the lives of workers.
Cranes are everywhere and are relied upon to create residential and
commercial buildings. Although cranes have improved along with technology over
the years, crane accidents still occur that can result in injury or death.
There were over 140 crane accident deaths in 2004. Crane accident deaths
can arise from a number of factors, including lightning, high winds, defective cranes,
falls, electrocution, and other hazards associated with construction at heights. Many
crane accidents can be avoided with proper training and safety procedures. During
construction, the well-being of workers must be more important than other
considerations.
48
It is estimated by OSHA that nearly 350 construction workers die every year
from electrical accidents. A few causes of these fatalities include electric shock,
electrocutions, steam accidents, and power line contact. The risks of these hazards
50
are heightened for workers who perform their jobs on scaffolding or in cranes near
overhead power lines.
Electric shock occurs when the body comes into contact with electric current.
The harmfulness of an electric shock is dependent upon the voltage, current, and
duration of exposure. Construction workers are at risk of experiencing electric shock
whenever they are exposed to cables or machines carrying electric current. Specific
safety procedures should always be followed to avoid complications including
internal injury, muscular spasm, respiratory arrest, and cardiac arrest.
The building of trenches is necessary for many construction tasks. They are
present wherever buried utilities are constructed or repaired. It is absolutely
imperative that appropriate safety measures are taken during the building process to
ensure the safety of all workers involved.
A trench is narrow in length with its depth greater than its width. When
trenches are constructed they must have safeguards in place to protect workers inside
the trench from a collapse. When a trench collapses workers may easily become
crushed under the weight of heavy soil from above.
51
The size and power of the machines and equipment used in the construction
industry can be responsible for some of the most grievous injuries if not used
carefully and professionally. Construction equipment, like every other type of
machinery, can experience mishap and failure - particularly if it is overused or
improperly maintained.
Power tools have come a long way since the first hydraulic drills and steam
pumps. Modern power tools are driven by powerful electric motors and precisely
controlled by sophisticated computers in order to deliver the most efficient and
accurate performance.
53
Derricks are some of the most complicated but important pieces of machinery
on any construction site. These large, obtrusive, and complex lifting devices are
easily recognizable by anyone who has ever been by an oil field, dockyard, or
anyplace where workers need to move heavy loads or drill deep into the earth.
These rigs are by nature dangerous and hazardous, but are more so without
proper oversight and maintenance. Poorly built derricks cannot only endanger the
lives of those who work with them but also the projects and livelihoods of those who
depend of their lifting and weight-bearing capacity.
Hoists have been around for centuries as a way to lift or lower loads into a
precise location on a construction site. These simple devices consist merely of a
drum or pulley to allow movement or a rope or chain, and a driver to provide force
and strength for lifting.
Even though hoists are some of the most common and simple pieces of
construction equipment, they can be responsible for some of the most devastating
54
injuries on a worksite. Because they are designed to help lift heavy loads, any failure
in the chain, driver, or pulley itself can result in tragic and sometimes fatal accidents.
Industrial and construction use conveyor belts differ little from the common
supermarket check out lane in that both are used to transport materials from one end
to another, albeit construction conveyors are far larger, more sophisticated, and
complex. Whether they move raw materials or building equipment, conveyers are a
vital part of any construction site.
Even these simple machines can have serious mishaps with dramatic
consequences if not properly assembled or maintained. The loads they are designed
to move can cause serious damage over time when used frequently, and although
relatively simple machines, lack of maintenance can cause serious and deadly
accidents.
These vehicles are easily identifiable by their large scoop-like blades on the
front and the long, pointed "ripper" in the rear. Unfortunately the same power and
weight that are key to the bulldozer's strength can work against it if the machine is
defective in its design or maintenance. Accidents with defective bulldozers can
include fall outs, crushing, or any number of hydraulic or electrical malfunctions.
57
Ever since they were first invented in 1917, forklifts have become an
indispensable piece of warehouse, manufacturing, and construction industries.
Although they range in size and loading capacity, the premise of the forklift remains
the same throughout the world; move heavy objects from one location to another.
Even though they are powerful for their size, forklifts suffer a few serious
flaws. Loads must be perfectly situated so their center of gravity will not shift,
potentially causing serious injury to the operator and any unprotected people nearby.
This can sometimes cause server stability problems in poorly designed or maintained
forklifts, resulting in sometimes catastrophic injuries.
Backhoes are one of the most vital earth moving machines used in modern
construction. Without these tremendously strong hydraulically powered digging
machines modern construction practices would be nearly impossible.
Unfortunately this great power can pose an enormous threat if defective
backhoes make it onto your construction site. Aside from the fact these machines can
weigh many tons, the amount of earth they move can become extremely hazardous if
the backhoe is defective.
58
Boilers are extremely useful on construction sites because they provide not
only hot water but the pressure to produce energy to power equipment and move
significant amounts of debris out of a given area. As their name entails, these vessels
contain large quantities of extraordinarily hot liquid that can cause significant injury
should an accident occur.
loggers as well as the falling of massive trees. Chain saws, logging machines, and
enormous trees are just some of the hazards involved with contemporary logging
operations.
In addition to the obvious risks of working with logging tools, other factors
that make logging a hazardous profession include the rugged environment in which
work is performed, the use of additional vehicles such as helicopters, inclement
weather conditions, and other situational determinants. When the potential for
logging accidents to occur exists but is not addressed, any resulting injuries are
completely preventable.
Brazing involves joining metals through heat and a filler metal. Brazing
creates permanent and strong metal-to-metal joints. The brazing process has many
advantages over other metal joining options, but brazing carries some inherent risks
as well. Dangerous fumes and gases may arise, and burns may occur if proper safety
procedures are not followed.
Cutting accidents are common, though they are usually preventable when
effective safety procedures are established and followed. Managers and supervisors
have a responsibility to keep the workplace safe, and one of the most obvious areas
that require attention is cutting tools. In a hazardous environment, injuries resulting
in the loss of limbs or life may result.
Every year, elevators and escalators kill about 30 people and seriously injure
over 17,000 Americans. There have been gruesome and tragic elevator accidents that
have resulted in severe injuries and even death. Elevator accidents can harm both
innocent passengers and the construction workers who service and build them.
failure. Structure failures can be catastrophic and result in major injury and loss of
life.
Most structures are built properly and to code, diminishing the possibility of
building collapse. However, when a collapse takes place it is a failure of many and a
manifestation of irresponsibility and incompetence. Architects and designers have an
obligation to the safety of the public, and when this obligation is not met
consequences can be tragic.
Compressors are used at construction sites to provide power for many of the
tools and utilities used by workers. Air compressors and gas compressors are very
common, and with their use is an accompanying increased risk to workers.
Employees must exercise special caution when working with or around compressors
of any kind.
OSHA has established guidelines for construction workers and supervisors to
follow when using compressors. Compressor accidents can result in serious injury
and even death. However, with proper care and attention these mishaps are entirely
preventable. When supervisors and workers lapse in their vigilance, compressor
accidents can be fatal.
Gas explosions are caused by an ignition source coming into contact with a
gas leak. Construction workers must always remain alert to the presence of gas leaks.
Gas can be a silent killer, filling an area with flammable toxins while going
unnoticed by most people. When a flame or other source of ignition is introduced to
a gaseous environment, the resulting gas explosion can be catastrophic.
4.4 Conclusions
The best ways to mitigate accident are good construction practices, utmost
care, effective inspection, and strict enforcement of high standards of care. However,
the above are the most common practices which do not conform to policies and
procedures of safety. Unsafe practices/conditions are often seen in every construction
project all over the world and would be impossible to eliminate as humans are not
perfect but by having strict regulation on safety such as in developed countries it can
be reduced the consequences of most common type of construction accidents.
CHAPTER 5
g) Standard procedures
h) Special procedures , e.g. for poisoning
i) Maintenance of first-aid facilities
j) employee as first-aiders
The collected data is based on case study of a 100 unit‘s multi-storey on Semi
Precast Concrete Project of TAMAN EHSAN JAYA. The main purpose of gathering
data is to build a simulation model by using Witness 2001 software .Two simulation
models have been programmed in Witness 2001 to reveal the completion time at
increase level of safety.The first model is one hundred houses (100) simulation while
the second model is two hundred houses (200). After the completion of the models,
statistical process analyses having been carried out with time reducing to get the
optimum completion time for each model. In fact, the optimization is to check the
simulation model, and to examine the time completion for each tested process. And
also to study affect of accidents to overall process completion time as shown in
Figure 5.1.
67
The main outputs of this sequential model are: the completion period of the
project activities that are collected over time. The model yield of the completion time
of 19 months (478 working days). Further more its assumed that by occurrence of
accidents the overall project time have been increased by 505 working days as shown
in Figures 5.2.
120
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Whenever an injury occurs, the productivity rate decreased and the crew is
forced to work shorthanded. Obviously, this results in a crew that is not as productive
as the time prior to the accident. This often resulted in a crew of seven being reduced
to a crew of six. It was estimated that the crew productivity was approximately 90
percent of the pre-accident level and that this was sustained over a period of about 47
days. This equates to a loss of twenty eight (28) days of worker time (0.1 X47days X
6 workers). As shown in Figure 5.2.
69
250
200
COMPLETION TIME
150
Series1
Series2
100
50
0
N
G
N
G ING
F
C AB
D K
O RS
M
M
LL
E
G AB
O
FL TIO
M
U OR
IN
&
EA
A
O
LU
I
M
SL
BE
FL TA
H
R
S
FO W
R
B
A
IS
O
O
R
S
F
IL
R
O
N
G
N
O
IV
FI
O
R
O
C
O
FL
O
T
FL
T
1S
1S
T
1S
ELEMENTS
The main outputs of this sequential model are: the completion period of the
project activities that are collected over time. The model yield of the completion time
of 19 months (680 working days). Further more its assumed that by occurrence of
accidents the overall project time have been increased by 705 working days as shown
70
in Figure 5.3.
Whenever an injury occurs, the productivity rate decreased and the crew is
forced to work shorthanded. Obviously, this results in a crew that is not as productive
as the time prior to the accident. This often resulted in a crew of seven being reduced
to a crew of six. It was estimated that the crew productivity was approximately 94
percent of the pre-accident level and that this was sustained over a period of about 68
days. This equates to a loss of twenty eight (25) days of worker time (0.06 X68 days
X 6 workers). As shown in Figure 5.4
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Conclusion
As mentioned in chapter one that the aim of this research is to simulate time effect
on construction process by Witness 2001, documents study as well as safety
practices. Effort to facilitate the achievement of this aim, some conclusions for this
research will be drowned and recommendations to improve the safety in construction
industry will be highlighted.
From this study, there are four significant conclusions can be drawn. There are:
ii. The consequences of a time overrun are almost always serious and hard to
72
resolve failure to meet deadlines represents financial losses to the users and it
has a negative impact on the profitability of the project for promoters thus the
optimization of time and cost can only be achieved with compliance of standard
safety management system.
iii. Most contractors do not have a proper documented safety management system
laid down clearly in the safety manuals
iv. The best ways to mitigate accident are good construction practices, utmost care,
effective inspection, and strict enforcement of high standards of care. However,
the above are the most common practices which do not conform to policies and
procedures of safety. Unsafe practices/conditions are often seen in every
construction project all over the world and would be impossible to eliminate as
humans are not perfect but by having strict regulation on safety such as in
developed countries it can be reduced the consequences of most common type
of construction accidents.
6.2 Recommendation
8. www.resource4constructionsiteaccidents.com/topics/typesofconstructionsitea
ccidents.html
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_family_homes