WW Handouts

2014 Sanitary Engineering Enhancement Class
College of Engineering and Technology

Partido State University, Goa, Camarines Sur
WASTEWATER ENGINEERING REVIEW HANDOUTS
What is wastewater?
Dirty water or Liquid wastes

need to be collected, and conveyed in a system for treatment and ultimate disposal
Types:
Domestic wastewater (Sewage)
o from housing
o relatively consistent in quality and quantity
Industrial wastewater
o Inconsistent in quality and quantity; e.g., Metal plating vs. food processing
Domestic Wastewater
Composition of Domestic Wastewater (Raw Sewage)
a) 99.9% water
b) 0.1% is made up of trash, grit, grease, solids, dissolved matter, microorganisms
Waste generation rate
a) Suspended Solids 0.24 lb/capita/day
b) BOD5 0.2 lb/capita/day
c) Phosphorus 3 lb/capita/yr
d) Wastewater flow 100-120 gal/capita/day
Example: Population = 55,000 people
Qave = (120 gal/cap/day)(55,000 people) = 6.6 x106 gal/day (GPD) = 6.6 million gallons/day (MGD)
BOD5 = (0.2 lb/cap/day)(55,000 people) = 11,000 lb /d
SS = (0.24 lb/cap/day)(55,000 people) = 13,200 lb/d
P = (3 lb/cap/Yr)(55,000 people) = 165,000 lb/yr
Note: 1 kg = 2.205 lb; 1 m 3 = 264.172 gal

(mg/L) (MGD) (8.34) = lb/d
(mg/L) (MG) (8.34) = lb
What is Wastewater Engineering?
The branch of environmental engineering in which the basic principles of science and engineering
are applied to solving the issues associated with the treatment and reuse of wastewater.
Prepared by: 1
Engr. Moriel L. Prado, SE, PhD EnE Student
WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS
Physical Characteristics
A. Solids – wastewater contains a variety of solid materials varying from rags to colloidal material.
Table 1. Definitions for solids found in wastewater
Solids Description
Total solids (TS) The residue remaining after a wastewater sample has been
evaporated and dried at a specified temperature (103 to 105˚C).
Total Volatile Solids (TVS) Those solids that can be volatilized and burned off when the TS
are ignited (500±50˚C).
Total Fixed Solids (TFS) The residue that remains after TS are ignited (500±50˚C)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Portion of the TS retained on a filter with a specified pore size,
measured after being dried at a specified temperature (105˚C).
Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) Those solids that can be volatilized and burned off when the
TSS are ignited (500±50˚C).
Fixed Suspended Solids (FSS) The residue that remains after TSS are ignited (500±50˚C).
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Those solids that pass through the filter, and are then
(TS - TSS) evaporated and dried at a specified temperature. TDS is
comprised of colloidal and dissolved solids.
Total Volatile Dissolved Solids Those solids that can be volatilized and burned off when the
(VDS) TDS are ignited (500±50˚C).
Fixed Dissolved Solids (FDS) The residue that remains after TDS are ignited (500±50˚C).
Settleable Solids Suspended solids that will settle out of suspension within a
specified period of time.
Table 2. The parameter method and temperature

Parameter Procedure Temperature °C
Total Solids Gravimetric 103-105

Total Dissolved Solids Gravimetric 180
Total Suspended Solids Gravimetric 103-105
Volatile Solids Gravimetric 550
Settleable Solids Volumetric (Imhoff Cone)
SAMPLE PRESERVATION
Because biological activity will continue after a sample has been taken, changes may occur during handling
and storage. Both the characteristics and the amount of solids may change. To reduce this change in
samples taken for solids determinations, keep all samples at 4°C. DO NOT ALLOW SAMPLES TO
FREEZE. Although samples may be kept in this manner for up to 48 hours for settleable solids and up to
7 days for other solids tests, it is highly recommended that testing begin within 24 to 36 hours of sample
collection.
Prepared by: 2
Analysis of Solids Data
Sample Problems
1. Given the following data:

Weight of dish = 48.6212 g
100 mL of sample is placed in the dish and evaporated. New weight of dish and dry solids =
48.6432 g.
The dish is placed in a 550˚C furnace, then cooled. New weight = 48.6300 g.
Find the total, volatile and fixed solids.
Answer: TS = 220 mg/l; FS = 88 mg/l and TVS = 132 mg/l
2. The following test results were obtained for a wastewater sample. The size of the sample was
85 ml. Determine the concentration of total and volatile solids expressed as mg/l.
Tare mass of evaporating dish = 22.6435 g
Mass of evaporating dish plus residue after evaporation at 105°C = 22.6783 g
Mass of evaporating dish plus residue after ignition at 550°C = 22.6768 g
Answer: TS = 409.4 mg/l TVS = 17.6 mg/l
3. Listed below are TS and TSS data on an industrial wastewater. Calculate the TS,TSS, TVS and
TDS.
TS Data
Weight of empty dish = 75.337 g Weight of dish plus ignited solids = 75.375 g
Weight of dish plus dry solids = 75.490 g Volume of wastewater sample = 85 mL
TSS Data
Wt of glass-fiber filter disk = 0.2400 g Weight of disk plus ignited solids = 0.2426 g
Wt of disk plus dry solids = 0.2530 g Volume of wastewater sample = 200 mL
Answer: TS = 1,800 mg/l; TSS = 65 mg/l; TVS = 1,353 mg/l; TDS = 1,735 mg/l
4. The following test results were obtained for a wastewater sample taken at the headworks to a
wastewater treatment plant. All of the tests were performed using a sample size of 50 mL.
Determine the concentration of TS, TVS, TSS, VSS, TDS and TVS. The samples used in the
solids analyses were all either evaporated, dried, or ignited to a constant weight.
Tare mass of evaporation dish (ED) = 53.5433 g

Mass of ED plus residue after evaporation at 1050C = 53.5794 g
Mass of ED plus residue after ignition at 5500C = 53.5625 g
Tare mass of Whatman GF/C filter after drying at 1050C = 1.5433 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter and residue after drying at 1050C = 1.5554 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter and residue after ignition at 5500C = 1.5476 g
Answer: TS=722 mg/L, TVS=338 mg/L, TSS=242 mg/L, VSS=156 mg/L, TDS=480 mg/L
And VDS = 182 mg/L
Try me!
1. The following test results were obtained for an effluent wastewater taken from a septic tank
without an effluent filter vault. All of the tests were performed using a sample size of 100 mL.
Determine the concentration of TS, TVS, TSS, VSS, TDS and VDS. The samples used in the
solid analyses were all either dried or dried and ignited in accordance with standard methods.
TS and TVS using evaporation dish (ED) with unfiltered sample

Tare mass ED = 62.6775 g
Mass of ED plus residue after evaporation = 62.7264 g
Mass of ED plus residue after ignition = 62.6971 g
Prepared by: 3
TSS and VSS by filtration
Tare mass of filter = 1.6623 g
Mass of filter and residue on filter after evaporation = 1.6728 g
Mass of filter and residue on filter after ignition = 1.6645 g
Answers: TS=489 mg/L, TVS=293 mg/L, TSS=105 mg/L, VSS=83 mg/L, TDS=384 mg/L,
and VDS=210 mg/L
2. A solids analysis is to be conducted on a sample of wastewater. The procedure is as follows:

a. A Goch crucible and filter pad paper are dried to a constant mass of 25.439 g.
b. Two hundred milliliters of a well-shaken sample of the wastewater is passed through
filter.
c. The crucible, filter pad and removed solids are dried to a constant mass of 25.656 g.
d. One hundred milliliters of filtrate is placed in an evaporation dish that had been
preweighed at 275. 419 g.
e. The sample in (d) is evaporated to dryness and the dish and residue are weighed at
276.227 g.
f. Both the crucible from © and the evaporation dish from (e) are placed in a muffle furnace
at 600°C for an hour. After cooling, the mass of the crucible is 25.501 g and the mass of
the dish is 275.944 g.
Determine the following:
a. The filterable solids (TSS) Answer: 1085 mg/l
b. The nonfiltrable solids (TDS) Answer: 8080 mg/l
c. The organic fraction of TSS (TVSS) Answer: 775 mg/l
d. The organic fraction of TDS (TVDS) Answer: 2830 mg/l
3. The suspended solids for a wastewater sample was found to be 175 mg/L. If the following test
results were obtained, what size sample was used in the analysis?
Tare mass of filter = 1.5413 g
Residue in glass filter fiber after drying at 105°C = 1.5538 g
Answer: 70 ml
B. Turbidity – a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water; is another test used to indicate the
quality of the waste discharges and natural waters with respect to colloidal and residual suspended
matter. Results of turbidity measurements are reported as Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
 Turbidity is measured using turbidimeters which are photometers that measure the intensity
of scattered light.
C. Color – Fresh WW is usually light brownish-gray color. However, as the travel time in the collection.
system increases, and more anaerobic conditions develop, the color of the WW changes sequentially
from gray to dark gray, and ultimately to black. Most colored matter is in a dissolved state.
Apparent color – caused by suspended solids

True color – caused by colloidal and dissolved substances
Color can be used to assess the general condition of WW:

i. Light brown – the WW is usually less than 6 hours old
ii. Light to medium gray – a characteristic of WW that have undergone some decomposition
iii. Dark gray or black – the WW is typically septic, having undergone extensive bacterial
decomposition under anaerobic conditions
Color can be measured visually by comparison with potassium chloroplatinate standards or by

scanning at different spectrophotometric wavelengths.
D. Temperature - the temperature of WW is commonly higher than that of the water supply. It is a very
important parameter because of its effect on chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic life, and
the suitability of water for beneficial uses.
Prepared by: 4
E. Odors – caused by decomposition of organic matter or by substances added to the WW
Table 3. Major categories of odorous compounds associated with untreated WW

Odorous Compound Chemical Formula Odor Quality
Amines CH3NH2, (CH3)3H Fishy
Ammonia NH3 Ammoniacal
Diamines NH2(CH2)4NH2, NH2(CH2)5NH2 Decayed flesh
Hydrogen sulfide H2S Rotten eggs
Mercaptans CH3SH, CH3(CH2)SH
(e.g., methyl and ethyl) Decayed cabbage
Mercaptans (CH3)3CSH, CH3(CH2)3SH
(e.g., T = butyl and crotyl) Skunk
Organic sulfides (CH3)2S, (C6H5)2S Rottten cabbage
Skatole C9H9N Fecal matter
Chemical Constituents
A. Inorganic Nonmetallic Constituents includes
 pH – is a measure of hydrogen (H+) ion concentration, measure of acidity. As the H+
concentration increases, the pH decreases.
[H+] = 10-pH
 nitrogen – forms: organic - N, ammonia (NH3) - N, nitrite (NO2) - N and nitrate (NO3-) - N
- Effects of Nitrogen:
 in high concentrations, NH3-N is toxic to fish
 NH3, in low concentrations and NO3- serve as nutrients for excessive algal growth
 The conversion of NH4+ to NO3- consumes large quantities of dissolved oxygen.
- ammonia (NH3) – N is considered as an indicator of recent pollution
- high nitrate (NO3-) – N means that organic N pollution occurred far enough upstream
that the organics have had time to oxidize completely
- Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) = organic – N + ammonia (NH3) – N
- Most important nitrogen-fixing microorganisms are photosynthetic bacteria called
cyanobacteria, formerly known as blue-green algae which produce toxins that kill
fish.
 phosphorus – forms: orthophosphate, polyphosphate and organic phosphate
- Total Phosphorus (TP) = all forms combined
- Dissolved orthophosphate is an important indicator of water pollution because it is
easily and rapidly taken up by biota, and therefore is almost never found in high
concentrations in unpolluted waters
 alkalinity – measures the buffering capacity of the water against changes in pH.
- results from the presence of hydroxides (OH‾), carbonates (CO3) and bicarbonates
(HCO3) of elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and ammonia.
- Determined by measuring the amount of acid needed to lower the pH in a water sample
to a specific endpoint, the results are reported as mg/l CaCO3.
 chlorides – result from the leaching of chloride-containing rocks and soils with which the water
comes in contact, in coastal areas from saltwater intrusion, and from agricultural, industrial, and
domestic WW discharges
 sulfur – is required in the synthesis of proteins and is released in their degradation
 heavy metals – such as As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Hg, Mo, Ni, and others which harm aquatic
organisms or bioaccumulate in the food chain
- measured using:
o Flame
o Electrothermal (graphite furnace) or cold-vapor atomic absorption (AA)
o Inductively coupled plasma (ICP)
o Inductively couples plasma/mass spectrometry
o Colorimetric techniques
Prepared by: 5
 Gases commonly found in an untreated WW include: N2, O2, CO2, H2S, NH3, and CH4
B. Organic Constituents – are normally composed of a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

together with nitrogen in some cases. The organic matter in WW typically consists of proteins
(40 to 60%), carbohydrates (25 to 50%), and oils and fats (8 to 12%)
Measurement of Organic Content

 Biochemical Oxygen Demand – this involves the measurement of the dissolved oxygen
used by microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter
Determination of 5-day BOD carried out at 20˚ C can be expressed as:
BODt = L(1 – 10-kt)

where BODt = biochemical oxygen demand at time t, mg/L
L = ultimate BOD, mg/L
k = deoxygenation rate constant, day-1
t = time, days
For other temperatures, a simplified version of the van’t Hoff-Arrhenius expression can be used to
modify k:
kT = k20θT - 20
where: kT = BOD rate constant at a temperature of interest, day -1
T = temperature of interest, °C
k20 = BOD rate constant determined at 20°C, day -1
θ = temperature coefficient
Temperatures between 4 and 20°C = 1.135
Temperatures between 20 and 30°C = 1.056
(Reference Metcalf & Eddy © 2003, in other books θ = 1.047)
Note that the lower case k is used for the reaction rate constant in base e and that capital K is
used for the constant in base 10. They are related:
k = 2.303 K
The equation for calculating BOD from a seeded laboratory test is:
(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) − (𝐵1 − 𝐵2 )𝑓
𝐵𝑂𝐷 =
𝑃
where: BOD = biochemical oxygen demand, mg/L
D1 = dissolved oxygen (DO) of diluted sample immediately after preparation,
mg/L
D2 = DO of diluted sample after 5 days of incubation at 200C, mg/L
B1 = DO of diluted seed control before incubation, mg/L
B2 = DO of seed control after incubation, mg/L
f = ratio of seeded dilution water volume in sample to volume of seeded
dilution water in seed control
P = fraction of WW sample volume to total combined volume
= volume of WW sample
volume of dilution water + WW
If the sample is unseeded, the relationship is:
𝐷1 − 𝐷2
𝐵𝑂𝐷 =
𝑃
Prepared by: 6
Sample Problems
1. Calculate the BOD5 of a water sample, given the following data:
Temperature of sample = 20˚C
Initial dissolved oxygen at 20˚C = 9.2 mg/l
Final dissolved oxygen of seeded dilution water = 8 mg/l
Final dissolved oxygen bottle with sample and seeded dilution water = 2 mg/l
Dilution with seeded dilution water = 1:30
Volume of BOD bottle is 300 mL
Answer: 183 mg/l
2. If the ultimate BOD of two wastes having K values of 0.0800 d-1 and 0.12 d-1 is 280 mg/l, what
would be the 5-day BOD for each? Answer: 169 mg/l and 210 mg/l
3. Determine the 1-day BOD of the wastewater whose BOD5 at 20°C is 180 mg/l. Assume rate
constant of 0.225 d-1(base e). Ans. 53.7 mg/l
4. The first - stage BOD (UBOD) is 52 mg/l and the 5-day BOD at 20°C is 41 mg/l. What will be the
sample rate constant if the sample temperature is 30°C? Ans. 0.21 day-1
5. The ultimate BOD of the waste is 400 mg/l and five-day BOD is 287 mg/l. Find the reaction rate
constant of the waste (base 10). Answer: 0.11 d-1
6. A waste is being discharged into a river that has a temperature of 10 0C. What fraction of the
maximum oxygen consumption has occurred in four days if the BOD rate constant determined in
the laboratory under standard condition is 0.115 –d (base e)? Answer: 0.12
Try me!
1. The following information is available for a seeded 5-day BOD test conducted on a wastewater
sample. A volume of 15 mL of the waste sample was added directly into a 300 mL BOD
incubation bottle. The initial dissolved oxygen of the diluted sample was 8.8 mg/L and the final
DO after 5 days was 1.9 mg/L. The corresponding initial and final DOs of the seeded dilution
water were 9.1 and 7.9, respectively. What is the 5-day BOD of the wastewater sample?
Answer BOD5 = 115.2 mg/L
2. The BOD5 of a waste has been measured as 600 mg/l. If k = 0.23 per day, what is the ultimate
BOD of the waste? What proportion of the BOD would remain unoxidized after 20 days?
Answer: 880 mg/l, 1% of waste unoxidized
3. Determine the 1-day BOD and ultimate first-stage BOD for a wastewater whose 5-day, 200C BOD
is 200 mg/L. The reaction constant k = 0.23 d-1. What would have been the 5-day BOD if the test
had been conducted at 250C? Answer: UBOD=293 mg/L, BOD1=60 mg/L, BOD5@25°C=228 mg/L
4. The dilution factor P for an unseeded mixture of waste and water is 0.030. The DO of the mixture
is initially 9.0 mg/l and after five days it has dropped to 3.0 mg/l. The reaction rate constant has
been found to be 0.22 day -1.
i. What is the BOD5 of the waste? Ans. 200 mg/l
ii. What is the ultimate BOD? ans. 300 mg/l
iii. What would be the remaining O2 demand after 5 days? Ans. 100 mg/l
5. If the BOD3 of a waste is 75 mg/L and the K is 0.150 d-1, what is the ultimate BOD?
Answer: 116 mg/L
Prepared by: 7
 Chemical Oxygen Demand – is used to measure the oxygen equivalent of the organic material
in WW that can be oxidized chemically using potassium dichromate in an acid solution.
- Because nearly all organic compounds are oxidized in the COD test, while only some
are decomposed during the BOD test, COD results are always higher than the BOD
results.
- The standard COD test uses a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid to
oxidize organic matter with silver added as a catalyst.
 Total Organic Carbon – the TOC test, done instrumentally, is used to determine the total
organic carbon in an aqueous sample.
- The test methods for TOC utilize heat and oxygen, ultraviolet radiation, chemical
oxidants, or some combination of these methods to convert organic carbon to carbon
dioxide which is measured with infrared analyzer or by other means.
- The TOC of a WW can be used as a measure of its pollutional characteristics, and in
some cases it has been possible to relate TOC to BOD and COD values.
- Application of TOC testing is to assess the potential for creating disinfection by-
products (DBPs) which are the results of halogens (e.g. bromine, chlorine) or ozone
interacting with naturally occurring organic carbon compounds during disinfection
process.
 Oil and Grease – includes the fats, oils, waxes and other related constituents found in WW. The
oil and grease content of a WW is determined by extraction of the waste sample with
trichlorotrifluoroethane.
 Surfactants – are large organic molecules that are composed of a strongly hydrophobic and a
strongly hydrophilic group. The determination of surfactants is accomplished by measuring the
color change in a standard solution of methylene blue dye. Another name is MBAS.
 Other organic compounds – pesticides, detergents, industrial chemicals, petroleum
hydrocarbons
- Gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
are effective methods for measuring minute quantities of specific organics.
Biological Characteristics
The biological characteristics of WW are of fundamental importance in the control of the diseases
caused by pathogenic organisms of human origin, and because of the role played by bacteria and other
microorganisms in the decomposition and stabilization of organic matter.
Classification of Microorganisms
I. By Kingdoms. Microorganisms are organized into 3 groups (kingdoms) based on their structural
and functional differences:
o Animals
o Plants
o Protista
II. By Energy and Carbon Source.
o Heterotrophs – if the microorganism uses organic material as a supply of carbon
o Autotrophs – require only CO2 to supply their carbon needs
o Chemotrophs – extract energy from organic and inorganic oxidation/reduction reactions
o Phototrophs – microorganisms that rely on the sun for energy
o Organotrophs – use organic materials
o Litotrophs – oxidize inorganic compounds
III. By their Relationship to Oxygen
o Obligate Aerobes – microorganisms that must have oxygen as the terminal electron
acceptor
o Obligate Anaerobes – microorganisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen
o Facultative Anaerobes – can use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor and, under
certain conditions, they can grow in the absence of oxygen
o Denitrifiers – a group of facultative anaerobes that use nitrites (NO 2) and nitrates (NO3)
as the terminal electron acceptor under anoxic conditions called anoxic denitrification
Prepared by: 8
IV. By their Preferred Temperature Regime
o Psychrophiles – those that grow best at temperatures below 20°C
o Mesophiles – grow best at temperatures between 25 and 40°C
o Thermophiles – between 45 and 60°C
Microorganisms of Interest in WW Treatment

o Bacteria – the highest population of microorganisms in the WW treatment plant
o Fungi – multicellular, non-photosynthetic heterotrophic protests; these are obligate
aerobes that reproduce by fission, budding, and spore formation; in a nitrogen-
deficient wastewater, they are found to predominate over the bacteria
o Algae – these are photoauthotrophs, produce oxygen through photosynthesis
o Protozoa – they are single-celled animals that reproduce by binary fission; consume
bacteria; act as polishers in consuming the bacteria
o Rotifers – derive its name from the rotating motion of two sets of cilia on its head which
provide mobility and a mechanism for catching food
o Helminths – the most important helminthic parasites that may be found in WW are
intestinal worms, including the following:
stomach worms - Ascaris lumbricoides
tapeworms – Taenia saginata and Taenia solium
whipworm – Trichuris trichiura
hookworms – Ancylostoma doudenale and Necator americanus
threadworms – Strongyloides stercoralis
o Viruses – more than 100 different types of enteric viruses capable of producing infection
are excreted by humans. Enteric viruses multiply in the intestinal tract and are
released in the fecal matter of infected persons. The most important human enteric
viruses are the following:
Enteroviruses – polio, echo and coxsackie
Norwalk viruses and Rotaviruses – major waterborne pathogens
Reoviruses and Adenoviruses – known to cause respiratory illnesses,
gastroenteritis and eye infections
Use of Indicator Organisms
 The numbers of pathogenic organisms present in WW are few and difficult to isolate and
identify.
 Coliform organisms – commonly used as indicator organisms which include 2 genera:
Escherichia coli – common inhabitants of the intestinal tract
Aerobacter aerogenes – common in the soil, on leaves, and on grain; on occasion they cause
UTI
o The coliform group of organisms normally inhabits the intestinal tracts of humans and
other mammals. Thus, the presence of coliforms is an indication of fecal contamination of
the water.
o Even in acutely ill individuals, the number of coliform organisms excreted in the feces
outnumber the disease-producing organisms by several orders of magnitude. The large
numbers of coliforms make them easier to culture than disease-producing organisms.
o The coliform group of organisms survives in natural waters for relatively long periods of
time, but does not reproduce effectively in this environment. Thus, the presence of
coliforms in water implies fecal contamination rather growth of organism because of
favorable conditions. These organisms also survive better in water than most of the
bacterial pathogens.
o The coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to culture.
Prepared by: 9
Effects of Common Pollutants
 Effect of BOD
o Depletes dissolved oxygen from streams, lakes and oceans
o May cause death of aerobic organisms (fish kills, etc.)
o Increases anaerobic properties of water
 Effect of TSS
o Increases turbidity:
 Less light - reduced photosynthesis
 Causes fish's gills to get plugged up
o Increases silting:
 Reduces lifetime of lakes
 Changes benthic (i.e., bottom) ecology
 Effects of Phosphorous and Nitrogen
o Increases algal photosynthesis (eutrophication):
 Increased plant life on surface
 Reduces light in lower levels
 Effect of pH
o Organisms are very susceptible to acids and bases
o Recommended to have near neutral conditions (6.5 - 8.5)
 Effect of Pathogens
o May infect:
 Humans
 Animals
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater. It includes physical,
chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective
is to produce a waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or sludge also suitable for discharge or
reuse back into the environment. This material is often inadvertently contaminated with toxic organic and
inorganic compounds
Common Types Of Wastewater Treatment Methods

1 Physical Unit Operations
● Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces predominates.
● Screening, mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, flotation, filtration, and gas transfer are typical unit
operations.
2 Chemical Unit Processes
● Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of contaminants is brought about by the
addition of chemicals or by other chemical reactions.
● Precipitation, adsorption, and disinfection are the most common examples used in wastewater
treatment.
3 Biological Unit Processes
● Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by biological activity.
● Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable organic substances (colloidal or
dissolved) and nutrients (nitrogen & phosphorus) from wastewater.
● Basically, these substances are converted into gases that can escape to the atmosphere and into
biological cell tissue that can be removed by settling.
Prepared by: 10
Design Loading
The wastewater quantity used for sizing basins and equipment varies with the nature of the
equipment and whether the process is hydraulic or loading limited.
Table 4. Typical design criteria for the treatment processes

Process Loading
Flow measurement Peak hourly flow
Bar screen Peak hourly flow
Pumps Peak hourly flow/minimum hourly flow
Grit chamber Max monthly flow/ Peak hourly flow
Primary settling Max monthly flow
Biological treatment Max monthly BOD loading/peak hourly BOD loading
Final settling Max monthly flow
Disinfection Peak hourly flow
Thickening Max daily sludge flow/max solids loading
Digestion Max monthly volatile solids load/ma monthly sludge flow
Dewatering Max sludge flow/max sludge loading
Land application Max nutrient loading (sludge)/max hydraulic loading (effluent)
Preliminary Treatment
1. Screening. A screen is a device with openings, generally of uniform size, that is used to retain
solids found in the influent WW to the treatment plant or in combined WW collection systems
subject to overflows, especially from stormwater. The role of screening is to remove coarse
materials from the flow stream that could :
 Damage subsequent process equipment
 Reduce overall treatment process reliability and effectiveness, or
 Contaminate waterways
Classification of Screens
a. Coarse screens/bar racks – have clear openings ranging from 10 to 150 mm (0.25 to 6 in)
 Hand-cleaned coarse screens
 Mechanically cleaned bar screens
Design Considerations
The headloss through bar racks can be estimated by using this equation:
1 𝑉 2 − 𝑣2
ℎ𝐿 = ( )
𝐶 2𝑔
where: hL = headloss, ft (m)
C = an empirical discharge coefficient to account for turbulence and eddy losses,
typically 0.7 for a clean screen and 0.6 for a clogged screen
V = velocity of flow through the openings of the bar rack, ft/s (m/s)
v = approach velocity in upstream channel, ft/s (m/s)
g = acceleraton due to gravity, ft/s2 (m/s2)
Sample Problem:
1. Determine the buildup of headloss through a bar screen when 50% of the flow area is
blocked off by the accumulation of coarse solids. Assume the following conditions
apply:
Approach velocity = 0.6 m/s
Velocity through clean bar rack = 0.9 m/s
Open area for flow through clean bar screen = 0.19 m 2
Assume the flow coefficient for a clean bar screen = 0.7
and the clogged bar rack as 0.6
Answer: hL (clean bar rack) = 0.033 m, hL (clogged bar rack) = 0.24 m
Prepared by: 11
Try Me!
1. Determine the buildup of headloss through a bar screen when 50% of the flow area is
blocked off by the accumulation of coarse solids. Assume the following conditions
apply:
Approach velocity = 2 ft/s
Velocity through clean bar rack = 3 ft/s
Open area for flow through clean bar rack = 2 ft2
Assume the flow coefficient for the clogged bar rack as 0.6
Answer: hL (clean bar rack) = 0.11 ft, hL (clogged bar rack) = 0.83 ft
2. Compute the velocity through a rack when the approach velocity is 0.60 m/s and the
measured headloss is 38 mm. Answer: 3.08 ft/s
b. Fine screens – have clear openings ranging from 3-10 mm

 Static wedgewire screens
 Drum screens
 Step screens
Design Considerations
The clear-water headloss through fine screens may be calculated by means of orifice
formula:
1 𝑄 2
ℎ𝐿 = ( )
2𝑔 𝐶𝐴
where: hL = headloss, ft (m)

C = discharge coefficient for the screen
g = acceleraton due to gravity, ft/s2 (m/s2)
Q = discharge through screen, ft3/s (m3/s)
A = effective open area of submerged screen, ft2 (m2)
Note: The materials removed by these devices are called screenings.
3. Communition/Grinding. Comminutors are installed in a WW flow channel to screen and shred

materials to sizes from 6 to 20 mm without removing the shredded solids from the flow stream.
Most commonly used in a small WWTPs with flows less than 0.2 m 3/s.
- Macerator – low-speed grinders
4. Grit Removal. A portion of the suspended solids in WW consists of inert organic material such as
sand, metal fragments, eggshells, etc. which are called grits. Grit removal devices rely on the
difference of specific gravity between organic and inorganic solids to effect their separation and is
accomplished in grit chambers or by the centrifugal separation of solids. Grit chambers are
provided for the following reasons:
 Protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion and accompanying abnormal wear
 Reduce formation of heavy deposits in pipelines, channels and conduits; and
 Reduce the frequency of digester cleaning caused by excessive accumulations of grits
Types of Grit Chambers
 Horizontal-flow grit chambers – in rectangular or square configuration
- maintain a velocity as close to 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) to provide time for grits to settle to
the bottom of the channel. The theoretical detention times are set at about 1 minute
for average flows.
 Aerated grit chambers – air is introduced along one side of a rectangular tank to create a
spiral flow pattern perpendicular to the flow through the tank. Detention time at peak
flowrate is 2-5 minutes.
 Vortex-type Grit Chambers – grits are removed using a vortex flow pattern.
Prepared by: 12
Sample Problem
1. Design an aerated grit chamber for the treatment of municipal wastewater. The
average flowrate is 0.5 m 3/s, and the peaking factor is found to be 2.75. Determine the
dimensions of each grit chamber with a width-to-depth ratio of 1.2:1 having a depth of
3 m. Use two chambers for routine maintenance. Assume the average detention time
at the peak flowrate is 3 minute. Answer: 11.5 m by 3.6 m by 3 m
2. Refer to #1, determine the DT in each grit chamber at average flow. Answer: 8.28 min
3. The plant is currently using two grit chambers. Each channel is 3 ft wide and has a water
depth of 1.2 ft. what is the velocity when the influent flow rate is 3 MGD?
4. A channel type grit chamber has a horizontal velocity of 0.29 m/s, a depth of 0.8 m and
a length of 10 m. The specific gravity for inorganic particles is of 2.5, the density of water
is 1,000 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity (µ) of water is 1.002 x 10-3 kg/m∙s.
a. Determine the settling velocity of the inorganic particle. Answer:0.0232 m/s
b. Determine the largest particle that can be removed with 100 percent efficiency
using the Stoke’s equation. Answer: 0.0001682 m
Try Me!
1. Will a grit particle settles with a radius of 0.10 mm and a specific gravity of 2.65 be
collected in a horizontal grit chamber that is 13.5 m in length if the average grit
chamber flow is 0.15 m3/s, the width of the chamber is 0.56 m, and the horizontal
velocity is 0.25 m/s? The temperature of the WW is 220C. Assume µ = 0.995 mPa.
Apply Stoke’s law. Answer: yes
2. Design an aerated grit chamber installation for an average flowrate of 0.3 m3/s and a
peak flowrate of 1.0 m 3/s. The average depth is 3.0 m, the width to depth ratio is 1.5:1
and the detention time at peak flow is 3.5 min. The aeration rate is 0.4m 3/min per
meter of tank length.
a. Determine the dimensions required for the grit chamber.
Answer: 15.55 m x 4.5 m x 3.0 m
b. Calculate the total air requirement: Answer: 6.22 m3/min
c. Calculate the average and peak overflow rates:
Answer: 370.4 m3/m2∙day and 1234.73 m 3/m2∙day
5. Flow Equalization – is a method used to overcome the operational problems caused by flowrate
variations, to improve the performance of the downstream processes, and to reduce the size and
cost of downstream treatment facilities.
- Generally, detention time vary from 2 to 8 hours but may be even 12 hours or more in
some cases. When larger detention times are required, the equalization unit is
sometimes provided in the form of facultative aerated lagoon.
Advantages:
 Biological treatment is enhanced, because shock loadings are eliminated or can be
minimized, inhibiting substances can be diluted, and pH can be stabilized
 The effluent quality and thickening performance of secondary sedimentation tanks
following biological treatment is improved through improved consistency in solids loading
 Effluent filtration surface area requirements are reduced, filter performance is improved
 In chemical treatment, damping of mass loading improves chemical feed control and
process reliability
Disadvantages
 Relatively large land areas or sites needed
 Equalization facilities may have to be covered for odor control near residential areas
 Additional operation and maintenance is required
 Capital cost is increased
Prepared by: 13
Sample Problem:
1. Determine the total flow equalization basin volume with 35% excess capacity using
the following diurnal flow record.
Time Flow, m3/s Time Flow, m3/s

Midnight 0.0492 Noon 0.1033
1 0.0401 1 0.0975
2 0.0345 2 0.0889
3 0.0296 3 0.081
4 0.0288 4 0.0777
5 0.0312 5 0.0755
6 0.0375 6 0.074
7 0.0545 7 0.07
8 0.072 8 0.0688
9 0.0886 9 0.0644
10 0.0972 10 0.0542
11 0.1022 11 0.0513
Answer: 1,192 m3
Try Me!
1. Design an equalization basin for the following cyclic pattern. Provide a 25% excess
capacity for equipment and unexpected flow variations.
Time Flow, m3/s Time Flow, m3/s

Midnight 0.0481 Noon 0.0718
1 a.m. 0.0359 1 p.m. 0.0744
2 0.0226 2 0.0750
3 0.0187 3 0.0781
4 0.0187 4 0.0806
5 0.0198 5 0.0843
6 0.0226 6 0.0854
7 0.0359 7 0.0806
8 0.0509 8 0.0781
9 0.0631 9 0.0670
10 0.0670 10 0.0583
11 0.0682 11 0.0526
Answer: 1,080 m3
Prepared by: 14
6. Neutralization – the removal of excess acidity or alkalinity by treatment with a chemical of the
opposite composition. For biological treatment, a pH between 6.5 and 8.5 should be maintained
to ensure optimum biological activity. The primary neutralizing agents are:
Basic Agents
o Lime in various forms – strong
o Caustic soda – strong
o Magnesium hydroxide- medium
o Sodium carbonate – weak
o Sodium bicarbonate – weak
Acidic Agents
o Sulfuric acid – strong
o Carbon dioxide - weak
7. Coagulation – employed for the removal of waste materials in suspended or colloidal form; most
popular coagulant: aluminum sulfate
8. Flotation – used for the removal of suspended matter and to concentrate sludge/biosolids. It is
used to separate solid or liquid particles from liquid phase and is brought about by introducing
fine gas (usually air) bubbles into the liquid phase.
- Air bubbles are added or caused to form by:
o Injection of air while the liquid is under pressure, followed by the release of the
pressure (dissolved-air flotation, DAF)
o Aeration at atmospheric pressure (dispersed-air flotation)
Primary Treatment
Sedimentation – is the separation from water, by gravitational settling, of suspended particles that
are heavier than water.
1. Primary Sedimentation (also called as settling/clarifiers) – is to remove readily settleable solids and
floating material and thus to remove the suspended solids content. The tanks are large enough
that fecal solids can settle and floating material such as grease and oils can rise to the surface and
be skimmed off. The main purpose of the primary stage is to produce a generally homogeneous
liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge that can be separately treated or processed.
These are equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge
towards a hopper in the base of the tank from where it can be pumped to further sludge treatment
stages.
Table 3. Types of gravitational phenomena utilized in WW treatment

Type of separation
Description
phenomenon
Discrete particle settling Refers to the settling of particles in a suspension of low solids concentration
by gravity in a constant acceleration field. Particles settle as individual
entities, and there is no significant interaction with neighboring particles.
Flocculent settling Refers to a rather dilute suspension of particles that coalesce, or
flocculate, during the settling operation. By coalescing, the particles
increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
Hindered settling Refers to suspension of intermediate concentration, in which interparticle
(also called zone settling) forces are sufficient to hinder the settling of neighboring particles.
The particles tend to remain in fixed positions in respect to each other,
and the mass of particles settles as a unit. A solid-liquid interphase
develops at the top of the settling mass.
Compression settling Refers to settling in which the particles are of such concentration that a
structure. Compression takes place from the weight of the particles, which
are constantly being added to the structure by sedimentation from the
supernatant liquid.
Prepared by: 15
 The three forces acting on the particle – drag, buoyancy and gravity.
Fg = FD + FB
which becomes:
𝐴𝑣 2 𝜌
ρsgV = ρgV + CD
2
where:
Fg = force due to gravity = mg
𝐴𝑣 2 𝜌
FD = drag force = CD
2
FB = buoyancy = ρgV
m = mass of particle = ρsV
g = gravitational acceleration
ρS = particle density (in kg/m2)
ρ = density of the medium
CD = drag coefficient
v = velocity of particle (m/s)
A = projected surface area of particle (m2)
V = volume of particle (m3)
Solving for velocity,

𝑔(𝜌𝑠 −𝜌)
𝑣 = √2𝑉
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝜌
For spherical particles:

4𝑑𝑔(𝜌𝑠 −𝜌)
𝑣= √
3𝐶𝐷 𝜌
24 𝑣𝑑𝜌
Substituting CD = , where R = ,
𝑅 𝜇
Stokes equation used for laminar flow:

𝑔(𝜌𝑆 − 𝜌)𝑑 2
𝑣=
18𝜇
For overflow rate (𝑣0 )

𝐻
𝑣0 =
𝑡
Important Terms:
Hydraulic Detention/Retention Time (HRT) – defined as the time required to fill the tank and
calculated as the tank volume divided by the flow (V/Q)
Surface Loading Rates (Surface Overflow Rates) – also called as clarification rate expressed as
cubic meters per square meter of surface area per day (m 3/m2∙d). Physically represents
the settling velocity of the slowest settling particles that are 100% removed.
Weir Loading Rates (Weir Overflow Rates) – expressed in flow per unit length (Q/L)
Short circuiting – also called as nonideal flow that occurs when a portion of the flow enters the
reactor during a given period of time arrives at the outlet before the bulk of the flow that
entered the reactor during the same time period arrives.
Factors leading to short circuiting:
 Temperature differences
 Wind-driven circulation patterns
 Inadequate mixing
 Poor design
 Advection and dispersion
Prepared by: 16
Raw sludge – the solids that drop to the bottom of the settling tank/primary clarifier.
Scum – consists of a variety of floatable materials
Skimming – the process of removing the floatable materials
Skimmings – the removed floatable materials
Scour velocity – the resuspension (scouring) of settled solids
- Vscour = [8β(s – 1)gd/f]1/2
where: VH = horizontal velocity that will just produce scour, m/s
β = constant that depends on the type of material being scoured
s = specific gravity of particles
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
d = diameter of particles
f = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
Types of Sedimentation facilities:

 Rectangular tanks
 Circular tanks
 Square tanks
Note: the shape of the clarifiers does not affect its efficiency
2. Secondary Sedimentation – the final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the
biological floc or filter material and produce sewage water containing very low levels of organic
material and suspended matter. Requires longer detention time than primary clarifier.
Sample Problems
1. A primary clarifier has an overflow rate of 600 gal/day-ft2 and a depth of 6 ft. What is
its hydraulic retention time? Answer: 1.8 h
2. Two primary settling tanks are 95 ft in diameter with a 6.3 ft side water depth. Single
effluent weirs are located on the peripheries of the tanks. For an average design flow
of 7 MGD and peak flow of 14.5 MGD, calculate the overflow rate, detention time and
𝑔𝑝𝑑
weir loading rate. Answers: 𝑣0 = 490 , DT = 2.3 h, WOR = 11,733 gpd/ft
𝑠𝑞 𝑓𝑡
3. A circular clarifier has a diameter of 50 ft. if the primary effluent flow is 2,150,000
gal/d, what is the surface overflow rate in gallons per day per square foot?
Answer: 1096
4. Determine the settling velocity of spherical sand particles 0.01 mm in diameter with
specific gravity of 2.65 will theoretically be removed in an ideal, horizontal-flow,
settling basin 3 m deep with a surface area of 900 m 2 and a flow of 8000 m3/d and the
water temperature is 20°C? 𝜇 = 1𝑥 10−3 kg/m•s. Answer: 90 x 10-6 m/s
a. Refer to the problem above, what is the surface overflow rate?
Answer: 102.9 x 10-6 m/s
b. Refer to the problem above, what is the percent removal of the spherical sand
particles? Answer: 87.5%
5. A rectangular settling tank has an overflow rate of 30 m 3/m2-day, and dimensions of

2.5 m deep by 6.0 m wide by 15.0 m long. Determine whether or not a particle with a
diameter of 0.1 mm and specific gravity of 2.5 will be scoured from the bottom.
Use f = 0.03 and β = 0.04.
Answer: VH = 2.08 x 10-3 m/s and Vscour = 0.125 m/s (no scouring!)
Prepared by: 17
Try me!
1. If a particle having a 0.0170-cm radius and density of 1.95 g∙cm -3 is allowed to fall
into quiescent water having a temperature of 4°C, what will be the terminal settling
velocity? Assume the density of water = 1000 kg∙m -3 and the dynamic viscosity =
1.567 x 10-3 kg/m∙s Answer: 3.82 x 10-2 m/s.
2. Using an overflow rate of 26.0 m/day and a detention time of 2.0 hours, size a
primary sedimentation tank for the average flow of 0.4 m 3/s. Assume 15
sedimentation tanks with length to width ratio of 4.7. Answer: 2.17 m deep x 4.34 m
wide x 20.4 m long
3. A town of 30,000 sends 0.5 m 3 per person per day to the wastewater treatment plant.
A circular primary clarifier is to be designed to have an average detention time of 2.5
hours and an average overflow rate of 20 m 3/day per square meter. What should the
dimensions of the clarifier be? Answer: diameter of 30.9 m and depth of 2.1 m
4. A raw wastewater is analyzed and gives the following results:

BOD5 = 50,000 ppm
TSS = 2,370 ppm
O/G = 2.35 mg/l
What should be the settling efficiency of the primary tank to at least meet the TSS
standards of the DENR? Answer: 97.05%
5. A 25 l/s flow of suspended discrete particles (of varying size) having a SG of 2.5 is
settled in a sedimentation tank which is 5 m long and 2 m wide. Given a kinematic
viscosity of 1 x 10-6 m/s, what will be the diameter of the particles which completely
(i.e. 100%) settle out in the tank?
Answer: 2.5 x 10-3 m/s, d=0.057 mm
6. Using an average overflow rate of 26.0 m/day and a detention time of 2.0 hours, size a
primary sedimentation tank for an average flow of 0.400 m 3/s in a municipal WWTP,
which experiences 0.604 m 3/s peak flowrate at 6:00 pm. Assume 15 sedimentation
tanks with L:W ratio of 4.7 and W:H ratio of 2.0. Answer: 20.40 m x 4.34 m x 2.17 m
7. A primary sedimentation basin is designed for an overflow rate of 30 m 3/m2·day.

Calculate the depth if the basin is designed for the detention time of 1.5 hours.
Answer: 1.875 m
Prepared by: 18
Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the sewage
such as are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. Objectives of biological
treatment of WW are:
 transform dissolved and particulate biodegradable constituents into acceptable end
products
 capture or incorporate suspended and nonsettleable colloidal solids into a biological floc
or biofilm
 transform or remove nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus
 remove specific trace organic constituents and compounds
Important Terms:
Aerobic processes – biological treatment processes that occur in the presence of oxygen
Anaerobic processes – biological treatment processes that occur in the absence of oxygen
Anoxic processes – also known as denitrification, the process by which nitrate nitrogen is converted
biologically to nitrogen gas in th absence of oxygen.
Facultative processes - biological treatment processes in which the organisms can function in the
presence or in the absence of oxygen
Food to Microorganism Ratio (F/M) – is the ratio of BOD applied per day to the aeration tanks
divided by the MLVSS under aeration
Return activated sludge (RAS) – to maintain a sufficient concentration of activated sludge in the
aeration tank to prevent the loss of sludge solids in the effluent
Waste activated sludge (WAS) – to maintain solids retention time, the excess activated sludge
produced each day must be wasted.
Oxygen Uptake Rates (OUR) – is a measure of the biological activity and loading on the aeration
tank
Volumetric organic loading rate – defined as the amount of BOD or COD applied to the aeration
tank volume per day.
Sludge Volume Index (SVI) – is the volume of 1 g of sludge after 30 min of settling.
- SVI = (settled volume of sludge,mL/L)(103 mg/g) = mL/g
Suspended solids, mg/L
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) – the content of the aeration tank and the solids that include
inert material as well as living and dead microbial cells
Solids Retention Time (SRT) – also called as mean cell residence time or sludge age, is the time in
days the biological solids remain in the aeration tank. Computed as:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
Sludge age =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
Sample Problems
1. An activated sludge process has a tank influent BOD concentration of 140 mg/l,
influent flow of 5 Mgal/d and 35,500 lb of suspended solids under aeration. Assuming
VSS is 80% of TSS, calculate the F/M ratio. Answer: 0.206 lb BOD/lb MLVSS
2. The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is 2800 mg/l. The sludge settleability
test showed that the sludge volume, settle for 30 minutes in a 1-L graduated cylinder,
is 285 mL. Calculate the sludge volume index. Answer: 102 mL/g
3. The SSV30 is 365 mL/L and the MLSS is 2365mg/L. What is the SVI? Answer: 154.30
Prepared by: 19
4. The operator wastes 0.44 MGD of activated sludge. The WAS has a solid
concentration of 5540 mg/l. how many pounds of WAS are removed from the
process? Answer: 20,329.6 lb/d
5. The aeration tank contains 2985 mg/l of MLSS. Laboratory tests indicate the MLSS is
66% volatile matter. What is the MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank?
Answer:1,970 mg/l
6. The BOD5 of the liquid from the primary clarifier is 120 mg/l at a flow rate of
0.05 MGD. The dimensions of the aeration tank are 20 x 10 x 20 ft3 and the MLSS =
2000 mg/l. Calculate the F/M ratio. Answer: 0.1 day-1
7. An activated sludge system has an influent flow of 22,700 m 3/d with a suspended
solids of 96 mg/l. Three aeration tanks hold 1500 m3 each with MLSS of 2600 mg/l.
Calculate the sludge age for the system. Answer: 5.4 days
Try me!
1. Compute the food to microorganism ratio with the parameters given below:
BOD = 400 mg/l
TSS aeration = 2,500 mg/l
TSS effluent = 3 mg/l
Aeration tank = 4 m x 3 m x 2.5 m
Throughput = 30 m3/day
Answer: 0.16/day
2. If the 30 minute settleability test is 300 ml/l and the MLSS concentration is 2,500 mg/l,
determine the SVI: Answer: 120 ml/g
3. A mixed liquor has 4000 mg/L suspended solids. After 30 minutes of settling in a 1 L
cylinder, the sludge occupied 400 ml. Answer: 100 mL/g
4. Calculate the SVI from the following laboratory data:

Sludge level in settleometer after 30 minute settling is 195 cc/l
SS in mixed liquor is 2,300 ppm
Answer: 85
5. If the F/M of a 0.4380 m3/s activated sludge plant is 0.200 day-1, the influent BOD5 after
primary settling is 150 mg/l and the MLSS is 2200 mg/l, what is the volume of the
aeration tank?
Answer: 1.29 x 104 m3
6. Two activated sludge aeration tanks are operated in series. Each tank has the following
dimensions: 7.0 m wide x 30.0 m long x 4.3 m effective liquid depth. The plant operating
parameters are as follows:
Flow = 0.0796 m3/s MLVSS = 1500 mg/l
BOD5 = 130 mg/l MLSS = 1.40 MLVSS
Determine the aeration period: Answer: 6.3 hours
7. Refer to problem given above, compute for the F/M ratio: Answer: 0.33/day
Prepared by: 20
Types of Biological Processes for WW Treatment
A. Aerobic Processes
1. Suspended Growth Processes – the microorganisms responsible for treatment are maintained in
liquid suspension by appropriate mixing methods.
 Activated Sludge Process (ASP) – the settled biomass, described as activated sludge because of
the presence of active microorganisms, is returned to the aeration tank to continue
biodegradation of the influent organic material.
Include:
o Complete mix
 Complete-mix activated sludge (CMAS)
- is an application of the flow regime of a continuous flow stirred-tank reactor. The
organic load on the aeration tank, MLSS concentration, and oxygen demand are
uniform throughout the tank
- Advantages:
 Dilution of shock loads that occur in the treatment of industrial WW
 Simple to operate
- Disadvantage
 Tends to have low organic substrate concentrations that encourage the
growth of filamentous bacteria, causing sludge bulking problems
o Plug flow
 Conventional plug flow
- Settled WW and return activated sludge (RAS) enter the front end of the aeration
tank and are mixed by diffused air or mechanical aeration
 High-rate aeration
- A process modification in which low MLSS concentrations are combined with
high volumetric BOD loadings
- Characterized by short DT, high sludge recycle ratio, high F/M loading, and
relatively low MLSS concentration
 Step feed
- Settled WW is introduced at 3 to 4 feed points in the aeration tank to equalize
F/M ratio, thus lowering peak oxygen demand
 Contact stabilization
- Uses two separate tanks for the treatment of the WW and stabilization of the
activated sludge
 High-purity oxygen
- High-purity oxygen are added in a staged enclosed reactor
o Extended aeration
 Oxidation ditch
- Consists of a ring- or oval-shaped channel equipped with mechanical aeration
and mixing devices
o Sequentially operated systems

 Sequencing batch reactors (SBRs)
- is a fill-and-draw type of reactor system involving a single complete-mix reactor in
which all steps of the activated sludge process occur. Steps: Fill, React, Settle,
Decant, Idle
Prepared by: 21
Sample Problem
1. A conventional activated sludge plant without primary clarification operates under the
following conditions:
Design flow = 2.14 mgd
Influent BOD = 185 mg/l
Suspended solids = 212 mg/l
Aeration basins = 4 units, 40 ft square x 15.5 ft deep
MLSS = 2600 mg/l
Recirculation flow = 1 mgd
Waste sludge quantity = 39,000 gpd
SS in waste sludge = 8600 mg/l
Effluent BOD = 15 mg/l
Effluent SS = 15 mg/l
Calculate the following:

a. Aeration period (Answer: 8.3 h)
b. BOD loading (Answer: 33.3 lb/d/1000)
c. F/M ratio (Answer: 0.21)
d. Suspended solids removal efficiency (Answer: 93%)
e. BOD removal efficiency (Answer: 92%)
f. Sludge age (Answer: 5.2 days)
g. Return activated sludge rate (Answer: 46%)
2. An aeration basin with a volume of 300 m3 contains a mixed liquor (aerating

activated sludge) with a suspended solids concentration of 2000 mg/l. how many
kilograms of MLSS are in the tank? Answer: 600 kg
Try Me!
1. A high purity oxygen aeration system is being considered for treatment of a combined
domestic and industrial wastewater. Since the combined WW is high in SBOD and
low in SS, primary clarification is not included in the processing scheme. The design
flow is 3000 m3/d with an average BOD of 300 mg/l. The design F/M is 0.6 g/d of
BOD per gram of MLSS and the operating MLSS is 4000 mg/l. Determine the volume
of the aeration tank. Answer: 375 m3
Operational Problems Encountered in the Secondary Clarifier:

o Bulking sludge – MLSS with poor settling characteristics
Types:
Filamentous bulking – is caused by the growth of filamentous organisms such as
Beggiatoa and Thiothrix
Viscous bulking – is caused by an excessive amount f biopolymer, which produces a
sludge with a slimy, jellylike consistency
Hydrous bulking – highly water-retentive activated sludge
o Rising sludge – sludge that tends to rise or float to the surface after a relatively short period
of time which is caused by denitrification.
o Nocardia foam – extensive foaming in ASP caused by bacteria: Nocardia and Microthrix
parvicella
 Aerated lagoons/ponds – are relatively shallow earthen basins varying in depth from
2 to 5 m, provided with mechanical aerators on floats or fixed platforms
Types of Suspended Growth Aerated Lagoons:
o Facultative partially mixed
o Aerobic flow through with partial mixing
o Aerobic with solids recycle and nominal complete mixing
Prepared by: 22
2. Attached Growth or Biofilm Processes (Fixed Film) – the microorganisms responsible for the
conversion of organic material or nutrients are attached to an inert packing material.
Include:
 Trickling filters
– a nonsubmerged fixed-film biological reactor using rock or plastic packing over
which WW is distributed continuously.
– treatment occurs as the liquid flows over the attached biofilm
– the phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called sloughing.
Sample Problem:
1. A trickling filter 90 ft in diameter is operated with a primary effluent of 0.488 MGD and
a recirculated effluent flow rate of 0.566 MGD. Calculate the hydraulic loading rate on
the filter in unit gallons per day per square foot. Answer: 165.7
2. A 10 m diameter single stage trickling filter contains conventional cross-flow plastic

packing at a depth of 6.1 m. Primary effluent with the characteristics given below is
applied to the filter. What is the volumetric BOD loading?
Answer: 1 kg/m3•d
Primary effluent characteristics
Item Unit Value

Flowrate m3/d 4000
BOD g/m3 120
TSS g/m3 80
 Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)

– Consists of a series of closely spaced circular disks that are submerged in WW
and rotated through it.
– The rotating disks support the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms present in
the sewage, which breakdown and stabilise organic pollutants. To be successful,
micro-organisms need both oxygen to live and food to grow. Oxygen is obtained
from the atmosphere as the disks rotate. As the micro-organisms grow, they build
up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided by the
rotating discs in the sewage.
– Physical facilities for RBCs: shafts, disk materials, drive systems, tankage,
enclosures, settling tanks
Sample Problem
1. An RBC treats a primary effluent flow rate of 0.233 MGD. What is the hydraulic
loading rate in gal/d/ft2 if the media surface area is 96,600 ft2? Answer: 2.41 gal/d/ft2
2. Compute the overall system hydraulic loading in an RBC system given the following
information:
Primary effluent (influent) flow = 1.5 Mgal/d
Area of each RBC shaft = 100,000 ft2
Number of of RBC shaft = 6
Answer: 2.5 gal/d/ft2
Prepared by: 23
B. Anaerobic Processes
1. Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
– Influent WW is distributed at the bottom of the reactor and travels in an upflow
mode through the sludge blanket composed of biologically formed granules or
particles
Tertiary treatment
Tertiary treatment provides a final stage to raise the effluent quality before it is discharged to the
receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.) More than one tertiary treatment process may be
used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is always the final process. It is also called
"effluent polishing".
Adsorption
The process of accumulating substances that is in solution on a suitable interface (activated

carbon).
Adsorbate – the substance that is being removed from the liquid phase at the interface.
Adsorbent – the solid, liquid or gas phase onto which the adsorbate accumulates.
Ion Exchange
The process can be used for the removal of undesirable anions and cations from a wastewater.
Cations are exchanged for hydrogen or sodium and anions for hydroxyl ions.
Membrane Separation Processes
o Microfiltration (MF)
For particulate and microbial removal
o Ultrafiltration (UF)
Operational pressures range from 70 to 700 kPa. Tight UF membranes remove some organic
materials while loose UF is primarily for liquid/solid separation, i.e. particle and microbial removal.
o Nanofiltratio (NF)
Also called as membrane softening, lies between RO and UF. This process employs 500 to 1000
kPa for operations. While it provides removal of ions contributing to hardness, i.e. calcium and
magnesium, effective for the removal of color and DBP precursors.
o Reverse Osmosis (RO)

The wastewater is forced through a semipermeable membrane that acts as a superfilter, rejecting
the dissolved as well as suspended solids.
Chemical Oxidation
This refers to the use of oxidizing agents such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, permanganate,
chloride dioxide, chlorine or HOCl, or even oxygen. It is typically applied to situations where organic
compounds are nonbiodegradable (refractory), toxic, or inhibitory to microbial growth.
Disinfection
The purpose is to reduce the number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into
the environment. The effectiveness depends on the following:
o quality of the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.)
o the type of disinfection being used
o the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time)
Prepared by: 24
Methods of Disinfection:
1. Chlorination remains the most common form of wastewater disinfection due to its low cost and
long-term history of effectiveness.
Disadvantages include:
o chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that
may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment and the producion of by-product
trihalomethanes (THMs).
o Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic material in the
natural aquatic environment.
o Residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species,
The treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated using the following compounds:
o sulfur dioxide
o sodium metabisulfite
o sodium sulfite
o or activated carbon
Sample Problem
1. The plant effluent currently requires a chlorine dose of 7.1 mg/l to produce the
required 1.0 mg/l chlorine residual in the chlorine contact tank. What is the chlorine
demand in mg/l? Answer: 6.1 mg/l
2. Determine the monthly supply liquid chlorine for trickling filter plant effluent
disinfection. The design average flow of the plant I 3 MGD. The recommended
dosage for trickling filter effluent is 10 mg/l. use 1 ton (2000 lb or 907 kg) container.
Answer: Four (4) 1-ton container
3. Three hundred twenty pounds of chlorine are added per day to a wastewater flow of
5.6 MGD. What is the chlorine dose in milligram per liter? Answer: 6.9 mg/l
2. Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals.
Advantages:
o Because no chemicals are used, the treated water's taste is more natural and pure as
compared to other methods.
o Causes damage to the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making
them incapable of reproduction.
Disadvantages:
o The need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement
o The need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not
shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect
microorganisms from the UV light).
3. Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen O2 through a high voltage potential resulting in a third
oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes
most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms.
Advantages:
o Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to be stored
on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated onsite as
needed.
o It produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination.
Disadvantage:
o High cost of the ozone generation equipment and the requirements for highly skilled operators.
Prepared by: 25
Estimating the number of microorganisms destroyed after disinfection process using the Chick’s Law,
which can be expressed as:
Nt = N0 e-kt
Where Nt = number of microorganisms at time t

N0 = number of microorganisms at time t=0
k = rate constant characteristics of the type of disinfectant
Sample Problem
1. Estimate the number of microorganisms destroyed after 28 minutes when E. coli
concentration reads 15,000 MPN/100 ml. Assume the rate constant of 0.8/min.
Answer: 6,432 MPN/100 ml
Treatment and Disposal of Solids and Biosolids

The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in
a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the
number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids.
Preliminary Operations
1. Grinding – is a process in which large and stringy material contained in sludge is cut or sheared
into small particles to prevent clogging or wrapping around rotating equipment.
2. Screening – nuisance material is removed from the solids streams by letting it pass through
screens.
3. Degritting – application of centrifugal forces in a flowing system to achieve separation of the grit
particles from organic sludge.
4. Blending – the mixing of sludges generated in primary, secondary and tertiary treatment
processes.
5. Storage – should be provided to smooth out fluctuations in the rate of solids and biosolids
production and to allow solids to accumulate during periods when subsequent processing
facilities are not operating, e.g, night shifts, weekends, and periods of unscheduled equipment
downtime.
Thickening
It is a procedure used to increase the solids content of sludge by removing a portion of the liquid
fraction. It is a sludge treatment process involved in the separation of as much water as possible by
gravity or flotation.
Methods include:
 Gravity thickening – accomplished in a tank similar to a conventional sedimentation tank,
most effective on primary sludge
 Flotation thickening – dissolved air is released as finely divided bubbles carrying the sludge to
the top, where it is removed.
 Centrifugal thickening – are used to thicken and dewater WAS, e.g, solid bowl centrifuge
 Gravity-belt thickening – consists of a gravity belt that moves over rollers driven by a variable-
speed drive unit for thickening of WAS. Polymer addition is required.
 Rotary-drum thickening – rotary media-covered drums are also used to thicken sludges which
consist of a conditioning system and rotating cylindrical screens.
Prepared by: 26
Sample Problem
1. Determine the sludge volume reduction when the sludge is thickened from 4% to 7% solids
concentration. The daily sludge production is 100 m 3. Answer: 43%
2. For gravity thickening, a residual with 4% solids is thickened to a 9% solid content. What is
the concentration factor?
3. The thickener influent contains 1.6% of solids. The influent flow rate is 38000 gal/d. The
thickener is 50 ft in diameter and 10 ft deep. What is the solid loading in pounds per day?
Answer: 2.7 lb/d/ft2
Stabilization
It involves the conversion of organic solids to more refractory forms so that they can be handled
or used as soil conditioners without causing a nuisance or health hazard through the processes referred
to as “digestion”.
Solids and biosolids are stabilized to:
 Reduce pathogens
 Eliminate offensive odors
 Inhibit, reduce or eliminate the potential for putrefaction
Methods include:
 Alkaline stabilization – lime is added to untreated sludge to raise pH to 12 or higher that
creates an environment that retards the microbial reations that lead to odor production
and vector attraction.
 Anaerobic digestion – involves the decomposition of organic matter and inorganic matter
in the absence of oxygen that includes single-stage high-rate digestion and two-stage
digestion. Tanks can be cylindrical or egg-shaped.
 Aerobic digestion
Advantages of aerobic as compared to anaerobic:
- Lower BOD concentrations in supernatant liquor
- Production of an odorless, humuslike, biologically stable end product
- Recovery of more of the basic fertilizer values in the sludge
- Operation is relatively easy
- Lower capital cost
- Suitability for digesting nutrient-rich biosolids
Disadvantages are:
- High power cost is associated with supplying the required oxygen
- Digested biosolids produced have poorer mechanical dewatering characteristics
- Affected by temperature, location, tank geometry, concentration of feed solids,
type of mixing/aeration device, and type of tank material.
 Composting – a process in which organic material undergoes biological degradation to a
stable end product. Methods are:
- Agitated: windrow
- Static: aerated static pile
Conditioning
The use of chemicals to improve dewatering characteristics such as ferric chloride, lime, alum,
and organic polymers. Other conditioning methods are: heat treatment, sludge preheating, freeze-thaw
conditioning.
Prepared by: 27
Dewatering
A physical process to reduce the moisture of sludge. This includes:
 Centrifuges
 Belt-filter press
 Filter press
 Sludge drying beds
 Lagoons
Heat drying – involves the application of heat to evaporate water and reduce the moisture content of
biosolids through convection (direct drying), conduction (indirect drying) and radiation
Incineration – involves the total conversion of organic solids to oxidized end products, primarily carbon
dioxide, water and ash.
Advantages:
o Maximum volume reduction thereby lessening disposal requirements
o Destruction of pathogens and toxic compounds
o Energy recovery potential
Disadvantages:
o High capital and operating cost
o Highly skilled operating and maintenance staffs are required
o The residuals produced (air emissions and ash) may have adverse
environmental effects
o Disposal of residuals, which may be classified as hazardous wastes
Try Me!
1. The wastewater treatment plant produces thickened sludge that has a suspended solids
concentration of 3.8%. They are investigating a filter press that will yield a solids
concentration of 24%. If they now produce 33 m 3/day of sludge, estimate the annual volume
savings that they will achieve if they install the press. Answer: 10000 m3/year
2. He wishes to thicken the sludge of 100 m 3/day from 2% weight to 4% solids. How much
volume reduction is expected from this operation? Answer: 50%
Application of Biosolids to land

 Land application – spreading of biosolids on or just below the soil surface
 Land filling – disposal to sanitary landfills
Final WW Disposal
1. Reuse
2. Discharge to surface water
3. Submarine outfall
4. Injection or percolation to groundwater
5. Evaporation
Prepared by: 28
Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse
Definition of Terms
Beneficial uses – the many ways water can be used e.g. municipal water supply, agricultural and
industrial applications, navigation, fish and wildlife, and water contact
recreation
Direct potable reuse – incorporation of reclaimed water directly into a potable water supply
system, often implying the blending of reclaimed water with potable water
Direct reuse – the use of reclaimed water which has been transported from the WW reclamation
plant to he water reuse site without intervening discharge to a natural body of
water, including such uses as agricultural and landscape irrigation
Dual distribution system – two sets of pipelines for water delivery, one for potable water and
another for reclaimed water
Indirect potable reuse – potable reuse by incorporation of reclaimed water into a raw water
supply, allowing mixing and assimilation by discharge into an impoundment or
natural body of water, such as in domestic water supply reservoir or
groundwater
Indirect reuse – use of reclaimed water indirectly by passing through a natural body of water or
use of underground that has been recharged with reclaimed water
Non-potable water reuse – all reuse applications that do not involve either direct or indirect
potable reuse
Reclaimed water – water that, as a result of WW treatment, is suitable for a direct beneficial use
or a controlled use that would not otherwise occur
Recycled water – reclaimed water that has been used beneficially, synonymous to reclaimed
water
Water reclamation – treatment or processing of WW to make it reusable
Water recycling – the use of WW that is captured and redirected back into the same water use
scheme
Water reuse – the use of treated WW for a beneficial use, such as agricultural irrigation and
industrial cooling
WASTE WATER COLLECTION SYSTEM
Definition of Terms
o Sewer - are under ground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to points of disposal.
o Sewage - the liquid waste from a community is called sewage. Sewage is classified into
domestic and non-domestic sewage. The non-domestic sewage is classified into
industrial, commercial, institutional and any other sewage that is not domestic.
o Sewerage - the entire system used for collection, treatment and disposal of liquid waste.
This includes pipes, manholes, and all structures used for the above mentioned
purposes.
o Infiltration - it is the water which inters the sewers from ground water through leaks from
loose joints or cracks.
o Inflow -it is the water which inters the sewers from the manholes during rainfall events.
The most common types of sewer are:

I. Sanitary Sewer :
• Is a underground carriage system.
• Used for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings
• Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry Industrial sewage.
• Sanitary sewage is collected with the help of sanitary sewer line
• The sanitary sewer is attached to a main sewer.
• The main sewer runs directly to the sewage treatment plant.
II. Storm Sewer:
• A storm sewer collects storm water with the help of gutter & catch basin
• Gutter allow the storm water to drain from the street directly into the storm sewer.
Prepared by: 29
III. Combined Sewer:
• Collects sanitary sewage & storm water run-off in a single pipe system.
• Can cause serious water pollution problems due to combined sewer overflows
• Caused by large variations in flow between dry and wet weather.
• This type of sewer design is no longer used in building new communities.
Sample Problems:
1. Determine the total infiltration flow of domestic WW in gal/d using the following info:
Sewered population = 55,000
Ave domestic WW flow = 100 ga/(c.d)
Assumed infiltration flow rate = 500 gal/(d.mile)/inch of pipe ∅
Sanitary sewer systems for the city:
4-in house sewers = 66.6 miles
6-in building sewers = 13.2 miles
8-in street laterals = 35.2 miles
12-in submains = 9.8 miles
18-in mains = 7.4 miles
Peak hourly flow (Qp) = 3 x ADF (3Q)
Answer: 439,000 gal/d
2. Determine the average and maximum hourly flow for a community of 10,000 persons.
The average water consumption is 200 L/(c.d) and 80% of water consumption goes
to the sewer. The maximum hourly flow rate is three times the average hourly flow
rate. Answer: 200 m3/h
3. An example of industrial WW has an ave flow of 1,230,000 gpd with BOD 5 of 9850
lb/d. calculate the Equivalent Population (EP) of hydraulic and BOD loading,
respectively. Use 100 gal/(c.d) and 0.17 lb/(c.d) for calculation of the EP of hydraulic
and BOD loading. Answer: 12,300 persons and 57,940 persons
Try Me!
1. Calculate the infiltration and compare this quantity to the average daily and peak
hourly domestic WW flows for the following:
Sewered population = 24,000 persons
Average domestic flow = 100 gpcd
Peak hourly domestic flow = 240 gpcd
Infiltration rate = 500 gpd/mile/in of pipe diameter
Sanitary sewer system:
4-in building sewer = 36 miles
8-in street laterals = 24 miles
10-in submains = 6 miles
12-in trunk sewers = 6 miles
Answers: Infiltration rate = 234,000 gpd; ave domestic flow 2.4 MGD (I/Ave = 9.8%)
Peak hourly domestic flow = 5.7 MGD (I/Peak = 4.1%)
2. The sanitary and industrial waste from a community consists of domestic WW from a
sewered population of 7500 persons; potato-processing waste of 30,000 gpd
containing 550 lbof BOD; and creamery WW flow of 120,000 gpd with a BOD
concentration of 1000 mg/l. Estimate the combined WW flow in gallons per day and
BOD concentration in mg/l. Answers: Q = 1.05 MGD and BOD = 348 mg/l
Prepared by: 30
Design of Sewer
The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, which means finding out their sections and gradients, is
generally carried out on the same lines as that of the water supply pipes. However, there are two major
differences between characteristics of flows in sewers and water supply pipes. They are:
 The sewage contain particles in suspension, the heavier of which may settle down at the bottom
of the sewers, as and when the flow velocity reduces, resulting in the clogging of sewers. To
avoid silting of sewers, it is necessary that the sewer pipes be laid at such a gradient, as to
generate self-cleansing velocities at different possible discharges.
 The sewer pipes carry sewage as gravity conduits, and are therefore laid at a continuous gradient
in the downward direction up to the outfall point, from where it will be lifted up, treated and
disposed of.
Hazen-William's formula
U=0.85 C rH0.63S0.54
Manning's formula
1 2 1
𝑉= 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
where, V= velocity, m/s; R= hydraulic radius,m; S= slope, C= Hazen-William's coefficient,

and n = Manning's coefficient.
Darcy-Weisbach formula
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿 =
2𝑔𝑑
Minimum Velocity
The flow velocity in the sewers should be such that the suspended materials in sewage do not get silted
up; i.e. the velocity should be such as to cause automatic self-cleansing effect. The generation of such a
minimum self-cleansing velocity in the sewer, atleast once a day, is important, because if certain
deposition takes place and is not removed, it will obstruct free flow, causing further deposition and finally
leading to the complete blocking of the sewer.
Maximum Velocity
The smooth interior surface of a sewer pipe gets scoured due to continuous abrasion caused by the
suspended solids present in sewage. It is, therefore, necessary to limit the maximum velocity in the sewer
pipe. This limiting or non-scouring velocity will mainly depend upon the material of the sewer.
Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer
Due to variation in discharge, the depth of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean depth (r) varies.
Due to the change in the hydraulic mean depth, the flow velocity (which depends directly on r2/3) gets
affected from time to time. It is necessary to check the sewer for maintaining a minimum velocity of about
0.45 m/s at the time of minimum flow (assumed to be 1/3 of average flow). The designer should also
ensure that a velocity of 0.9 m/s is developed a tleast at the time of maximum flow and preferably during
the average flow periods also. Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time of maximum flow,
the velocity generated does not exceed the scouring value.
Prepared by: 31
Sewer Appurtenances
Sewer appurtenances are the various accessories on the sewerage system and are necessary for the
efficient operation of the system. They include man holes, lamp holes, street inlets, catch basins, inverted
siphons, and so on.
Man-holes: Man holes are the openings of either circular or rectangular in shape constructed on the
alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter the sewer for inspection, cleaning and flushing.
They serve as ventilators for sewers, by the provisions of perforated man-hole covers. Also they facilitate
the laying of sewer lines in convenient length.
Locate a manhole at:

(1) Changes in direction;
(2) Changes in slope;
(3) At pipe junctions with the exception of building connections;
(4) At the upper end and ends of all laterals for cleansing and flushing the lines; and
(5) At intervals from 90 to 120 m or less, as required. Give each manhole an identification
number.
Special Man-holes:
Junction chambers: Man-hole constructed at the intersection of two large sewers.
Drop man-hole: When the difference in elevation of the invert levels of the incoming and outgoing sewers
of the man-hole is more than 60 cm, the interception is made by dropping the incoming sewer vertically
outside and then it is jointed to the man-hole chamber.
Flushing man-holes: They are located at the head of a sewer to flush out the deposits in the sewer with
water.
Lamp-holes: Lamp holes are the openings constructed on the straight sewer lines between two man-
holes which are far apart and permit the insertion of a lamp into the sewer to find out obstructions if any
inside the sewers from the next man-hole.
Street inlets: Street inlets are the openings through which storm water is admitted and conveyed to the
storm sewer or combined sewer. The inlets are located by the sides of pavement with maximum spacing
of 30 m.
Catch Basins: Catch basins are small settling chambers of diameter 60 - 90 cm and 60 - 75 cm deep,
which are constructed below the street inlets. They interrupt the velocity of storm water entering through
the inlets and allow grit, sand, debris and so on to settle in the basin, instead of allowing them to enter
into the sewers.
Inverted siphons: These are depressed portions of sewers, which flow full under pressure more than the
atmospheric pressure due to flow line being below the hydraulic grade line. They are constructed when a
sewer crosses a stream or deep cut or road or railway line. To clean the siphon pipe sluice valve is
opened, thus increasing the head causing flow. Due to increased velocity deposits of siphon pipe are
washed into the sump, from where they are removed.
Prepared by: 32
Pumping of Sewage
Pumping of sewage is required when it is not possible to have a gravitational flow for the entire sewerage
project.
Sufficient pumping capacity has to be provided to meet the peak flow, atleast 50% as stand by.
Types of pumps :
1. Centrifugal pumps either axial, mixed and radial flow.

2. Pneumatic ejector pumps.
Layout of the System

A tentative layout is made by drawing lines along the streets or utility easements. Arrows show the
direction of flow, which is generally in the direction in which the ground slopes. The result of this layout will
be a main sewer leaving the area at its lowest point with smaller laterals and submains radiating to the
outlying areas. The sewer will follow the natural surface drainage as closely as the layout of the streets and
easement permits. Ridges may require either pumping or construction of separate sewer systems draining
to different points. In flat terrain a central location may be selected to which all lines will drain for pumping
to a gravity or to the treatment plant.
1. Building sewers
2. Lateral Sewers
3. Submain Sewers
4. Main Sewers
5. Trunk Sewers
6. Intercepting Sewers
7. Wastewater treatment plant
8. Outfall Sewers
1
3
2
6 7
8
RBW
Prepared by: 33
Elements of Hydraulic Design for Sewer
The flow of sewage in sewers is gravitational and at atmospheric pressure. Sewers are designated
to run only partially full in normal operation; they are just designated as open channels. The most commonly
used design equation is the Manning’s formula:
(English Units)
1.486
V = R2/3 S1/2
n
(Metric Units)
1
V = R2/3 S1/2
n
Where:
V = velocity, m/s
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (area of flow divided by the wetted perimeter)
S = hydraulic gradient (pipe slope)
* For concrete concrete pipes: n = 0.012 to 0.015 with 0.013 being the usual design value
For PVC pipes: n = 0.009 to 0.011
* The capacity (Q) of sewer is given by:
(English Units)
Q = AV; where A = cross-sectional area of flow
1.486
Q = A R2/3 S1/2
n
(Metric Units)
1
Q = A R2/3 S1/2
n
Sanitary sewers are designed to carry 4 x DWF when running just full. This provides an adequate
factor of safety above the normal daily peak flow of (1.5 to 2.5) x DWF.
(1.5, 2.5 and 4) are the peaking factors used for sanitary sewer design. Peaking factor M is the
magnitude of the peak flow relative to the mean flow and it depends on the size of the contributing
population:
5
M =
P1/6
In the above formula, the larger the population, the lower the peaking factor since flow functions
are smoothed out during the time of travel in the sewer. The M may be chosen on the basis of sewer
diameter:
Diameter M
<300 mm 2.5
300 to 600 mm 2.0
>600 mm 1.5
Slope or Rate of Grade – slope of grade of a sewer is determined by dividing the difference between the
required elevations of the sewer by the horizontal distance before these points.
Example:
Horizontal distance AB = 2700 ft
Elevation @ A = 90 ft
Elevation @ B = 84.6 ft
Difference of A – B = 5.4 ft
Slope, S = ?
5.4
S = = 0.002
2700
Prepared by: 34
Minimum velocities in sewers:
Sanitary Sewer - 2 ft/s to prevent deposits of solid materials which could cause clogging
Storm Sewer - 3 ft/s in order to retain the solid materials in suspension, thus to prevent deposits
Maximum velocities in sewers:
Sanitary Sewer - 10 ft/s
Storm Sewer - 8 ft/s
Reason: Solid materials that are being carried in suspension by the velocity higher than the stated
above will cause erosion of the invert or lower part of the sewer
SIPHON
Minimum Velocity:
Sanitary = 3 ft/s = 0.9 m/s
Storm = 4 ft/s = 1.2 m/s
Maximum diameter
Sanitary = 6 inches
Storm = 12 inches
Sewer Sizes
Minimum diameter for public = 8 inches
Minimum diameter for building sewer = 6 inches
Minimum diameter for building drain = 4 inches
Minimum Grades of Sewer for velocity of 2 ft/s, when full; n= 0.013 using Manning’s formula
Pipe Diameter Grade (%)
8 ……………………. 0.33
10 ……………………. 0.25
12 ……………………. 0.19
15 ……………………. 0.14
18 ……………………. 0.11
21 ……………………. 0.09
24 ……………………. 0.08
27 ……………………. 0.07
30 ……………………. 0.06
36 ……………………. 0.05
Minimum Sewer Depth = 6 ft below the ground surface

Maximum Sewer Depth = 20 ft below the ground surface
Manholes – are inspection boxes which provide access from ground level for the removal of blockages by
rodding. They should be provided at:
a. every change of direction
b. every change of pipe size
c. every change of slope
d. every sewer connection
e. every 90 to 150 m in straight lines
Amount of Storm Runoff
The rational method for calculating quantity of runoff for storm sewer design is defined by the
relationship:
Q = 0.278 CIA
Where:
Q = maximum rate of runoff, m 3/s
C = coefficient of runoff based on type and character of surface (see table below)
I = average rainfall intensity, ml/hr
A = drainage area, km 2
Prepared by: 35
Coefficients of Runoff for the Rational Method
For Various Areas and Types of Surface
Description Coefficient
Business areas depending on density 0.70 to 0.95

Apartment-dwelling areas 0.50 to 0.70
Single-family areas 0.30 to 0.50
Parks, cemeteries, playgrounds 0.10 to 0.25
Paved streets 0.80 to 0.90
Watering roofs 0.70 to 0.95
Lawns depending on surface slope and character of subsoil 0.10 to 0.25
Discharge over a 90° V-notch Weir

Q = 2.48 H2.48
Where:
Q = free discharge over 90° V-notch weir, ft3/s
H = vertical distance (head) from crest of weir to the free water surface, ft
Sample Problems
1. What should be the slope of the water surface in a sewer so that grits will not settle
along the line when an open channel of 1.5 m deep, 0.8 m wide, and 200 m long is
made of ordinary concrete lining, i.e. Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.013?
Answer: 0.0004
2. Referring to the given problem above, what is the slope’s equivalent in degrees?
Answer: 0.02°
Prepared by: 36

WW Handouts

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

WW Handouts

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

2014 Sanitary Engineering Enhancement Class

College of Engineering and Technology

WASTEWATER ENGINEERING REVIEW HANDOUTS

Dirty water or Liquid wastes

Example: Population = 55,000 people

Note: 1 kg = 2.205 lb; 1 m 3 = 264.172 gal

What is Wastewater Engineering?

Table 1. Definitions for solids found in wastewater

Table 2. The parameter method and temperature

Total Solids Gravimetric 103-105

1. Given the following data:

Tare mass of evaporation dish (ED) = 53.5433 g

TS and TVS using evaporation dish (ED) with unfiltered sample

2. A solids analysis is to be conducted on a sample of wastewater. The procedure is as follows:

Apparent color – caused by suspended solids

Color can be used to assess the general condition of WW:

Color can be measured visually by comparison with potassium chloroplatinate standards or by

Table 3. Major categories of odorous compounds associated with untreated WW

B. Organic Constituents – are normally composed of a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

Measurement of Organic Content

Determination of 5-day BOD carried out at 20˚ C can be expressed as:

BODt = L(1 – 10-kt)

If the sample is unseeded, the relationship is:

Microorganisms of Interest in WW Treatment

Common Types Of Wastewater Treatment Methods

Table 4. Typical design criteria for the treatment processes

b. Fine screens – have clear openings ranging from 3-10 mm

where: hL = headloss, ft (m)

Note: The materials removed by these devices are called screenings.

3. Communition/Grinding. Comminutors are installed in a WW flow channel to screen and shred

Time Flow, m3/s Time Flow, m3/s

Time Flow, m3/s Time Flow, m3/s

Table 3. Types of gravitational phenomena utilized in WW treatment

Solving for velocity,

For spherical particles:

Stokes equation used for laminar flow:

For overflow rate (𝑣0 )

Types of Sedimentation facilities:

5. A rectangular settling tank has an overflow rate of 30 m 3/m2-day, and dimensions of

4. A raw wastewater is analyzed and gives the following results:

7. A primary sedimentation basin is designed for an overflow rate of 30 m 3/m2·day.

4. Calculate the SVI from the following laboratory data:

o Sequentially operated systems

Calculate the following:

2. An aeration basin with a volume of 300 m3 contains a mixed liquor (aerating

Operational Problems Encountered in the Secondary Clarifier:

2. A 10 m diameter single stage trickling filter contains conventional cross-flow plastic

Primary effluent characteristics

Item Unit Value

 Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)

The process of accumulating substances that is in solution on a suitable interface (activated

Membrane Separation Processes

o Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Where Nt = number of microorganisms at time t

Treatment and Disposal of Solids and Biosolids

Application of Biosolids to land

WASTE WATER COLLECTION SYSTEM

The most common types of sewer are:

where, V= velocity, m/s; R= hydraulic radius,m; S= slope, C= Hazen-William's coefficient,

Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer

Locate a manhole at:

Junction chambers: Man-hole constructed at the intersection of two large sewers.

1. Centrifugal pumps either axial, mixed and radial flow.