CHAPTER V

EDUCATIONAL
MANAGEMENT IN
ORGANIZATION
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CHAPTER V
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATIONS
Title Page No.
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Concept of education (Indian views) 95
5.3 Concept of education (western views) 95
5.4 Definition of educational management 96
5.5 Various types of education 96
5.5.1 Formal education 96
5.5.2 Informal education 97
5.5.3 Non-formal education 97
5.6 Educational planning 99
5.6.1 Meaning of educational planning 99
5.6.2 Kinds of educational planning 100
5.6.2.1 Strategic planning 100
5.6.2.2 Short-term planning 100
5.6.2.3 Management planning 100
5.6.2.4 Grass-roots level planning 100
5.6.2.5 Area planning 101
5.6.2.6 Institutional planning 101
5.7 The task of education 101
5.8 Educational organization 102
5.9 Educational organizational climate 103
5.10 Efficiency in educational institutions 104
5.11 Educational administration 105
5.12 Scope of educational administration 106
5.13 Kinds of administration 107
5.13.1 External administration 107
5.13.2 Internal administration 107
5.14 Levels of educational administration 107
5.15 Characteristics of successful educational administrator 107
5.16 Educational principles and values 108
5.17 Ethical dimensions to school and college management 110
5.18 Educational leadership and organizational behavior 111
5.19 Meaning of leadership 111
5.20 Importance of leadership 112
5.21 Training, education and development of employees 113
5.22 The quality of learning 115
5.23 Quality in education 116
5.24 Education bodies as service organizations 116
5.25 Roles of management in education 117
5.26 Need of educational management 118
5.27 Processes of scientific management 119
5.28 The organization: management implications 120
5.29 Self-managing educational institutes 121
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5.30 Characteristics of college management 122

5.30.1 Group activity 122
5.30.2 Goal-oriented 122
5.30.3 Factors of production 123
5.30.4 Universal 123
5.30.5 Need of levels of the organization 123
5.30.6 Distinct process 123
5.30.7 Social process 123
5.30.8 System of authority 124
5.30.9 Art as well as science 124
5.30.10 A profession 124
5.31 Characteristics of successful school management 124
5.31.1 Flexibility 124
5.31.2 Practicability 125
5.31.3 Conformity to the social and political 125
philosophy of the country 125
5.31.4 Efficiency 125
5.31.5 Successful achievement of desired objectives 125
5.32 Managing individual performance 125
5.33 Managing stress in education 127
Reference 128
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5.1 INTRODUCTION
Educational management operates in educational organizations. There is no
single definition of educational management because its development has drawn
heavily or several disciplines like -economics, political science and sociology.
Education is never ending. It starts with the birth of an individual and then it goes on
until the last day of the individual. Education makes an individual a real human
being. It is an essential human virtue. Man becomes man through education.
Education equips the individual with social, moral, cultural and spiritual aspects and
thus makes life progressive, cultured and civilized. First view is that the word
'education' is derived from the Latin word 'Education' which means to bring up or
to nourish. Second view is 'to find out' or 'to draw out'. Naturally, here in the
process of educafion effort is to draw out rather than 'to put in'. Third view is the
'act of teaching or training''.
5.2 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION (INDIAN VIEWS)
1. According to Rig Veda"Educafion is something, which makes a man self-
reliant and selfless."
2. According to Upanishads "Education is that whose end product is salvation."
3. The well-known Indian Economist Kautilya says, "Education means training
for the country and for the nation.
4. According to Mahatma Gandhi "By education I mean an all round drawing
out of the best in child and men, body, mind and spirit."
5. In the words of Zakir Hussain "Education is the process of the individual
mind" getting to its full possible development. It is a long school which lasts
a life-time."
5.3 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION (WESTERN VIEWS)
1. Plato's view "Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right
moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty
and all the perfection of which he is capable of"
2. Socrates said, "Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal
validity which are latent in the mind of every man."
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3. Pestalozzi remarked, "Education is natural, harmonious and progressive

development of man's innate powers."
4. Herbert's view "Education is the development of good character. ^
5.4 DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Educational objectives it deals with the educational practices, whereas
educational philosophy sets the goals. Educational psychology explains the
principles. Educational administration, tells about of educational objectives and
principles. It is the dynamic side of education. It deals with educational
institutions—right from the schools and colleges to the secretariat. It is concerned
with both human and material resources. The human elements include: i) Children,
ii) Parents, iii) teachers and iv) other employees in general - university or board of
education at local, state and national levels of grounds, v) equipment and
instructional supplies. Beyond these two elements are ideas, laws and regulations,
community need and so on. All of these have a bearing on the educational process.
The 'integration' of these parts into a whole is educational management. If
educational management is a poor lens, the image is blurred and obscure and no one
in the school or community gets a clear picture of what the school is trying to do. If
it is a good lens, the school becomes a clear-cut and vivid projection of the ideals and
ideas we hope to bring into being. ^

5.5 VARIOUS TYPES OF EDUCATION

Education is an organized and imparted can be classified as under:
1. Formal Education
2. Informal Education
3. Non-formal Education
5.5.1 FORMAL EDUCATION
Formal education is that which is provided in a formal way by observing all
types of formalities. It is a pre-planned type of education, where specific aims are
well fixed in advance, methods of teaching are decided and the selected teachers give
knowledge to the selected pupils. This type of education is imparted in the schools,
colleges and universities where the learners abide by the rules and regulations of the
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agency of formal education. Formal type of education is also provided in the library.
It is limited to a specified period. It is a consciously received education for which
deliberate efforts are made by both the teacher and the learner. This type of
education is well organized and so it may be taught anywhere in the school or
outside the school. There is a well-defined and clear-cut curriculum. It is not
confined to the schools only. In short, that any teaching where there is instruction,
supervision, definite aims etc is called formal education.

5.5.2 INFORMAL EDUCATION

Education for which no formalities are observed is known as informal type of
education. It this type of education, there is modification of the behavior of the
learner but no conscious efforts is made for it. Here neither the teacher nor the leaner
is conscious of the process of the teaching and learning. For example, a person goes
to the playground for physical exercise and there comes across someone who tells
him very good ways of utilizing leisure time. Surely, in this situation, one acted as a
teacher and the listener was a student but none of them was conscious of the fact that
the process of teaching and learning occurred informally. In this way through our
daily routine of life, teaching and learning may take place and we are quite unaware
of it. This type of education is known as informal education. It is a casual type of
educafion, which is received through daily experiences and activides. In this type of
education there are no pre-determined aims, no definite curriculum, no well thought
methods of teaching, no qualified and trained teachers and no definite place of
education. Here educadon is received by the company of friends, community etc.
Whatever as educadon is received plays a very important and significant role in the
life. This type of education may result into learning something wrong or bad. That is
negadve education and that may create some problems.

5.5.3 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Non-formal education has become popular during the recent past. It is in
between the formal and informal types of education. It is midway, because it is partly
formal and partly informal. It is both intentional and incidental. This type of
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education is imparted outside the formal school system. For providing this type of
education, there are no restrictions of any type of learners of any age of group in
service anywhere or unemployed can seek admission and receive education. A few
examples of this system of education are open school, Open University,
correspondence course etc. The only difference is that in this system there is
flexibility almost at every step i.e. in admission, mode of instruction, curriculum etc.
There are rules and regulations but there is no rigidity. Here different media are used
for educating the people. Surely, this approach is education to the doors of the
learners who could not or are unable to receive formal education due to any reason.
The following points of comparison indicate clearly the difference between formal
and informal types of educations: "*
Table 5.3: Comparison between Formal and Informal Types
Formal Education Informal Education
1. Here all type of formalities is observed. 1. Here no formalities are observed.
2. Goals are fixed in a formal way. 2. No goals are fixed.
3. Proper means are used to achieve the 3. No proper means are used.
goals.
4. Conscious efforts are made both by the 4. No conscious efforts made by the teacher
teacher and the learner and in the process taught.
of teaching learning.
5. Apparently, it is an artificial way of 5. In appearance, it is a type of teaching
teaching learning. learning.
6. There is prescribed syllabus here. 6. There is no always-prescribed syllabus.
7. Efforts are there to teach in accordance 7. No specific efforts are ever applied in one
with the prescribed syllabus. specific direcfion or the other.
8. The schools at a fixed place. 8. There is no school and no place is fixed.
Education may be given at any place.
9. Work-schedule is for it. 9. No work-schedule is for it.
10. Restricted type of freedom is to be 10. All type of freedom is given to the
given to the learners and the teachers. teachers and the learners.
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5.6 EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Educational planning is one of the important aspects of the topic managerial
efficiency and it includes the following different types of planning:
5.6.1 MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Webster's International Dictionary (1987) defines planning as an act or
process of making or carrying out plans. A plan is conceptualized as a predetermined
strategy, detailed scheme or program of action related to the accomplishment of an
objecfive. It implies some kind of mental acfivity during the course of analyzing or
laying out a method of achieving something. It focuses on 'what', 'why' and 'how'.
An educational plan refers to efforts on planned and deliberate change to be brought
about in the system of education for achieving identified relevant objectives.
Visualized in relation to specified objectives these change have to be coordinated in
relation to objectives and conditions in other related aspects. They have to be
systematically planned. Educational planning means the process of setting out in
advance a pattern of action to bring about over all changes as viewed by national
policies by the closest possible articulation of means and ends. Planning selects
among alternatives, explores routes before travel begins and identifies possible or
probable outcomes of action before the executive and his organization is committed
to any.
Educational planning has been one of the early instruments of independent
governments. Resources have to be used as effectively and systematically as
possible. A considerable amount of pressure from both the donors of aids and
intemafional organizations made adoption of some from of planning unavoidable.
The advancement of theory of planning has enriched its practice. Today, educational
planning is an absolute requirement. The complexities of modem technology in
society have rise to the need for planning in education. Increasing populations, labor
needs, ecology, decreasing natural resources and haphazard applications of scientific
developments require educafional planning. To meet these problems, educational
plarming becomes a necessity and planning competence becomes mandatory. It is
unavoidable for bringing about a desirable change in the educational organizations
for promoting the organizational health-its effectiveness and functional efficiency.
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Educational planning is a process utilized by an administrator while performing the

role of a leader, decision-maker, and change and so on. It is a basic management
task. It is a means of achieving higher levels of effectiveness. Its uniqueness lies in
its future-orientation or anticipation mode.^

5.6.2 KINDS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING T l o ' 1C^270 UVo^^

5.6.2.1 STRATEGIC PLANNING ^-^J^^^'
Also known as long-term planning or perspective planning, it focuses on the
system as a whole. It emphasizes attainment of organizational goals. It gives
directions to all other efforts to be made at various levels. It spreads over ten to
twenty years and is based on a large perspective. It makes sufficient time available
for implementing the plans and seeing their results. It is being increasingly adopted
in almost all the countries of the world. It is important for developing and
implementing other plans. It ensures the commitment and support essential to
facilitate needed change.
5.6.2.2 SHORT-TERM PLANNING
Also known as tactical planning or operational planning. It results into a plan
that spreads over 3 to 5 years' duration. It focuses on solving immediate and pressing
problems. It is more appropriate for specific and narrow purposes.
5.6.2.3 MANAGEMENT PLANNING
It is a set of decisions taken in regard to the implementation of a plan
prepared. It describes the way the plan has to be implemented. It is concerned with
the effective and efficient attainment of goals and objectives. It can be utilized for
both the long-and-short-term plans. It is based on the concept of contingency
planning which means developing defensible alternatives that can be utilized if
unanticipated circumstances arise.
5.6.2.4 GRASS-ROOTS LEVEL PLANNING
Planning from below or the grass-roots level requires that within the
parameters of national plan, specific and detailed plans may be prepared at state,
district, block, village or institutional levels.
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5.6.2.5 AREA PLANNING

Similar to planning at district level, it is also a variation of grass-roots level
planning or planning from the bottom. The difference between district level planning
and area planning lies in the jurisdiction of area. Area provides for an integrated
development of a specific area with special features and needed special attention.
5.6.2.6 INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING
Institutional planning is the lowest level at which planning is required to be
undertaken. Its importance lies in the same argument that has been given in case of
grass roots level planning. It ensures better and more fruitful use of the resources,
which the institution has or can have. It is the institution that knows best its needs
and problems that have to be solved. The needs and requirements of every institution
should be taken into consideration. It should not only be associated with educational
planning but also a planning atmosphere be built up and maintained in each
institution.

5.7 THE TASK OF EDUCATION

The task, therefore, is to start building upon edifice of knowledge pertaining
to education taken is its comprehensive meaning an edifice of thought and practice
which will be grounded in our national aspirations and which can totalize and
rejuvenate our thinking in all fields of educational efforts. The widening of scope is
essential if we are to come out of the narrow groove into which we have fallen. The
liberalizing influence of other fields and discipline should be permitted freely to
enrich our understanding in all its implications. A student of philosophy may become
interested in education and its who and wherefore; a sociologist can perhaps better
contribute to our understanding of how social forces affect education and are, in turn,
affected by it. An expert in public health can study problems of school health etc.
The other some of the area in which worker from other fields or disciplines can
cooperate and contribute materially to overall task of building the edifice of
education. The present training college are fully occupied with training teachers and
the duties which the staff in day-to-day work as a teacher rather than education. The
conditions of these colleges is professional and persons involved are naturally more
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concerned with problems of a practical character, but for the edifice of education the
growth of different thinking a reflecting their educational thought is necessary. The
task of a teacher is to satisfy the society but it is next to impossible task, because
training colleges concentrate their efforts on involving and perfecting a system of
training into effective school practice. Therefore, training college goals should be
reciprocated so that teacher would be able to satisfy the society and able to do
expeditiously, economically and with efficiency.^

5.8 EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION

Organization is the foundation upon which the whole structure of
management is built. Sound organization contributes greatly to the continuity and
success, encourages growth and diversification of the enterprise. Organization is a
mechanism, which enables living things to work effectively together. Organization
will have to develop learning capabilities and become "learning organizations" to
continuously review their process and performances and take timely corrective
action.
Educational organizations are different in ways from industrial organizations.
Therefore, educational management is somewhat different from industrial
management. Educational organizations are people processing, non-economic public
organizations. In education, the goals and objectives are complex and lack clarity. In
view of a large variety of patterns of education in different educational institutes,
educational re-organization has been a great challenge from time to time. No
organization can survive over a long enough period and build a reputation of
integrity and efficiency unless the people operating it have ethical values in dealing
with one another and the society. Every organization is unique in terms of methods
of dealing with its employees and has different modes of decision making and
different styles of leadership etc. some of the important issues which has relevance in
educational organization are under
i) Total quality management
ii) Decision making
iii) A spirit of innovation to encourage participation
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iv) Attitudinal changes in employees

The process of education is of diversified nature and involves a variety of
different people at different levels. The process has low interdependence and the
performance of role is invisible. In case of educational organization, it is very
difficult to quantify the output. Similarly, the input in the educational organization
varies widely with students and staff
In the education system, alone three kinds of management challenges exist:
1. External linkages of the educational system with facets of society,
2. The challenges within the educational system,
3. The challenges of new kinds of management within institutions.
Educational institutions are complex organizations, equally complex are the
issues involved in managing such institutions. In the process of building any
organization, the principal and ancillary objectives must be clearly defined and
o

distinguished along with the main function of the enterprise.

5.9 EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

Schools, colleges, universities and training institutions, may well be
considered social organizations. Student's knowledge and skill development takes
place in a system of complexity, which involves the interplay of several variables. It
has its roots in the institutional variables described as organizational styles.
Institutions visualize their targets in their success variables such as performance and
growth levels of students and other employees. They focus on change in the human
variables to approach their targets. The principal or the head of the institution
operates in an organizational environment, from the authority base, in a specific way,
in order to change staff attitudes or behavior and with the goal of increasing some
dimension of teaching effectiveness. Institutions maybe viewed as living organisms
having a composite of characteristics and people with a variety of personality traits.
They too need to identify and pursue goals, react to stress, seek homeostasis
adopt maintain themselves, internally, ensure survival, eliminate uncertainty and
grow in size, power and experience if they are to fiinction effectively, much human
activity in these institutions is motivated by administrative reaction to organizational
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needs. An alternative to this reactive behavior is proactive behavior in which change

takes place because of conscious efforts by individuals to control the institution
rather than to be controlled by the institution. Organizational needs of these
institutions are potent motivations of their upward movement and of resistance to
change. Planning and structuring the growth patterns and directions of these
institutions, developing strategies to overcome or to live and grow with uncertainty,
establishing the nature of change are examples of proactive behaviours.^

5.10 EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

If self-management can improve the efficiency and effectiveness with which
resources are used in education, then it must do so affecting the processes that
determine the way financial and real inputs are converted into educational activities
and thus into educational outputs. Efficiency and productivity are distinct but related
concepts. Productivity in the relationship between the amounts of output produced
and the amount of inputs used. Efficiency is achieved when a given quantity of
output is produced at minimum cost. Education has not been able yet to raise teacher
productivity significantly with the use of capital. The only exception is probably
distance education, while the use of information technology may in the fiiture
increase teacher productivity. In the absence of easily available output measures in
education, it is common practice, particularly of government agencies, to suppose
that productivity has risen in educafion when the number of students per teacher or
lecturer increases. This is only an increase in productivity if the total educational
output. A number of different combinations of learning materials per student and
teacher time per student could produce equivalent amounts of learning. Efficiency is
always judged relative to a standard. An efficient organization is one which could
reduce unit costs by cutting down on some of its inputs or by changing its method of
production. Moving further along the input-output process, educafional organizations
can make choices between different input mixes to produce a given set of education
activities. However, an efficient combination of resources is not one that produces
the cheapest teaching periods, since this is an intermediate educational activity. It is
one, which produces the highest learning output for a given expenditure of money.'"
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As well as finding the most efficient mix of resources for producing a given
educational activity, schools and colleges also have some choice over the mix of
educational activities they produce. If a change in the mix of activities leads to a
demonstrable improvement in educational outputs without an increase in physical
quantity of resources than educational productivity has unambiguously increased. If
more efficient ways of producing operating services are found, there is only an
increase in total educational output if the resources thus 'saved' on operational
services are used to improve educational activities, which in turn increase
educational output could increase either by finding a more productive mix of
activities or by producing more educational activities using resources saved from the
more efficient management of operating services. A school and college could
increase its operating services efficiency, but not end up spending the money thus
saved in ways, which raised the total educational output. In this case, overall
educational productivity would not have increased. A college or school which
responded to a budget cut by managing its operating services more efficiently and
used the money saved in this way to sustain its previous level of educational output
would be more efficient overall, more productive and provide better value for
money, but it would not have increased its total educational output. The nature of
educational organizations production technology is central to understanding how
self-management might affect educational productivity and efficiency. The search
for efficiency and effectiveness depends on teachers' professional skill in making
appropriate selections from a repertoire of possibilities."

5.11 EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Administration has been defined "a comprehensive effort to direct, guide and
integrate associating human strivings which are focused towards some specific ends
of aims. Thus, educational administration is a comprehensive effort to achieve some
specific educational objectives. It deals with the educational practices. It is the
dynamic side of education. It deals with educational institutions from the schools and
colleges to the secretariat. It is concerned with both human and material resources.
The human elements include: i) children, ii) parents, iii) teachers and iv) other
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employees in general university of Board of Education at local state and national

levels of government. All these have a bearing on the educational process in the
"integration" of these parts into a completely educational administration.

5.12 SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Production refers to the social activity of work for which an organization is
set up. In education, it means realization of the goals of education, which have been
set up by society. Education administration has, therefore, to interpret the aims of
education to the educational workers so that they may shape the final product of
education in the desired form and shape. Assuring public use means that the activity
and the product of the efforts of the organization, the goals and services are
produced, must be such that they are acceptable to the public and of use and benefit,
because it is for this that the public has set up the organization. Finance and
Accounting refers to the receipt and disbursement of money invested in the activities
of the organization. Educational administration is also concerned with receiving and
spending money necessary for the operation and activities of the educational
machinery. It should record and measure the monetary and other resources invested
in the educational enterprise and evaluate the inputs and outputs.
Personnel is the framing and operation of policies and procedures for
recruitment of workers and maintenance of good will and personal relationship
among them in order to ensure fullest interest, cooperation, morale and loyalty of all
the persons working in the organization. This is especially important for the
education enterprise where the whole work is centered round the impact of one type
of human beings, the teachers, upon another type of human beings, the students. The
scope of educational administration, therefore, spreads over the personnel. Co-
ordination is an important activity of education administration. It ensures the close
interrelation and integration of all the functional activities of the organization such as
personnel, finance and production of desired results. Such integration has to be
brought about not only of the structure of the organization but also of the attitudes
and efforts of the workers, so that all of them pull together in the direction of the
desired goals and achieve them.
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5.13 KINDS OF ADMINISTRATION

Administration is both external and internal:
5.13.1 EXTERNAL ADMINISTRATION
It implies control from above-governmental control through the department
of education. The issues like framing rules and regulations, enforcement of
compulsory education, prescription of textbooks, framing of courses of studies,
fixation of school working days, etc, are decided and controlled by the department of
education and the educational institutions are required to conform to the
departmental rules a regulation.
5.13.2 INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION
It implies the management of the day-to-day school program and activities
through the head and assistants.'^

5.14 LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

1. Central level
2. State level
3. Local bodies' level
4. Private level
5. School level

5.15 CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL EDUCATIONAL

ADMINISTRATOR
The following are the characteristics of successfiil educational
administrator:'''
1. A successful school administration employs a creative approach in matters of
educational concern.
2. He promotes and secures the professional growth people connected with and
related to the school.
3. He manifests high ability in the assessment of values, purposes, needs and in
their translation into realistic educational goals.
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4. His administration envisions the totality of administration and integrates its

components elements to secure established objectives.
5. His administration secures an effective utilization of all available resources.
6. He provides for systematic review of all places of the educational venture and
effects desirable reconstruction.
Tables.4: Educational Administration and Educational Management'

Educational Administration Educational Management

1. Concerned with 'determining' the 1. Concerned with the 'doing' or

major policies and objectives of the 'executive' function, the policies and
educational enterprise. decisions implemented those laid down by
administration.
2. The force of public opinion 2. Scope of decision-making is limited.
influences decision-making, Decisions are at least influenced by the
government policies as also economic beliefs, opinions and values of managers.
and social factors.
3. Includes that part of the 3. A general name for the total process of
management, which is concerned with executive control. It has responsibility for
the determinations and carrying out of the effective planning and execution of
the procedures by which the progress various operations.
of programmes is evaluated and
controlled as per plans.
4. In the private educational 4. Refers to the employees, who, for
enterprises, it may refer to the owners working within the broad policy guidelines
or trustees who, by way of retum on laid down by the administration, are paid
the capital invested in educational remuneration, usually in the form of
institutions receive gains in many salaries.
ways, as in most cases of public
schools ownership.

5.16 EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES

The Collins English Dictionary (1999) defines 'ethical' as one based on a
system of moral beliefs about right and wrong. In accordance with principles of
professional, conduct. These two definitions link an understanding of right and
wrong with notions of professionalism. Teachers are sometimes uncomfortable about
the use of the term 'professional' in relation to their work. For some, it signifies a
depth of reflection and understanding about taking responsibility for the activities of
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learning and teaching, which is underpinned by years of involvement in, and

commitment to education. In other words for them, each action taken and all
decisions made about every aspect of learning and teaching are based on a clearly
articulated set of ethically based beliefs and understandings about the purpose of
education. What is the connection between values and ethics, and why must those
who manage schools ensure that their management decisions have an ethical basis?
Robert J. Starratt (1996)'^Writes while it includes conversations with individual
teachers, the larger work of administration involves calling all the teachers to the
building of an ethical school. This involvement provides the administrator and the
teachers with a large moral task, one that will never be finished, but one that will
enable them to integrate many of the specific moral and professional components of
teaching into a larger, meaningful whole. One might benignly interpret all or much
that teachers presently do as tacitly involved with nurturing an ethical school. In the
best of schools that may certainly be true.
Starratt builds up his argument be explaining that ethics in the study of moral
pracfice, and as scholarly inquiry 'ethics tends to dissect human acfions, thinking,
and choices in order to understand when they are ethical or unethical'. Thus, those
who are involved in ethical school management, and the management of ethical
schools, must ensure that there are spaces for refection, for conversations and for
planning during the school day. These spaces will offer teachers the opportunity to
'study' and think about practice, in order to plan consciously for ethical interactions.
There is a danger in schools and colleges that those working in them take for granted
that there is only one true set of values. This quotation raises an interesting
management quesfion: a principled college and school manager may believe that
those who work in the college should have space to develop and work with their own
educafional values. However, the same manager is committed to embedding the
colleges published purpose in all that happens there how might the different sets of
values be mediated? Alternatively, indeed, is there room for different sets of values
in one educational organization? If the values in a college and school are clearly
shared and articulated, then most of the answers to the above questions would be the
same. All the constituencies with a stake in the educational organization will have
 10

had an input into the formation of the statement, and will have contributed to its
regular review, or will have made a conscious choice to be involved in the
organization because the statement matches their own values.'^
5.17 ETHICAL DIMENSIONS TO SCHOOL AND COLLEGE
MANAGEMENT
One arena in which values are clearly affected by different contexts is the
management or leadership style employed by the head teacher and other managers.
Based on the ethical beliefs of the head teacher, it might encompass the following
ways of managing:
Autocratic<-—>Patemalistic<-—>Consultative<-—>Democratic<-—> Abdicator
(Tell) (Sell) (Involve) (Co-determine) (Give up)
In order to help make sense of this continuum, you might think about your
own management style and about your response to the management styles of others.
A head teacher who believes that all needs in the college community should be
balanced as carefully as possible will base management decisions on the diagram
introduced by John Adair (fig. 5.2) in which he shows that teams work best when
attention is paid equally to three sets of needs:
Figures.2: Effective team building

Should one set of needs-say an individual lecturer has need—overpower the

needs of the institution or the task, the task of education within the college will not
easily be achieved. Should the demands of the task overshadow the needs of
individuals within the college and school, there will be depression, stress and general
disquiet. In addition, should the needs of the institution take precedence over the
needs of the individual and the task; unhappy teachers will not be able to ensure that
the young people in the school college are receiving the education that the school has
 Ill

stated as its purpose? The initial recognition of the necessity to balance the needs,
and then the definition or measure of the different balances will all depend on the
head teacher's educational and management values, and therefore the management
choices made.'^

5.18 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR
Educational organizations should be considered socio-technical systems.
They are unique organizations whose basic components are the individuals and
technology. There is, however, little technology used by educational organizations.
Largely, it is the labor and human resource on whose manipulation they survive and
make progress. The individuals constitute, largely, the most important unit of these
organizations from nursery schools to universities and research organizations besides
highly differentiated and complex administrative department's set-up by the
governments. These organizations are established for achieving certain specific
goals. In general, all of them bear a responsibility to impart knowledge to the pupils,
develop in them skills and certain human qualities. Some of them are established to
train people jobs. A few others are set-up for conducting research in education.
Intrinsic to call educational organizations are the concepts of structures, process,
power and leadership. Their analysis and understanding, therefore, have largely
converged on these with the result that several theories with regard to these concepts
and characteristics have been formulated and developed, in the past, particularly in
the Western countries, of these, the concept and theories of leadership have
dominated the field. In the context of Indian education, it seems extremely important
to discuss its nature, applicability since there has been a lot of criticism of
educational institutions in India, and it is being increasingly felt that leadership in
education is miserably failing in this country.'

5.19 MEANING OF LEADERSHIP

Management of any organization, educational or otherwise, may be defined
as working with and through individuals and groups of individual to accomplish its
 12

goals. This is exactly what a manger or a leader is required to do. He has to manage
his institution. It means he must achieve the goals of the organization with the help
of other people working in the organization and with the help of the needed
technology and all the inputs available. Thus, leadership is inseparably bound up
with the achievement of organizational goals. Leadership in educational
organizations as a corollary must also be seen in this perspective. Thus, management
of educational institutions implies leadership in education; and leadership in
education, in turn, implies efficient and effective ways of achieving the institutional
goals. Effective leader-managers are the basic and scarcest resources of any
enterprise. There is shortage of effective leader managers in all fields. However, this
is more so in the field of education.
The term 'manager' points out to a person who is holding a managerial
position such as the vice-chancellor of a university, principal of a college, head of
the department, director of institution, head master of a school, supervisors,
inspectors etc. Since these persons are held responsible for achieving the
organizational goals, they are to be legitimately designated as leaders. Whether they
are effective or ineffective, that is entirely a different matter. However, some experts
in the field have defined leadership in more specific and technical ways. Three types
of skills are essential for a leader or manager in order to be successful-i) technical
skills such as ability to use knowledge, methods and techniques and equipment, ii)
human skills such as ability and judgment in working with and through people, iii)
conceptual skills such as abilities to understand the complexities of the overall
organization and where one's own operations fit into it, while the amount of
technical and conceptual skills varies from top management level through middle
management to supervisory level, the human skill component appears to be crucial at
all levels of management. Human skills include skills pertaining to understanding of
cause of behavior, change of behavior and prediction of behavior of the people
working in the organization.^"
5.20 IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
The importance of leadership in management of any educational organizafion
can never be minimized. Achievement of organizational goals very much depends on
 13

how effectively leadership is exercised in the organization. Organizational leaders

are the key figures who can so change the work climate that all the employees are
motivated to work hard with the result that the goals are achieved. On the other hand,
there may be leaders who are there in positions but they achieve nothing. Their
philosophy of life, their styles of management, their ways of decision-making etc.
perhaps, are not conductive to the effective functioning of the institution. In addition,
that has been the case with the system of education in our country. We have failed to
provide knowledgeable, technically trained and goal-oriented leadership to operate
our system of education. From top to bottom, our educational managers are recruited
from amongst the professionals, teachers and other generalist. There are no persons
who have been trained in administration or management science. They have acquired
a few required skills just working on the job through trial and error behavior without
knowing why it works and how it works. They utterly lack managerial insight.
Many of the vice-chancellors, principals of colleges. Head of the Departments,
Headmasters of the school etc, have poor understanding of the goals of their
organizations, the organizational process through which these goals can be achieved
and the kind of leadership style that may be most suited to the kind of situation
prevailing in the organization.^'

5.21 TRAINING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF EMPLOYEES

Training and development is a requirement in the quality-oriented
organization. It is the human equivalent of equipment maintenance and upgrades.
However, this similarity steps when predicted performance of machines through
upgrades 1, o. where as predicted performance after training to dependent on many
factors, including the context of the working situation found after the training
program Training is therefore seen as unpredictable in actual outcome, but if it is
carried out consistently, with purpose, and consequently reinforced in the workplace,
it is a weapon that forms the basis for continuous improvement. This structured
approach to training and education sets the quality-oriented organization apart f»om
others. Training is seen as the process of developing. Changing and reinforcing
required job-oriented behaviors. It is current-job-oriented, but is also used
 14

effectively to provide the basis for immediate future job changes. On the-job training
program obviate the problems of direct application and feedback, and cultural
problem related to misinformation or resistance to new ideas. Quality circles
generally use this concept; they train their own colleagues, with support staff
providing the necessary expertise, if required. The sort of training requirements may
include the direct skills needed to perform the actual job teamwork, process
improvement techniques, quality control methods and problem-solving tools. Much
of the training carried out in a quality-oriented organization is towards process
requirements and the tools needed to monitor and control them effectively. Actual
work task requirements are dwarfed by the operational quality requirements. This
indicates the depth of changing job contents of frontline workers today. To ensure
that products are manufactured to appropriate design and quality-related
specifications, much more automatic equipment is used than in a traditional
manufacturing plant. This should not suppose that many production lines are
designed to operate without workers. Rather the opposite workers were needed to
monitor automatic operations, as automation itself did not substantially replace
workers. Various types of training programs have been developed. These include:'^'^
1. Induction program-Where staffs are introduced to the organization through
developing familiarization with their new job, work unit and the relevant
work related procedures for ongoing maintenance. These generally consist of
the introduction work routines and safe working practices. The induction
program is directed to increasing the speed at which the new staff member
became operational.
2. Technical training programs-This includes the development of job specific
skills and knowledge in the methods, processes and techniques associated
with their particular trade or vocation and is therefore non management in
nature. In the quality-oriented organization, it would include the development
of training program related to other specialized jobs and the techniques used
in quality practices.
3. On-the-job training-Again, this is job specific, but is essentially on-line that
is the individual learners while they work, at the point of skills use.
 15

4. Management development-This training is directed at management in order

to assist in the development of supervisory technical and interpersonal skills.
These various targeted training programs after different scope and contents,
that are relevant to the different levels of workers and managerial activity contained
in an organization.

5.22 THE QUALITY OF LEARNING

Education is about learning, if TQM is to have relevance in education it
needs to address the quality of the learners' experience. Unless it does that, it will not
make a substantial contribution to quality in education; in a period when most
institutions are, being asked to do more with less, it is important that they focus on
their prime activity- earning. Learners learn best in a style suited to their needs and
inclinations, an educational institute that takes the total quality route must take
seriously the issue of learning styles and needs to have strategies to individualization
and differentiation in learning. The learner is the primary customer and unless
learning styles meet individual needs it will not be possible for that institution to
claim that it has achieved total quality, educational institutions have an obligation to
make learners aware of the variety of learning methods available to them.
They need to give learners opportunities to sample learning in a variety of
different styles. Institutions need to understand that many learners also like to switch
and mix-n-match styles and must try to be sufficiently flexible to provide choice in
learning much work has still to be done on how best to use TQM principles in the
classroom. A start can be made with the learners and the teachers establishing their
mission. This could be all shall succeed. From this, negotiation might take place
about how the parties will achieve the mission- the styles of learning and teaching
and the resources they require. Individual learners should negotiate their own action
plans to give them motivation and direction. The process of negotiation may require
the establishment of a quality steering committee or forum to provide feedback and
to give the learners an opportunity to manage their own learning, parents or
employers might be well represented on it. Both teachers and students can ensure
that all are on track by undertaking detailed monitoring through process charting.
 116

The results of evaluation process should be discussed with the students, perhaps by
means of completing a record of achievement. The very act of being involved in
evaluation will assist in building up the student analytical skills, it is important that
the institutions use the results of the formal monitoring to establish the validity of its
programs.

5.23 QUALITY IN EDUCATION

Educational establishments maybe described as open systems, since they
possess most of the attributes originally identified by Katz and Khan (1966) as
characterizing such systems, namely. The importation of energy from the
environment, the throughput or transformation of the imported energy into some
product form which is characteristic of the system, the exporting of that product into
the environment, and the re-energizing of the system from sources in the
environment.
Educational institutions are also currently in a market environment where the
whole basis of competition has changed and has become more complex. Somehow,
believe that TQM may prove the key success factor for individual institutions, i.e.
TQM maybe a necessary and sufficient means of improving customer service and
customer satisfaction. Along with this intra-system competition for resources there is
also a marked increase in the influence of powerful supplier and customer groupings,
which are demanding higher quality and better service.

5.24 EDUCATION BODIES AS SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS:

While much of the current thinking on quality has emerged from
manufacturing contexts, it is probably more appropriate to compare educational
institutions with service sector organizations. In general, the provision of a service is
characterized be the:
• Extent to which the customer is involved in the delivery process itself, i.e. the
production and consumption of the service are temporally inseparable to a
greater degree than in a manufacturing context.
 17

• Potentially more variable nature of the delivered service, compared with a

manufactured product, because it is more reliant on the personality and mood
of the individuals involved.
• Impermanence of the quality of the service, i.e. the customer can refer only to
his/her memory for future review of the experience.
Given this view of services, TQM in education must apply to all involved in
the delivery of those services, before, during and after. Total quality management is
an approach to improving the effectiveness and flexibility of businesses as a whole.
It is essentially a way of organizing and involving the whole organization, very
department, every activity. Every single person at every level, for an organization is
truly effective, each part of it must work properly together, recognizing that every
person and every activity affects, and in turn is an affected by others.'^''

5.25 ROLES OF MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION

Within the language of education management 'management roles is a
concept which is taken-for-granted belies its complexity. Earlier functionalist views
of role theory suggested that, as long as schools or colleges' purposes and structures
could be identified, roles could be ascribed and subsequent behavior predicted.
More recent interactions perspectives on social life, in which individual subjective
realities are as important as 'social facts' have shown how an understanding of roles
helps us make sense of the everyday world. They constitute a social stock of
knowledge in the form of a series of assumptions about appropriate behaviors in
different contexts. In this way, they render social life both more intelligible and
more problematic, since as Berger and Luck man. (1966)^^point out, meanings are
not only given, they are socially sustained. The realization of the drama depends
upon the reiterated performance of its prescribed roles by living actors. The actors
embody the roles and actualize the drama by presenting it on the given stage. Neither
drama nor institution exists empirically apart from this current realization. A number
of research projects completed in Britain since the education reform act 1998 testify
to the multitude of meanings that the players bring to their parts; however prescribed
the scripts appear to be. They show how, even if the concepts of management and
 18

roles are now acceptable in education, there are considerable difficulties in

identifying the precise nature of management roles. These difficulties arise from a
number of sources, including the diversity of goals in education, teacher's
perceptions of themselves as professionals and the interaction of central governments
prescriptions and individual teacher's interpretations. Additionally, there are the
global changes that influence teachers work and culture in the postmodern age.
Writing on this theme, Hargreaves (1998) uses Toffler's metaphor of the moving
mosaic to describe the patterns characterizing new organizational structures in a new
society. Toffler asks his readers to picture a moving mosaic composed not on a flat,
solid wall, but on many, shifting see-through panels, one behind the other,
overlapping, interconnected, the colors and shapes continually blending, contrasting,
changing, paralleling the new ways that knowledge is organized in data bases, this
begins to suggest the fiiture from of the enterprise and of the economy itself. These
changing patterns reflect changing roles in organizations in which not just the
structures but also the membership are in constant flux. In spite of the problematic
aspects of the moving mosaic, Hargreaves welcomes the greater flexibility and
responsiveness that such schools would demonstrate.

5.26 NEED OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Some suitable, stable element properly motivated and organized in the
machinery becomes necessary to withstand and survive the changes and upheavals
caused because of change of governments. Superior educational management, in
fact, is basic to the satisfactory functioning of democracy. Errors of judgment can be
retrieved in a farm or factory but these can be fatal when we are concerned with the
molding or ideas and values of society. An efficient and sound system of educational
management is, in fact, the basis of a good democracy. Besides, with crores of
children being educated in educational institutions, with thousands of teaching and
other personnel working in them, with huge sums of money being spent on
education, it is necessary to evolve and efficient system of educational management
at all levels national, state, local and institutional. Therefore, that light of education
penetrates in every nook and comer of this country to make the dream of a
 119

democratic, socialistic state a reality as early as possible. Obviously, these things do

not come of by themselves. They have to be planned; in systematic and permanent
system of educational management, with a philosophy and vision, has to be evolved
to feel on young democracy with right of citizens.'^^

5.27 PROCESSES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

In the present state of development, it is possible to isolate certain process
that has resulted from the application of scientific method to the art of government in
industrial and commercial undertakings. These stand-alone and can be thought of as
distinct process, but the extent to which this separation is possible in practice
depends upon the size of the enterprise and the extent to which specialization of
management duties can be taken. The primary elements involved in the management
process have been seen to be:
i. To foresee and examine the future.
ii. To provide the means by drawing up the plan of action.
iii. Building the dual structure, material and human
iv. Maintaining activity among personnel
V. Building together, unifying and harmonizing all activity and effort
vi. Seeing that everything occurs in conformity with established rule and
expressed command.
These are the elements that we present in management of a scientific nature,
but to complete the list it is necessary to differentiate planning from forecasting as
the two constituent parts of foresight, and also to change the word "command" with
the implication of harsh discipline accompanied by sanction, to the less severe
"motivation" in line with the development of thought about the best way of
encouraging an optimum contribution by each employee. It will be seen that the
processes have been grouped in pairs and associated with a particular category of
administrator or manager, who is invested with responsibility for the application and
correct use of the processes in practice. ^*
 120

5.28 THE ORGANIZATION: MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS

A study at the criminal justice system in America had identified many
organizational stressors that could be applied to working in schools and colleges.
These include poor working in schools and colleges among staff, too much paper
working relationship amongst staff, too much paperwork, a lack of training, poor job
security and a lack of promotion opportunities. The latter two have been stressors
that education has only recently begun to tackle. Taking an organizational focus
helps manages to see that effective stress management must become part of the
culture of the organization. Stressful working conditions can create a climate of
frustration and tension, often due to a long-term buildup of stress. This may lead to
severe stress of 'burnout'. It could be argued that the nature of educational
organizations makes burnout a possibility at all times. The threat to self-esteem of
admitting that one cannot cope is huge. Teachers and lecturers fear they may be seen
as weak, and may recourse to some of the palliatives, but burnout happens to all
kinds of individuals when a situation arises that they cannot resolve by their usual
coping strategies.
Managers need to be able to identify the signs in others of severe stress. This
can often be changes in that person's normal behavior pattern, e.g. over-reactions to
events, failing to complete tasks, memory lapses, mood swings, etc. Those in
management positions need to evolve structures to listen support and help staff avoid
the vicious cycle of worthlessness, and perhaps long-term sick leave that may arise
of it is ignored. Valuing individuals within an organization may mitigate some of the
external forces that are feeding the feelings of stress and inadequacy. Leadership
styles may also have an effect on the amount of stress in the organization. This may
not mean just one person in a leadership position, but the way leadership is
performed through all levels of an organization. The emphasis in an organization
may be on developing the team as a resource in handling stress. What it does argue
for is a coherent management strategy in educational organizations that recognizes
the importance of stress in human resource management and address stress related
issues in a clearly strategic way. Stress management should be defined, as part of
management of effective educational organization. There may be no instant 'cure'
 121

for the high levels of stress in schools and colleges, but managers need to 'open up
pathways and down words an active participation by all members in the continuing
development of a healthy organization (Brierley, 1995).'^'

5.29 SELF-MANAGING EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES

The pressure for developed and developing economies to become more
efficient in order to compete effectively on the world stage has led to a heightened
awareness of the links between educational capability and economic performance. A
skilled workforce depends largely on the achievements and outputs of institutes and
universities. This has led to a plethora of legislation as governments have sought to
raise educational standards. A major thrust in the legislation has been the
development of self-managing of institutes in many countries. The Australian writers
Caldwell and Spinks (1992, P.4) define this concept: ^°
A self- managing institute is an institute in a system of education where there
has been significant and consistent decentralization to the institute level of authority
to make decisions related to the allocation of resources. The institute remains
accountable to a central authority for the manner in which resources are allocated.
The shift to self-management is underpinned by the assumption that
management is likely to be more effective if it happens 'close to the action' rather
than at a distance from the institution. Institutes managers are able to determine their
own priorities based on an assessment of their specific needs rather than simple
responding to priorities set by national or local governments. Many principals in
schools and colleges have welcomed the emphasis on self-management because it
facilitates greater institutional control of policies and resources. However, it poses
problems for small primary institutes whose heads often have a full-time class-
teaching role. The shift to self-management has been accompanied by a new accent
on accountability to parents as surrogate consumers rather than to teachers, the
'producers' of education.
The emphasis on consumer power also applies in further education where
responsiveness is to the needs of employers as well as to those of students. These
developments in both sectors mean that managers have to give heightened attention
 122

to the attitudes and preferences of those who 'consume' educational services,

directly or indirectly. Inevitably, this means that market accountability has been
reinforced by the legislation and this model is probably the most relevant for
institutes in the 1990s. The shift to self-management and the inspection regime are
intended to raise standards. In further education, funding is linked closely to student
retention and completion rates. For of institutes, there is intense pressure on head
teachers and staff to improve their position in the league tables. The weakness of
such a powerftil competitive environment is that it is bound to lead to 'winners' and
'losers'. Only one school can top the table but this does not mean that children and
staff in the other of institutes should be values less. The presence of a national
curriculum and stafe-sponsored inspection means that self-managing institutes have
limited scope to develop on an individual basis. All institutes offer a standard
'product' and competition is confined to the perceived quality of the educational
process, as evidenced by inspection reports and examination and test results, and to
the image presented to prospective clients.

5.30 CHARACTERISTICS OF COLLEGE MANAGEMENT^*

5.30.1 GROUP ACTIVITY
Management is a group activity. No individual can satisfy all his desires
himself. Massie has rightly called management as a 'do-operative group'.
Management becomes essential wherever there is an organized group of people
working towards a common goal. It makes the people realize the objectives of the
groups. It directs their efforts towards the achievement of these objectives.
5.30.2 GOAL - ORIENTED
According to Theo Haimann, "effective management is always management
by objectives." The chief aims of management are economic and social. It aims to
achieve some definite goals or objectives. Group efforts are directed towards the
achievement of some pre-determined goals. Management is concerned with
establishment and accomplishment of these objectives.
 123

5.30.3 FACTOR OF PRODUCTION

Management is not an end in itself. It is a means to achieve the group
objectives. It is a factor of production that is required to co-ordinate the other factors
of production for the accomplishment of predetennined goals, just as land, labour
and capital are factors of production and are essential for the production of goals and
services.
5.30.4 UNIVERSAL
According to Henry Fayol "is it a case of commerce, politics, religion, and
way in every concern there is management function to the performed." Management
is required in all types of organizations. Wherever there is some human activity,
there is management. The basic principles of management are universal. These can
be applied in all organizations: business, social, religious, cultural, sports,
educational, politics or military.
5.30.5 NEED OF LEVELS OF THE ORGANIZATION
According to the nature of task and the scope of authority, management is
needed at all levels of the organization, e.g. top level, middle level and supervisory
level. Like the chief executive, the lowest level supervisor has also to perform the
fiinction of decision-making.
5.30.6 DISTINCT PROCESS
Management is a distinct process performed to determine and accomplish
stated objectives by the use of human beings and other resources. Different from the
activities, techniques and procedures, the process of management consists of such
fianctions as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-coordinating, motivating
and controlling.
5.30.7 SOCIAL PROCESS
In the words of "management is a social process entailing responsibility for
the effective and economical planning and the regulation of the operation of an
enterprise, in fulfillment of a given purpose or task." Management consists in getting
things done through others. Dealing with people management directs co-ordinates
and regulates the efforts of the human beings in order to achieve the desired results.
 124

It is in this sense, that management is a social process. It has a social obligation to

make optimum us of scarce resources for the benefit of the community as a whole.
5.30.8 SYSTEM OF AUTHORITY
Authority to accomplish the work from others is implied in the very concept
of management since it is a process of directing men to perform a task. Authority is
the power to compel men to work in a certain manner. Management cannot work in
the absence of authority since it is a rule-making and rule-enforcing body. There is a
chain of authority and responsibility among people working at different levels of the
organization. There cannot be an efficient management without well-defined lines of
command or superior- sub-ordinate relationships at the various levels of decision-
making.
5.30.9 ART AS WELL AS SCIENCE
Management is a science since its principles are of universal application.
Management is an art as the results of management depend upon the personal skill of
managers. The art of the manager is essential to make the best use of management
science. Thus, management is both science and art.
5.30.10 A PROFESSION
Management is a profession. It has a systematic and specialized body of knowledge
consisting of principles, techniques and laws. It can be taught as a separate discipline
or subject.

5.31 CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

5.31.1 FLEXIBILITY
One of the essential characteristics of successfial school management is its
flexible character. The management should be dynamic, not static. It should provide
enough scope for additions and alterations. The rules and regulations should act as a
means to an end and not an end in them. Dead uniformity and mechanical efficiency
is the very antithesis of good management. The framework of management should
provide enough scope to the administrator to help the needy student, and the needy
teacher, to change the time schedule to suit the weather to meet any emergency.
Flexibility does not mean that the management should be in a fluid condition without
 125

any specific norm or standard rules and regulations, creating confusion and chaos at
every step.
5.31.2 PRACTICABILITY
The school management must not be a bundle of theoretical principles, but
must provide practical measures to achieve the desired objectives. Whatever
objective is decided it must be achievable and practicable to avoid frustration.

5.31.3 CONFORMITY TO THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

OF THE COUNTRY
There must be close connection between school management and the
social and political philosophy of a country. It must adjust itself to the impact of
new ideals, new patterns and new mores of the society. In an autocratic country,
educational theory and practice will have to be different from that of a democratic
country because education is one of the means to achieve social and political
objectives.
5.31.4 EFFICIENCY
Successful management is that which results in maximum efficiency. This
will be possible only when human and material resources are properly utilized-right
man at the right place; right work at the right time, every activity and project is well
planned and well executed.
5.31.5 SUCCESSFUL ACHIEVEMENT OF DESIRED OBJECTIVES
Successful management is one, which leads to the successfiil achievement
of desired objectives of education in a particular community e.g. healthy social
living, development of good physical, social, moral, intellectual and aesthetic
qualities and healthy democratic living. ^^

5.32 MANAGING INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE

The challenge facing managers in educational organizations today is to
reconcile concerns for the teachers as professional and the teacher as a person with
the increasing demand of state for improved school and college performance.
Growth targets, ftjnding cuts, competition between institutions, prescribed curricula,
 126

performance-related funding formulae, detailed standards of performance and

external evaluation drive management towards merit awards penalties for failure,
managers at every level-state, region , district, local authority, school, college are
under pressure to ensure that employee performance conforms with prescribed
standards. These standards are not only applied to teachers and lecturers. This part of
chapter focuses largely on the teachers and managers of teachers in education and
discusses three current issues related to the management of individuals;^''
i. Assessing performance.
ii. Managing under performance
iii. Motivating performance
Definition performance is defined as the consistent ability to produce results
over prolonged periods of time and in a variety of assignments (Drucker, 1989)^'*. It
is important to note the emphasis on results or outcomes, a lengthy period and a
range of tasks. Drucker, realistically, allows for failure "a performance record must
include mistakes. It must include failures. It must reveal a person's limitations as
well as strength's questions relating to competence based performance assessment.
• The danger of focusing on an individual's weakness rather than the
recognition and development of personal strengths, and the building of team
strengths.
• The place of individual needs assessment and how it can be done cost-
effectively.
• The risk of concentration on trainable skills because of difficulties and doubts
about developing 'high order' personal skill (e.g. fore casfing, anticipating,
creating change).
• The balance between fiinctional and personal skills and abilities, and between
them, knowledge, and understanding.
• Uncertainties about differentiation between competences for managers and
teachers at different levels of responsibility.
• The need for systematic review of competences in a period of change.
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5.33 MANAGING STRESS IN EDUCATION

Stress and its effective management are high on the agenda of many schools
and colleges today. Not only is stress identified as a major problem in nine out of ten
workplaces, leading to rising absenteeism and low morale, but it is also seen by
many educational managers to be unacceptable in an effective and well-run
organization. The beneficial effects of stress are also discussed, as is the ability to
know when stress becomes 'distresses. The strategies that educational managers can
use to help maintain acceptable stress levels in that own particular organization are
examined. Workplace stress is preventing in many organizations, not just in
education, and increasingly it is being seen as a subject for managers to take
seriously. Although some people may still feel that the word 'stress' is used as a
catch -all for various problems ranging from dissatisfaction to moaning about
employers, the current evidence seems to refute this .Stress or stress related illnesses
are often cited as a reason for teachers taking early retirement.^^Carvel and Macleod
(1998)''^reported that recruitment to the profession is failing to keep pace with
increasing stress- related early retirement. Research carried out in USA in the late
1970s.showed that teacher life expectancy was four years lower than the national
average. Other research carried out before the recent upsurge in incidents suggests
that work stress has special meaning in relation to the teaching profession. Teachers
are required to play many roles such as "supportive parent, disciplining task master,
stimulating actor and information resource person... the special affective
characteristics of the profession exert pressure towards presenting an understanding,
supportive and optimistic appearance. The environment in which people work can
produce high stress levels; 'until stress is recognized ftilly as a specific and deter
mental influence on health, individuals will continue to hide the truth from
themselves and their employers, going "off sick" and adopting poor and potentially
total coping strategies ( watts and cooper, 1995).^^The increasing impact of stress on
retention levels in education means that those who manage the education service
need to have an understanding of the theoretical background to stress management,
and strategies for managing levels of stress in their organizations .
 128

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