General Chemistry

Contact : Dr. Joëlle BASSIL

PhD in Chemistry and physical chemistry

of materials
Université de Montpellier 2

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

1
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
Chemical bonds

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Introduction

Valence elecrons

 Electrons available for bonding.

 You should know how to use the periodic table to determine the
number of electrons available for bonding.

You should know how to draw Lewis dot structures.

Valence electrons are electrons

in the outmost shell (energy
level). They are the electrons
available for bonding.
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
Group 1 (alkali metals) have 1
valence electron

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction
Group 2 (alkaline earth metals)
have 2 valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction

Group 13 elements have 3

valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction

Group 14 elements have 4

valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction

Group 15 elements have 5

valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction

Group 16 elements have 6

valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction

Group 17 (halogens) have 7

valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction
Group 18 (noble gases) have 8
valence electrons, except Helium,
which has only 2

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction

Transition metals (‘d’ block) have

1 or 2 valence electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
I. Introduction
Lanthanides or Actinides (‘f’
block) have 1 or 2 valence
electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Introduction

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Introduction
Electron Dot Structures
Lewis dot notations
Symbols of atoms with dots to represent the valence-shell
electrons

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
H He:
      

Li Be B   C  N  O : F  :Ne :

    

      

Na Mg  Al  Si   P S :Cl  :Ar :

   
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Introduction
Octet Rule

Octet Rule = atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so as to have 8 electrons
C would like to Gain 4 electrons
N would like to Gain 3 electrons
O would like to Gain 2 electrons
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Introduction
Octet Rule
The atoms that participate in covalent bonding share electrons in a way
that enables them to acquire a stable electronic configuration, or full
valence shell. This means that they want to acquire the electronic
configuration of the noble gas of their row.
Example: Nitrogen, has 5 electrons in the valence shell, so it needs to
combine with 3 hydrogen atoms to fulfill the octet rule and form a
stable compound called ammonia (NH3). This leaves two electrons
that cannot be used for bonding. Such electron pairs are referred to
as lone pairs, unshared electrons, or nonbonding electrons

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 I- Introduction

Chemical bonds: an attempt to fill electron shells

1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
3. Metallic bonds

DEN > 2.0 Ionic Bond

DEN  2.0 and  0.5 Polar Bond
DEN < 0.5 Nonpolar Bond

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Ionic bond

Ionic compounds result when metals react with nonmetals

Metals lose electrons to match the number of valence electrons of their
nearest noble gas
Positive ions form when the number of electrons are less than the
number of protons
Group 1 metals  ion 1+
Group 2 metals  ion 2+
Group 13 metals  ion 3+

• Bond formed between two ions by the transfer of electrons.

• Between atoms of metals and nonmetals with very different electronegativity.
• Bond formed by transfer of electrons.
• Produce charged ions all states.
• Conductors and have high melting point.
• Examples; NaCl, CaCl2, K2O

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Ionic bond

Sodium atom Sodium ion

Na  – e  Na +

Magnesium atom Magnesium ion


Mg  – 2e  Mg2+

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Ionic bond

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Ionic bond

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Ionic bond

Ionic bond – electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a charge

imbalance in each atom. The Na becomes (Na+) and the Cl becomes (Cl-),
charged particles or ions.

EN (Cl) = 3.1 ; EN (Na) = 0.9

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 II- Ionic bond

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds

Bonds in all the polyatomic ions and diatomics are all covalent
bonds

• Bond formed by the sharing of electrons.

• Between nonmetallic elements of similar electronegativity.
• Formed by sharing electron pairs
• Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not conductors at any state.
•Two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons.
• Examples; O2, Cl2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-1 Non polar covalent bonds
when electrons are shared equally H2 or Cl2
Oxygen Atom Oxygen Atom

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds
• when electrons are shared but shared unequally H2O
• Unevenly matched, but willing to share.

Polar Covalent Bonds: Unevenly matched, but willing to share.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds

Water is a polar molecule because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, and
therefore electrons are pulled
Fallcloser to oxygen.
2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds

• Covalent bond, sharing

electrons,
• But electron sharing not
always equal.

• Fluorine pulls harder on the shared electrons

than hydrogen does.
• Therefore, the fluorine end has more electron
density than the hydrogen end.
• But how do you know who pulls hardest?
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds

Electronegativity:
Developed 1st by Linus Pauling like this:
H-F >> H-H or F-F

In other words, H-F bond much stronger than H-H or F-F bond.

Why?

Because there is an ionic component to attraction in H-F

F more – and H more + so the ionic component makes bond

stronger.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds
Dipole moment:
• When two atoms share
electrons unequally, a bond
dipole results.
• The dipole moment, ,
produced by two equal but
opposite charges separated
by a distance, r, is calculated:

 = Qr

• It is measured in debyes (D).

1 D = 3.336 10-30 coulomb meter (C.m)
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds
Dipole moment:
Example: The carbonyl group in a ketone
O
Carbonyl Group of Ketone
CH3CCH3

The dipole moment of the group is measured at 2.4 D.

The bond distance, r, is 1.21 Angstroms.

Calculate the charge separation

 - 0.413
Q =  = _____2.4_____ = 0.413 electrons O
r 1.21 x 10-10
CH3CCH3

The symbol  (delta) indicates a partial charge  +0.413

on the atom, either negative or positive.
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds
Dipole moment:
If the bond is purely ionic: μi (Debye) = 1, 6 x 3 x dÅ = 4, 8 x dÅ
Relationship between μreal of a polar covalent bond and μi of a purely ionic bond

(%i) = percentage of ionic

character of a polar covalent
real bond:

Example H – F :
 III- Covalent bonds
III-2 Polar covalent bonds

The greater the

difference in
electronegativity,
the more polar is
the bond.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds

• There are several electrostatic

interactions in these bonds:
– Attractions between electrons
and nuclei
– Repulsions between electrons
– Repulsions between nuclei

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 III- Covalent bonds
III-3 Multiple Bonds

• It is possible for more than one pair of electrons to be

shared between two atoms (multiple bonds):
• One shared pair of electrons = single bond (e.g. H2);
• Two shared pairs of electrons = double bond (e.g. O2);
• Three shared pairs of electrons = triple bond (e.g. N2).

H H O O N N Octet in each case

• Generally, bond distances shorten with multiple

bonding.
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Lewis Symbols

 The valence electrons in an atom or molecule

Each dot is one valence electron

 Lewis structures are representations of molecules showing all valence

electrons, bonding and nonbonding.

Lines correspond to 2 electrons in bond

 IV- Lewis Structures – Lewis Symbols

1. Find the sum of valence electrons of all

atoms in the polyatomic ion or
PCl3 molecule.
– If it is an anion, add one electron for
5 + 3(7) = 26
each negative charge.
– If it is a cation, subtract one electron for
each positive charge.

2. The central atom is the least

electronegative element that isn ’ t
26  6 = 20 hydrogen (why?). Connect the outer
atoms to it by single bonds..
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Lewis Symbols

3. Put eight electrons around the outer

atoms (“fill their octet”)
26  6 = 20  18 = 2

4. Fill the octet of the central atom.

26  6 = 20  18 = 2  2 = 0

5. If you run out of electrons before the

central atom has an octet…
…form multiple bonds until it does.
IV- Lewis Structures – Formal charges

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Formal charges

-2 0 +1 -1 0 0 0 0 -1

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Resonance

Resonance occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be
written for a particular molecule (i.e. rearrange electrons)
We use multiple structures, resonance structures, to describe the
molecule.
The electrons that make up the double bond are not localized, but
rather are delocalized.

NO Number of valence electrons = 11

N O N O

NO2 Number of valence electrons = 17

O N O O N O O N O
Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Resonance

HCO2-

NO3-
.. - .. -
O O O
..
..
..

..

..
..
+ + +
N N N
- ..O .. - ..O .. - ..O ..O
.. .. -O
.. .. ..
..
..O
..

..
..

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Resonance

The rules of Resonance:

1- The one that verified octet rule is the important form.

2- The neutral form is the most important form

3- The charge must be in accordance to the electronegativity

of the atom

4- The identical mesomeric forms have the same importance

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – More than one central atom

Many atoms have more than 1 central atom

You just deal with each separately
Example: Lewis structure for acetate CH3CO2-

Example: The organic compound benzene, C6H6, has two resonance

structures to signify the delocalized electrons in the ring.

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 IV- Lewis Structures – Exceptions to the octet rule

There are three types of ions or molecules that do not follow the
octet rule:
– Ions or molecules with an odd number of electrons. Ex: NO
– Ions or molecules with less than an octet.
Cl
BCl3 B
Cl Cl

– Ions or molecules with more than eight valence electrons (an

expanded octet).
Cl
Cl
PCl5 P : (Ne) 3s2 3p3 3d0 Cl P
Number of valence electrons = 5 + (5 x 7) = 40
Cl
Cl
F F
S
SF4 S : (Ne) 3s2 3p4 3d0 F
Number of valence electrons = 6 + (4 x 7) = 34 F
 IV- Lewis Structures – V. S. E. P. R.

V. S. E. P. R.
(Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
 More Practice
• Draw lewis structures for:
• SO4-2, CO3-2, CHCl3, CN3H6+ (H’s are attached to
the N’s). SO2, PO33-, NO2-1, BrO3-, ClO4-,

Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry

Dr. Joëlle BASSIL
SO4-2, CO3-2, CHCl3, CN3H6+ (H’s on N’s). SO2, PO31-, NO, BrO3-, ClO4-,

..
- H H
:O : +
:O : H N
-.. .. - .. ..
+2
:O
.. S O.. : C : Cl.. C Cl :
.. .. C
- .. H
:O : .. ..
:O - : Cl :
N
.. :
N
:O : .. H
- H H

.. + ..
- ..
:O
.. S O.. : O.. :
N
.
..
-
:O :

-.. .. -
+3
:O
.. C O.. :
l

.. :
:O Fall 2017 – 2018 USEK General Chemistry
- Dr. Joëlle BASSIL