Electromagnetic+Theory by Imran Aziz

Electromagnetic Theory
Mohammad Imran Aziz

Assistant Professor
Physics Department
Shibli National Post Graduate College
Azamgarh,India.(aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in)
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3 Electromagnetic Theory and Light
Light possesses both wave-particle manifestations.

Classical electrodynamics based on Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory unalterably leads to
the picture of a continuous transfer of energy by way of electromagnetic waves.
Quantum electrodynamics describes electromagnetic interaction and the transport of
energy in terms of massless elementary “particles” known as photons, which are localized
quanta of energy.
One of the basic tenets of quantum mechanics is that both light and material objects each
display both wave-particle properties.
In physical optics light is treated as an electromagnetic wave.
3.1 Maxwell’s equations

The simplest statement of Maxwell’s equations governs the behavior of the electric
and magnetic fields in free space.
Maxwell’s equations are generalization of experimental results.
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
  B 
c E  dl   A t dS , (3.1)

  E 
c B  dl  0 0 A t dS , (3.2)
 
A E  dS  0, (3.3)
 
 B  dS  0
A
(3.4)
where  0 and  0 are the permeability and the electric permittivity of free space,
respectively.
It should be noted that except for a multiplicative scalar, the electric and magnetic
fields appears in above equations with a remarkable symmetry. The mathematical
symmetry implies a good deal of physical symmetry.
Maxwell’s equations tell us that a time-varying magnetic field generates an
electric field and a time-varying electric field generates a magnetic field.
Maxwell’s equations above can be written in differential form by using following
two theorems from vector calculus.
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Gauss divergence theorem
  
 F  dS    F dV
A V
(3.5)
and Stocke theorem
   
 F  dl     F  dS
C A
(3.6)
By applying theorem (3.5) to Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) and applying theorem (3.6) to Eqs
(3.3) and (3.4), we obtain the following differential equations

 B
  E   ( 3 .7 )
t

 E
  B   0 0 ( 3 .8 )
t

 E  0 ( 3 .9 )

 B  0 ( 3 . 10 )
  
i j k
   
E  (3.11)
x y z
Ex Ey Ez
 E E E
 E  x  y  z (3.12)
x y Z
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The consequent equations for free space are in detail as follows:
E z E y B
  x, (i )
y z t
E x E z B
  y, (ii ) (3.13)
z x t
E y E x B
  z, (iii )
x y t
Bz B y E
  0 0 x , (i )
y z t
Bx Bz E
  0 0 y , (ii ) (3.14)
z x t
B y Bx E
  0 0 z , (iii )
x y t
E x E y E z
   0, (3.15)
x y z
Bx B y Bz
   0, (3.16)
x y z
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3.2 Electromagnetic waves
Maxwell’s equations for free space can be manipulated into the form of two vector
expressions:
Taking the curl of Eq. (3.7)

  
  (  E )   (  B ) (3.17)
t
  Eq.( 3.9 ) 
L. H .S  (  E )   2 E    2 E

2

Eq.( 3.8 )  E
R.H .S    0 0 2

t
We have
2

  E
2 E  0 0 2 (3.18)
t
Similarly we have
2

  B
2 B  0 0 2 (3.19)
t
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 
The Laplacian,  , operates on each component of E and B , so that the two vector
2
equations (3.18) and (3.19) actually represent a total of 6 scalar equations. One of
these expressions, in Cartesian coordinates, is
 2 Ex  2 Ex  2 Ex 2 Ex
    0 0 2 (3.20)
x 2 y 2 z 2 t
Each component of the electromagnetic field ( E , E , E , B , B , B ) therefore

x y z x y z
obeys the scalar differential wave equation
2
 2  2  2 1 
   , (3.21)
x 2 y 2 z 2 v 2 t 2
provided that
1
v . (3.22)
 0 0
If we substitute the values of  0 and  0 into Eq. 3.22, the predicted speed of all
electromagnetic waves travelling in free space would then be c= 3 x 108 m/s. This
theoretical value was in remarkable agreement with the previously measured speed
of light.
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The experimentally verified transverse character of light should be explained within the
context of the electromagnetic theory. To that end, consider the fairly
 
simple case of a
plane wave propagating in the positive x-direction and write as E  E ( x, t ) . Eq. (3.15) is
reduced to
E x
0 (3.23)
x
For a progressive wave, the solution of (3.23) is Ex=0. So the electric component
must be perpendicular to the propagation direction, x. Let’s orient the coordinate axes
 
so that the electric field is parallel to the y-axis: E  E ( x, t ) j . From Eq. (3.13
y
III), it follows that
E y Bz
 . (3.24)
x t
This implies that the time-dependent B-field
can only have a component in the z-direction.
Clearly then, in free space, the plane
electromagnetic wave is indeed transverse, as
shown in Fig. 3.1. Now let’s write
Fig. 3.1 Field configuration in a plane

E y ( x, t )  E0 y cos[ (t  x / c )   ], (3.25)
harmonic electromagnetic wave.
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The associated magnetic field can be
found by directly integrating Eq. (3.25), that
is,
E y
Bz    dt
x
E 0 y

c  sin[  ( t  x c )   ]dt
1
 E 0 y cos[  ( t  x c )   ]
c
E
 y. (3.26)
c
Fig. 3.2 Orthogonal harmonic E-field
and B_field.
Clearly, E and Bz have the same time
y 
dependence, E  jE y ( x, t ) and B  kˆBz ( x, t ) are in phase at all points inspace.
ˆ 

Moreover, E and B are mutually perpendicular, and their cross-product, E  B,
points in the propagation direction, as shown in Fig.3.2.
It should be noted that plane waves are not only solutions to Maxwell’s
equations. As we saw in the previous chapter, the differential wave equation allows
many solutions including spherical waves.
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3.3 Energy
Energy density, u , which is the radiant energy per unit volume, is given by
u  0E 2 (3.27) 1 2
or u B . (3.28)
From Eqs. (3.27) and (3.28), we have
0
1
u EB (3.29)
0 c
The amount of energy transported during a unit time and through a unit area
perpendicular to the transport direction is (suppose the wave travels through an area
of A and with a speed of c and with a time duration of t )
u ( c t A) 1
S  uc  EB (3.30)
t A 0
The corresponding vector is called Poynting vector:
 1  
S E  B. (3.31)
0
2
It’s along the wave propagation direction. Its SI unit is watt per square meter (W m ).
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E and B are so closely coupled to each other that we need to deal with only one of
them. Using B  E c from Eq. 3.26, we can rewrite Eq. 3.30 as
1 2
S E   0cE 2 (3.32)
c0
The time-averaged value of the magnitude of the Poynting vector, symbolized by
S , is a measure of the significant quantity known as the irradiance, I .
1
I  S   0c E 2   0cE02 (3.33)
2
Where E0 is the peak magnitude of E. Within a linear, homogeneous, isotropic
medium, the expression for the irradiance becomes
1
I   v E 2   vE02 (3.34)
2
2
For a point light source, its irradiance is proportional to 1 r . This is well-known
inverse-square law. Fig. 3.3 shows that a point source emits electromagnetic
waves uniformly in all directions. Let us assume that the energy of the waves is
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conserved as they spread from the source. Let
us also center an imaginary sphere of radius r
on the source, as shown in Fig. 3.3. If the power
of the source is Ps , the irradiance I at the
sphere must then be
Ps
I 2
. (3.35)
4r
Fig. 3.3 A point source emits light
isotropically.
In Quantum theory, light possesses quantum energy

  h   hc /   12400 /  ( 3 . 36 )
 is in unit of ev, is in unit of angstrom, h is Plank constant.
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3.4 Electromagnetic-photon spectrum
Although all forms of electromagnetic radiation propagate with the same speed in
vacuum, they differ in frequency and wavelength. Fig. 3.4 plots the vast electromagnetic
spectrum. The frequency range for whole electromagnetic spectrum is from a few Hz to
1022 Hz. The corresponding wavelength range is from many kilometers to 10-14 m.
Radiofrequency waves: a few Hz to 109 Hz
Microwaves: 109 Hz to about 3 x 1011 Hz.
Infrared: 3 x 1011 Hz to 4 x 1014 Hz.

The infrared (IR) is often subdivided into four regions: the near IR (780-
3000 nm), the intermediate IR (3000-6000 nm), the far IR (6000-15,000 nm),
and the extreme IR (15,000 nm-1.0 mm).
Light: 3.84 x 1014 to 7.69 x 1014 Hz.
An narrow band of electromagnetic waves could be seen by human eye. Color is
not a property of light itself but a manifestation of the electrochemical sensing
system-eye, nerves, and brain.
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Fig. 3.4 Electromagnetic-photon spectrum.
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Ultraviolet: 8 x 1014 Hz to 3.4 x 1016 Hz.
X-rays: 2.4 x 1016 Hz to 5 x 1019 Hz.
Gamma rays: 5 x 1019 Hz to 2.5 x 1033 Hz.
Table 3.1. Frequency and vacuum wavelength ranges for

various colors
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120
GaInP2
100
Emission intensity (a.u.)

80
60
40
20
0
590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 3.5 Spectra of sunlight and the light from Fig. 3.6 Emission spectrum of GaInP2
a tungsten lamp. semiconductor under excitation of a He-
Cd laser..
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3.5 Light in matter
3.5.1 Dispersion
In a homogeneous, isotropic dielectric, the phase velocity of light propagation becomes
v 1  . (3.37)
The ratio of the speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum to that in matter is known as
the absolute index of refraction n and is given by
c 
n  . (3.38)
v  0 0
For most materials,  / 0 is generally equal to 1. So, the expression of n becomes
n   / 0 . (3.39)
Actually, n is frequency-dependent, so called dispersion. When a dielectric is

subject to an applied electric field E, the internal charge distribution is distorted,
which generates electric dipole moment p=Lq, with L the position vector from the
negative charge -q to the positive charge q. The dipole moment per unit volume is
called the electric polarization P. with
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 
P  (   0 ) E (3.40)
Fig. 3.8 shows the dipole formation and a oscillator

model for the vibration of electrons under an E-field.
The negative electrons are fastened to a stationary
positive nucleus. The natural frequency of the spring
is 0  k / m with k and m being the spring constant
and the electron mass. The force (FE) exerted on an
electron of charge q by a harmonic wave E(t) with
frequency  is
FE  qE (t )  qE0 cos(t ) (3.41)
Newton’s second law provides the equation of

motion with the second term the restoring force.
2d 2x
qE0 cos(t )  m x  m 2 0 (3.42)
dt
Fig. 3.8 (a) Distortion of the
Let x (t )  x0 cos(t ) we have
electron cloud in response to an
q/m applied E-field. (b) The
x(t )  E (t ) (3.43)
( 02   2 ) mechanical oscillator model for an
For medium with electron density N isotropic medium
the electric polarization P is
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q 2 N / mE ( t )
P (t )  from Eq .( 3 . 40 )
(  02   2 )
q2N / m
   0  p (t ) / E (t )   0 
(  02   2 )
From Eq .( 3 . 39 )
2 Nq 2 1
n ( )  1  ( 2 ) ( 3 . 44 )
 0m  0   2
Eq. (3.44) indicates dispersion.

When   0 n>1; When   0
n<1. Fig 3.9 shows dispersion
of materials.
Fig. 3.9 Index of refraction versus

wavelength and frequency for several
important optical crystals.
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Electromagnetic+Theory by Imran Aziz

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Electromagnetic Theory

Mohammad Imran Aziz

Light possesses both wave-particle manifestations.

3.1 Maxwell’s equations

Taking the curl of Eq. (3.7)

Each component of the electromagnetic field ( E , E , E , B , B , B ) therefore

Fig. 3.1 Field configuration in a plane

In Quantum theory, light possesses quantum energy

Infrared: 3 x 1011 Hz to 4 x 1014 Hz.

Table 3.1. Frequency and vacuum wavelength ranges for

Emission intensity (a.u.)

For most materials,  / 0 is generally equal to 1. So, the expression of n becomes

Actually, n is frequency-dependent, so called dispersion. When a dielectric is

Fig. 3.8 shows the dipole formation and a oscillator

Newton’s second law provides the equation of

Eq. (3.44) indicates dispersion.

Fig. 3.9 Index of refraction versus

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