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© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Basic Science and
Emerging Technologies
Michael Wilson
College of Science,Technology and Environment
University of Western Sydney
Australia
Kamali Kannangara
Geoff Smith
Department of Chemistry, Materials and Forensic Science
University of Technology
Sydney, Australia
Michelle Simmons
School of Physics
University of New South Wales
Australia
Burkhard Raguse
Biomimetric Engineering
CSIRO Telecommunications and Industrial Physics
Australia
© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nanotechnology : basic science and emerging technologies / Michael Wilson … [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58488-339-1
1. Nanotechnology. I. Wilson, Michael, 1947 Jan. 7-
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
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Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
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© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse
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CONTENTS
Authors xi
Preface xiv
Acknowledgment xviii
1 Background to nanotechnology 1
1.1 Scientific revolutions 1
1.2 Types of nanotechnology and nanomachines 7
1.3 The periodic table 9
1.4 Atomic structure 12
1.5 Molecules and phases 16
1.6 Energy 19
1.7 Molecular and atomic size 23
1.8 Surfaces and dimensional space 25
1.9 Top down and bottom up 26
1.10 Exercises 27
1.11 References 28
2 Molecular nanotechnology 29
2.1 Atoms by inference 29
2.2 Electron microscopes 30
2.3 Scanning electron microscope 31
2.4 Modern transmission electron microscope 34
2.5 Scanning probe microscopy — atomic force microscope 36
2.6 Scanning tunnelling microscope 41
2.7 Nanomanipulator 43
2.8 Nanotweezers 43
2.9 Atom manipulation 44
2.10 Nanodots 48
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CONTENTS • vii
6 Nanobiometrics 140
6.1 Introduction 140
6.2 Lipids as nano- bricks and mortar 141
Lipid structure 142
Self-organising supramolecular structures 142
Things to do with lipids — templates 145
6.3 Same but different: self-assembled monolayers 145
6.4 The bits that do things — proteins 148
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8 Nanoelectronics 188
8.1 Introduction 188
8.2 What will nanoelectronics do for us? 191
8.3 The birth of electronics 192
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CONTENTS • ix
Semiconductors 192
The invention of the transistor 193
Integrated circuits 195
8.4 The tools of micro- and nanofabrication 195
Optical lithography 195
Electron beam lithography 197
Atomic lithography 198
Molecular beam epitaxy 201
8.5 From classical to quantum physics 205
8.6 Quantum electronic devices 207
High electron mobility transistors 207
Quantum interference transistor 209
Single electron transistors 210
Quantum corrals in electronics 212
Carbon nanotube transistors 213
Molecular electronics 214
DNA-directed assembly and application in electronics 215
8.7 Quantum information and quantum computers 215
How is a quantum computer different to a classical computer? 216
How does a quantum computer work? 218
Writing to an idealised atomic-quantum computer 218
Read-out from an idealised atomic-quantum computer 219
Quantum computation 219
Decoherence — the enemy of quantum computation 220
The power of quantum computation 221
Power of a classical computer 221
Power of a quantum computer 222
Quantum algorithms 222
Shor’s algorithm 222
Grover’s algorithm 223
8.8 Experimental implementations of quantum computers 223
8.9 Exercises 227
8.10 References 228
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AUTHORS
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AUTHORS • xiii
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PREFACE
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PREFACE • xv
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xvi • N A N OT E C H N O L O G Y
The problems of making the most of solar energy and natural light,
and of cleaning up and in future controlling the quality and availabili-
ty of our land, water and air have something in common. They all
involve very large scale activities in terms of areas and volumes. What
solutions can nanotechnology offer on such a large scale? The answer
is the solutions we have been seeking for many years. The grand scale
technologies not only have to be clever but they must also be very
cheap to have any real impact. Until now we have struggled to devel-
op solar technologies for widespread use because the options have been
too expensive to make on the vast scale needed to achieve an econom-
ically significant uptake. Nanotechnology may overcome this hurdle
and enable us to make the most of our great environmental resources
at much lower cost and with minimal environmental effects. The costs
of one kilowatt hour of solar electricity; of replacing 15 Wm-2 of lamp
lighting in a building with visually comfortable daylight; and of a
megalitre of pure water obtained from salty ground, river or sea water,
are what ultimately counts, especially for the developing world. Thus,
nanotechnology may even turn out to be a force for greater economic
equality. When technologies cannot compete economically the only
option is government regulation or subsidy. The difficulties that have
been encountered in recent attempts to reduce our Greenhouse impact
through the implementation of the Kyoto Agreement show just how
hard it is to convince governments to adopt technologies that are not
cost effective within political and economic parameters.
The public needs to be informed about many scientific issues, such
as information technology, genetic engineering and genetic code. This
book is about informing, but it aims to give a factual rather than a
purely entertaining account. It is aimed at young scientists who have
not completed a degree, but we also hope that other professionals will
read it.
Several universities are developing courses in the embryonic area of
nanotechnology. Over 20 courses are already being offered outside
Australia. Flinders University was the first in Australia to offer a course in
nanotechnology, and there were over 170 applicants for 25 places.
Courses will follow in Australia at the University of Queensland, the
University of Technology Sydney, Curtin University, the University of
New South Wales and the University of Western Sydney. There is a mas-
sive scientific literature in this field already, which is unintelligible to most
educated people or to junior level students. This book attempts to bridge
the gap with hard scientific facts, but it does not throw out the fiction.
Fiction is what dreams are made of and creates the scientific challenge.
All the authors are serious scientific researchers, but this has not
made this book easier to write. It is tempting to scientifically clarify and
reference all facts as in a research work, but this would make the man-
uscript unreadable to the intended audience. One problem we have
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PREFACE • xvii
faced is with references and figures. Each chapter could have 300
references, but this would put the book in the realms of a research text.
However, it is important to introduce readers to the literature. We have
therefore restricted ourselves to key references in each chapter from
which other information can be gleaned, plus a few that will introduce
the reader to literature searching. Similarly, we have avoided setting
problems but have introduced some fun exercises, which are a differ-
ent way to learn. These concentrate on finding out about terms that we
have by necessity glossed over, and on stimulating the imagination —
a key ingredient in nanotechnology.
It would not be incorrect to say that nanotechnology should be
taught as a postgraduate course. As such, the task of writing an intro-
ductory text for undergraduates is impossible. However we have writ-
ten this book to encourage people with imagination to take up science.
In short, it is a marketing tool! However, it is not possible to write a
text without assuming some chemistry and physics so we have taken
the approach that the reader is also learning more chemistry and
physics as they go along. At the start we assume very little, just an
acquaintance with basic algebra, knowledge of light, heat and force,
and molecular structures and molecular formulae. In Chapter 2 we dis-
cuss molecular nanotechnology and the techniques used to see atoms.
This can be appreciated without too much additional science, but by
Chapter 3 we expect the reader to have a good knowledge of first year
chemistry. This chapter describes the processes of crystal assembly and
re-assembly. By Chapter 4 we assume at least first year organic chem-
istry and we look at new engineered carbon systems called nanotubes.
By Chapter 5 we assume this organic chemistry has advanced. We dis-
cuss the new form of molecular switches called rotaxanes and other
ways that chemistry has been used to form organised nanosystems. In
Chapter 6 we address nature’s nanosystems and how to use them or
make related new ones. We assume now that the reader has a basic
knowledge of biochemistry. In Chapter 7 we look at optics from a first
year physics level, but in Chapter 8, where we discuss electronics, lith-
ography and molecular computing in more detail, we assume this has
advanced. In Chapter 9 we look at likely new weird and wonderful
applications. In the last chapter we let our hair down with some future
prophesies. These two chapters should be readable by everyone.
One thing that we have left out is thin films. Although thin films
are studied using all the tools of nanotechnology and some more, their
inclusion in this book would expand the subject to the study of surfaces
and their depositional properties. In this book we restrict our defini-
tion of nanotechnology to one where the bulk material under study is
at least nanoscale in one dimension. This rules out thin films, except
those on a nanoparticle and those that form part of an engineered
nanostructure.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
© 2002 by Michael Wilson, Kamali Kannangara, Geoff Smith, Michelle Simmons, and Burkhard Raguse