Condensation Process Heat Transfer

CHAPTER 5.
Condensation Process
1. Introduction
Often the best way to recover an organic gaseous pollutant, where the substance is of
value, is by the use of condensation. Usually, condensation alone will not remove enough of
the pollutant to constitute an effective pollution control measure unless a refrigerated fluid is
used in the condenser. Even so, a condenser using room-temperature water as the cooling
fluid can be a valuable preliminary device before employing an adsorbing unit or an after
burner, for example.
2. Type of Condensers
Vapors can be condensed either by increasing pressure or extracting heat. In practice,
air pollution control condensers operate through removal of heat from the vapor. Condensers
differ principally in the means of cooling.
1) Surface condensers
Coolant does not contact the vapors or condensate.
Most surface condensers are of the tube and shell type shown in Fig. 5-1
Fig. 5-1 Counterflow shell-and-tube heat exchanger
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Condensation Process 52
2) Contact condensers
#2
Fig.5-2 Type of contact condensers
3) Comparison of contact condensers with surface condensers

· Contact condenser : - more flexible
- simpler
- considerably less expensive to install
· Surface condensers : - require far less water
- produce 10 to 20 times less condensate.
(condensate from contact units cannot be reduced and may
constitute a waste disposal problem).
- must be equipped with more auxiliary equipment
and generally require a greater degree of maintenance.
3. Principles of Heat Transfer

1) Conduction - temperature gradient
ⅰ) In metallic solids, thermal conduction results from the motion of unbound electrons,
there is close correspondence between thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity.
ⅱ) In solids which are poor conductors of electricity, and in most liquids, thermal
conduction results from the transport of momentum of individual molecules along the
═════════════════════════════════════════════
Air Pollution Control (I) 53
temperature gradient.
ⅲ) In gases, conduction occurs by the random motion of molecules, so that heat is
diffused from hotter regions to colder one.
2) Convection
ⅰ) Natural convection - if the currents are the result of buoyancy forces generated by
differences in density and the differences in density are in turn caused
by temperature gradients in the fluid mass, the action is called natural
convection. The flow of air across a heated radiator is an example of
natural convection.
ⅱ) Forced convection - motion by the action of a mechanical device.
3) Radiation-the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic wave.
4. Heat Transfer by Conduction in Solids

Considering heat flow in homogeneous isotropic solids
Assumption : ⅰ) there is no convection
ⅱ) the effect of radiation is negligible
1) Fourier's law
The basic relation of heat flow by conduction is the proportionality between the rate of
heat flow across an isothermal surface and the temperature gradient at the surface.
dq = -k ∂T
dA ∂n (5-1)
where A : area of isothermal surface
n : distance measured normally to surface
q : rate of heat flow across surface in direction normal to surface
T : temperature
k : proportionality constant thermal conductivity
Note
· ∂T
∂n (partial derivative)
: temperature may vary with both location and time.
· Negative sign - physical significance
: heat flow occurs from hot to cold and the sign of the gradient is
opposite that of the heat flow.
═════════════════════════════════════════════
2) One-dimensional heat flow
Ⅰ : at instant of exposure of wall to

high temperature
Ⅱ : during heating at time t
Ⅲ : at steady state
Fig. 5-3 Temperature distributions
· Unsteady - state conduction (curve Ⅱ)

- Temperature depends upon both time and location
· Steady - state conduction (curve Ⅲ)
- Conduction under the condition of constant temperature distribution.
T is a function of position only, and the rate of heat flow at any one point is a
constant.
q = -k dT
A dn (5-2)
3) Thermal conductivity, k
q = -k dT
A dn
q
where, A : rate of heat flow per unit area, or heat flux.
dT
dn : temperature gradient
k : proportionality factor, or thermal conductivity
ⅰ) Dimension & units of k
k = - q ⋅ dn
A dT
[=] H/T
L2
⋅L
θ
═════════════════════════════════════════════
[=] H/L⋅T⋅θ ( Dimension )
[=] Btu/ft·hr·℉ (Engineering units)
[=] W/m·℃ (SI unit)
ⅱ) k = f(temp.)
= a + bT (a, b are empirical const.) (5-3)
ⅲ) Value of thermal conductivities

for metal : high
( silver 240 Btu/ft·hr·℉)
for finely powdered materials : low
( evacuated silica aerosol 0.0012 Btu/ft·hr·℉)
Table 5-1 Thermal conductivities of metals†

Thermal conductivity k‡
Metal
32℉ 64℉ 212℉
Aluminum 117 119
Antimony 10.6 9.7
Brass(70 copper,30 zinc) 56 60
Cadmium 53.7 52.2
Copper(pure) 224 218
Gold 169.0 170.0
Iron(cast) 32 30
Iron(wrought) 34.9 34.6
Lead 20 19
Magnesium 92 92 92
Mercury(liquid) 4.8
Nickel 36 34
Platinum 40.2 41.9
Silver 242 238
Sodium(liquid) 49
Steel(mild) 26
Steel(1% carbon) 26.2 25.9
Steel(stainless,type 304) 9.4
Tantalum 32
Tin 36 34
Zinc 65 64
†Based on W.H.McAdams, "Heat Transmission," 3d ed., pp.445-447,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1954
‡ k=Btu/ft-h-℉
═════════════════════════════════════════════
Table 5-2 Thermal conductivities of gases and vapors†
Substance Thermal conductivity k‡
32℉ 212℉
Acetone 0.0057 0.0099
Acetylene 0.0108 0.0172
Air 0.0140 0.0184
Ammonia 0.0126 0.0192
Benzene 0.0052 0.0103
Carbon dioxide 0.0084 0.0128
Carbone monoxide 0.0134 0.0176
Carbon tetrachloride 0.0052
Chlorine 0.0043
Ethane 0.0106 0.0175
Ethyl acohol 0.0124
Ethyl ether 0.0077 0.0131
Ethylene 0.0101 0.0161
Helium 0.0818 0.0988
Hydrogen 0.0966 0.1240
Methane 0.0176 0.0255
Methyl alcohol 0.0083 0.0128
Nitrogen 0.0139 0.0181
Nitrous oxide 0.0088 0.0138
Oxygen 0.0142 0.0188
Propane 0.0087 0.0151
Sulfur dioxide 0.0050 0.0069
Water vapor(at 1atm abs pressure) 0.0136
† Based on W.H.McAdams, "Heat Transmission," 3d ed., pp.445-447, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1954
‡ k=Btu/ft-h-℉
Table 5-3 Thermal conductivities of liquids other than water†

Liquid Temp., ℉ k‡
Acetic acid 68 0.909
Acetone 86 0.102
Ammonia (anhydrous) 5-86 0.29
Aniline 32-68 0.100
Benzene 86 0.092
n-butyl alcohol 86 0.097
Carbon bisulfide 86 0.093
Carbon tetrachloride 32 0.107
Chlorobezene 50 0.083
Ethyl acetate 68 0.101
Ethyl acohol(absolute) 68 0.105
Ethyl ether 86 0.080
Ethylene glycol 32 0.153
Gasoline 86 0.078
Glycerine 68 0.164
n-Heptane 86 0.081
Kerosene 68 0.086
Methyl acohol 68 0.124
Nitrobenzene 86 0.095
n-Octane 86 0.083
Sulfur dioxide 5 0.128
Sulfuric acid (90%) 86 0.21
Toluene 86 0.086
Trichloroethylene 122 0.080
o-Xylene 68 0.090
† Based on W.H.McAdams, "Heat Transmission," 3d ed., pp.445-447, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1954
‡ k=Btu/ft-h-℉
═════════════════════════════════════════════
4) Steady-state Conduction
For the simplest case of steady-state conduction, consider a flat slab like that shown
in Fig. 5-3.
Assume : (ⅰ) k is independent of temperature

(ⅱ) The area of the wall is very large in comparison with its thickness,
so that heat losses from the edges are negligible.
(ⅲ) Both walls are isothermal surfaces
(ⅳ) The direction of heat flow is perpendicular to the wall.
(ⅴ) Since in steady state there can be neither accumulation nor depletion
of heat within the slab, q is constant along the path of heat flow.
If x is the distance from the hot side

q = -k dT
A dx
or
dT = - q dx (5-4)
kA
Since the only variables in Eq.(5-4) are x and T, direct integration gives
q = k T 1 - T 2 = k ΔT
A x2 - x1 B (5-5)
where x2 - x1 = B : thickness of slab.

T 1 - T 2 = ΔT : temp. drop across slab.
When the thermal conductivity k varies linearly with temperature, in accordance with
Eq.(5-3), Eq.(5-5) still can be used rigorously by taking an average value k for k,
which may be found either by using the arithmetic average of the individual values of
k for the two surface temperature, T 1 and T 2 ,
q = ΔT = driving force
(5-6)
R resistance
B
R =
kA
: thermal resistance
1 = kA
R B : conductance
═════════════════════════════════════════════
[Ex. 5-1] A layer of pulverized cork 6 in.(152mm) thick is used as a layer of thermal
insulation in a flat wall. The temperature of the cold side of the cork is 40℉(4.4℃),
and that of the warm side is 180℉(82.2℃). The thermal conductivity of the cork at
32℉(0℃) is 0.021 Btu/ft·hr·℉(0.036 W/m℃), and that at 200℉(93.3℃) is 0.032(0.055).
The area of the wall is 25ft2 (2.32m2). What is the rate of heat flow through the
wall, in Btu per hour(Watts)?
Solution>
The arithmetic average temperature of the cork layer is (40+180)/2=110℉. By lineal
interpolation the thermal conductivity at 110℉ is
k = 0.021 + ( 110 - 32)( 0.032 - 0.021)

200 - 32 = 0.021 + 0.005 = 0.026 Btu/ft·hr·℉
Also, A = 25 ft 2 , ΔT = 180 -40 = 140 ℉, B = 6

12
= 0.5 ft
Substituting in Eq.(5-5) gives
140×0.026×25
q =
0.5
= 182 Btu/hr (53.3 W)
5) Compound resistances in series
Fig. 5-4 Thermal resistance in series.
═════════════════════════════════════════════
Total temp. drop
ΔT = ΔTA + ΔTB + ΔTC
Assume : the layers are in excellent thermal contact, so that no temperature difference
exists across the interfaces between the layers.
Eq.(5-5) can be written for each layer ; using k in place of k

BA BB BC
ΔT A = q A , ΔT B = q B , ΔT C = q C (5-7)
kA A kB A kC A
ΔT = ΔT A + ΔT B + ΔT C
q ABA q BB B q CB C
=
A kA
+
A kB
+
A kC
(5-8)
Since, in steady state, all the heat that passes through the first resistance must pass
through the second and in turn pass through the third, qA, qB, and qC are equal and all
can be denoted by q
qA = qB = qC = q
Therefore
ΔT ΔT
q = = = ΔT (5-9)
B A/ k A A + B B / k B A + B C / k C A RA + RB + RC R
where RA , RB , RC : resistance of individual layers

R : overall resistance
[Ex. 5-2] A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 4.5 in.(114mm) layer of Sil-o-cel brick,
with a thermal conductivity of 0.08Btu/ft.hr.℉(0.138W/m℃) backed by a 9in.(299㎜) layer
of commonbrick, of conductivity 0.8(1.38). The temperature of the inner face of the wall
is 1400℉(760℃), and that of the outer face is 170℉(76.6℃).
(a) What is the heat loss through the wall?
(b) What is the temperature of the interface between the refractory brick and
the common brick?
(c) Supposing that the contact between the two brick layers is poor and that
a "contact resistance" of 0.50℉.hr/Btu(0.948℃/W) is present, what would
be the heat loss?
═════════════════════════════════════════════
Solution>
(a) Consider 1 ft 2 of wall (A=1 ft 2 ). The thermal resistance of the Sil-o-cel layer is
RA = 4.5/12 = 4.687
0.08×1
and that of the common brick is

RB = 9/12 = 0.938
0.8×1
The total resistance is

R = R A + R B = 4.687 + 0.938 = 5.625 ℉h/Btu
The overall temperature drop is

ΔT = 1400 - 170 = 1230 ℉
Substitution in Eq.(5-9) gives, for heat loss from 1ft2 of wall
1230 = 219 Btu/hr
q =
5.625 (64.2W)
(b) The temperature drop in one of a series of resistances is to the individual

resistance as the overall temperature drop is to the overall resistance, or
ΔT a 1230
=
4.687 5.625
from which ΔT a = 1025 ℉

The temperature at the interface is 1400 - 1025 = 375℉(190.6℃).
(c) The total resistance, which now includes a contact resistance, is

R = 5.625 + 0.500 = 6.125
The heat loss from 1ft2 is
1230 = 201 Btu/hr

q =
6.125 (58.9 W)
═════════════════════════════════════════════
6) Heat flow through a cylinder
q = -k dT (2πrL)
dr
Integrating
⌠
⌡
ro
dr = 2πLk ⌠
⌡
Ti
dT
ri r q To
ln r o - ln r i = 2 πL k ( T - T )
q i o
k( 2πL)( T i - T O )
q =
ln (r o /r i )
(5-10)
Fig. 5-5 Flow of heat through thick-walled cylinder
Eq.(5-10) can be used to calculate the flow of heat through a thick-walled cylinder. It
can be put in a more convenient form by expressing the rate of flow of heat as
k A L (T i - T o )
q =
ro - ri (5-11)
This is the same general form as Eq.(5-5) for heat flow through a flat wall with the
exception of A L .
2πL( r o - r i )
AL =
ln (r o / r i ) : logarithmic mean area (5-12)
A L = 2π r L L (5-12a)
ro - ri
rL =
ln(r o/r i ) : logarithmic mean radius (5-12b)
The logarithmic mean is less convenient than the arithmetic mean, and the latter can be
used without appreciable error for thin-walled tubes, where r o/ r i is nearly 1.
When r o/r i = 2 , the logarithmic mean is 0.96 r a and the error in the use of the
arithmetic mean is 4%. The error is 1 percent where r o/r i = 1.4 (see Fig. 5-6)
═════════════════════════════════════════════
Fig. 5-6 Relation between logarithmic and arithmetic means.
[Ex. 5-3] A tube 60 mm(2.36in.) OD is lagged with a 50mm(1.97in.) layer of asbestos,

for which the conductivity is 0.21 W/m℃(0.12 Btu/ft-h-℉), followed with a 40㎜
(1.57in.) layer of cork with a conductivity of 0.05 W/m℃(0.03Btu/ft-h-℉). If the
temperature of the outer surface of the pipe is 150℃(302℉)and the temperature of
the outer surface of the cork is 30℃(86℉), calcurate the heat loss in watts per
meter of pipe.
Solution>
These layers are too thick to use the arithmetic mean radius, and the logarithmic
mean radius should be used. For the asbestos layer
rL = 80 - 30 = 50.97 mm
ln (80/30)
and for the cork layer
rL = 120 - 80 = 98.64 mm
ln (120/80)
If asbestos is called substance A and cork substance B, the individual resistances are
xA 0.050 0.743
RA = = =
kA AA 0.21×2π ( 0.05097)L L
xB 0.040 1.291
RB = = =
kB AB 0.05×2π ( 0.09864)L L
═════════════════════════════════════════════
The heat loss is
q 150 - 30 = 55.0 W/m
L
=
0.892 + 1.291 (57.2Btu/ft-h)
5. Principles of Heat Flow in Fluids

The flow of heat from a fluid through a solid wall to a cooler fluid is often encountered.
All such cases require that heat be transfered by conduction and convection.
1) Typical heat-exchange equipment

ⅰ) Single-pass tubular condenser
Fig. 5-7 Single-pass tubuler condenser: A,tubes; B 1,B 2 , tube sheets; C , shell; D 1,D 2 ,
channels; E 1,E 2 , chennel covers; F , vapor inlet; G , condensate outlet; H,
cold-liquid inlet; J , warm-liquid outlet; K, noncondensed-gas vent
Fig. 5-8 Temperature-length curves for condenser
═════════════════════════════════════════════
ⅱ) Double-pipe exchanger
One fluid flows through the inside pipe and the second fluid through the annular
space between the outside and inside pipe.
In a typical exchanger, ID = 1¼" (IPS)

OD = 2½"
Surface = 100 ～ 150 ft 2
Fig. 5-9 Double-pipe heat exchanger.
2) Countercurrent and parallel-current flows

ⅰ) Temperatures in countercurrent and parallel-current flows
(a) countercurrent (b) parallel flow
Fig. 5-10 Temperaures in (a) countercurrent and (b) parallel flow
═════════════════════════════════════════════
ⅱ) Comparison
Heat transfer efficiency : Countercurrent is good.
Change the temp. of one fluid rapidly : Parallel current is good.
3) Energy Balances
ⅰ) Enthalpy balances in heat exchanger
In Heat Exchanger
(a) There is no shaft work
(b) Mechanical, potential, and kinetic energies are small in comparison with the
other terms in the energy balance equation.
For one stream through the exchanger
ṁ (H b - H a ) = q [ Btu/hr] (5-13)
where ṁ : mass flow rate of stream
q = Q / t : rate of heat transfer into stream
H a , H b : enthalpies per unit mass of stream at entrance
and exit, respectively
Q : quantity of heat , Btu or J
그림
For the warm fluid

m ḣ ( H hb - H ha ) = q h (5-14)
For the cold fluid

ṁ ( H cb - H ca ) = q c (5-15)
The heat lost by the warm fluid is gained by the cold fluid
qc = -qh
Therefore, from Eqs. (5-14) and (5-15)
m ḣ ( H ha - h hb ) = m ċ ( H cb - H ca ) = q (5-16)
"Overall enthalpy balance"
═════════════════════════════════════════════
If constant specific heats are assumed, the overall enthalpy balance for a heat
exchanger becomes
m ḣ C ph ( T ha - T hb ) = m ċ C pc ( T cb - T ca ) = q (5-17)
where C ph : specific heat of warm fluid
C pc : specific heat of cold fluid
ⅱ) Enthalpy balances in total condensers

For a condenser
m ḣ λ = m ċ C pc ( T cb - T ca ) (5-18)
where m ḣ : rate of condensation of vapor

λ : latent heat of vaporization of vapor
If the condensate leaves at a T hb which is less than T h ,
m ḣ [ λ + C ph (T h - T hb ) ] = m ċC pc (T cb - T ca ) (5-19)
where T h : condensing temp. of the vapor
4) Rate of Heat Transfer

ⅰ) Heat flux for conduction
: the rate of heat transfer per unit area
q = - k dT [ Btu/hr. ft 2 ] or [ W/m 2 ]
A dx
ⅱ) Average temperature of fluid stream

When a fluid is being heated or cooled, the temp. will vary throughout the cross
section of the stream. If the fluid is being heated, the temperature of the fluid is a
maximum at the wall of the heating surface and decrease toward the center of the
stream. Because of these temperature gradients throughout the cross section of the
stream, it is necessary, for definiteness, to state what is meant by the temperature
of the stream.
→ average or mixing-cup stream temperature
5) Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient (총괄전열계수)
It is reasonable to expect the heat flux to be proportional to a driving force. In heat
flow, the driving force is taken as T h - T c , where T h is the average temperature of
═════════════════════════════════════════════
the hot fluid and T c is that of the cold fluid. The quantity T h - T c is overall local
Temperature difference ΔT . It is clear from Fig. 5-10 that ΔT can vary considerable
from point to point along the tube, and, therefore, since the heat flux is proportional to
ΔT , the flux also varies with tube length.
The local flux on a differential area dA is

dq = U T = U(T - T )
dA Δ h c (5-20)
where U : proportionality factor so called "local overall heat-transfer

coeff."
If A is taken as the outside tube area A o , U becomes a coefficient based on that area
and is written U o .
Likewise, if the inside area A i is chosen, the coefficient is also based on that area and is
denoted by Ui. Since ΔT and dq are independent of the choice of area, it follows that
Uo dA i Di
Ui
=
dA o
=
Do (5-21)
where D i and D o are the inside and outside tube diameters, respestively.
ⅰ) Integration over total surface : logarithmic mean temp. difference

Assumption : (ⅰ) the overall coefficient U is constant
(ⅱ) the specific heats of the hot and cold fluids are constant
(ⅲ) heat exchage with the ambient is negligible
(ⅳ) the flow is steady and either parallel or countercurrent.
Since T c and T h vary linearly with q , ΔT does likewise and d( ΔT)/dq,

the slope of the graph of ΔT vs. q , is constant. Therefore
d( ΔT) ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
dq
=
qT (5-22)
at dq = UΔTdA
where ΔT 1 , ΔT 2 : approaches
qT : rate of heat transfer in entire exchanger
Elimination of dq from Eqs. (5-20) & (5-22) gives
d( ΔT) = ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
UΔTdA qT (5-23)
═════════════════════════════════════════════
The variables ΔT & A can be separated, and if U is constant, the equation can
be integrated over the limits A T and 0 for A and ΔT 2 and ΔT 1 for ΔT , where A T
is the total area of the heat-transfer surface.
⌠
⌡
ΔT 2
d( ΔT) = U( ΔT 2 - ΔT 1 ) ⌠
AT
⌡ dA
ΔT 1 ΔT qT 0
or
ΔT 2 U( ΔT 2 - ΔT 1 )
ln
ΔT 1
=
qT
AT (5-24)
Eq. (5-24) can be written
ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
q T = UA T
ln( ΔT 2 /ΔT 1 )
= UA TΔ T L (5-26)
ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
where Δ TL =
ln( ΔT 2 /ΔT 1)

"logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)"
ⅱ) Variable overall coefficient

When the overall coefficient varies regularly, the rate of heat transfer may be predicted
from Eq.(5-27), which is based on the assumption that U varies linearly with the temperature
drop over the entire heating surface :
U 2ΔT 1 - U 1ΔT 2
qT = AT
ln(U 2 ΔT 1/U 1ΔT 2 ) (5-27)
where U 1 ,U 2 : local overall coefficient at ends of exchanger

ΔT 1, ΔT 2 : temperature approaches at corresponding ends of exchanger
═════════════════════════════════════════════
6) Individual Heat-Transfer Coefficients
Fig. 5-11 Temperature gradient in forced convection.
Assume : (ⅰ) The warm fluid is flowing through the inside pipe and the cold fluid is
flowing through the annular space
(ⅱ) Reynolds numbers of the two fluids are sufficiently large to ensure turbulent
flow
(ⅲ) Both surfaces of the inside tube are clear of dirt or scale
The change in temperature with distance is shown by the broken line

T a,T b , T wh, T e, T g .
The temperature profile is thus divided into three separate parts,
(ⅰ) One through each of the two fluids { viscous sublayer

buffer zone
turbulent core
(ⅱ) The other through the metal wall.
The individual, or surface, heat transfer coefficient, h for the two fluid streams.
dq/dA
h =
T - Tw (5-28)
where dq/dA : local heat flux, based on the area in contact with fluid
T : local average temp. of fluid
Tw : temp. of wall in contact with fluid.
═════════════════════════════════════════════
The mechanism of heat transfer at the wall
dq = -k dT
dA dy ( ) w
(5-29)
Eliminating dq/dA from Eqs.(5-28) & (5-29)

(dT/dy) w
h = -k
T - Tw (5-30)
Note that h must always be positive.

Multiplying Eq.(5-30) by D/k gives
hD = -D ( dT/dy) w
k T - Tw (5-31)
where N Nu ≡ hD
k : Nusselt Number
D : tube diameter
The physical meaning of Nusselt number

N = temp. gradient at the wall
Nu average temp. gradient across the entire pipe
7) Calculation of overall coefficient from individual coefficients

The overall resistance to the flow of heat from the warm fluid to the cold fluid is a
result of three separate resistances operating in series.
R h : resistance of warm fluid
R w : resistance of metal wall
R c : resistance of cold fluid
1
∑ R = UA = Rh + Rw + Rc
(5-32)
dq = h i (T h - T wh )dA i →R h = 1
dA i h i
dq = h o (T wc - T c )dA o →R c = 1
dA o h o
( T wh - T wc ) k d AL
dq = = (T wh - T wc )
R xw
═════════════════════════════════════════════
x
∑R = U 1dA = dA1 h + w
+
dA
1
(5-33)
o o i i k d AL oho
Multiplying Eq.(5-33) by dAo gives

1 dA o x dA o
= + w + 1 (5-34)
Uo dA ih i k d AL ho
dA o Do dA o Do
Now dA i
=
Di
,
d AL
=
DL
1 Do x Do
Therefore = + w + 1 (5-35)
Uo D ih i k DL ho
If the inside area A i is chosen as the base area

1 1 + xw Di + Di
Ui
=
hi k DL D oh o (5-36)
Rate of heat transfer for outside (cold fluid)

dq = U o dA o (T wc - T c )
Rate of heat transfer for inside (hot fluid)

dq = U i dA i (T h - T wh )
If dA o = dA i
Overall heat transfer coeff.
1 1 1 + xw + 1
Uo
=
Ui
=
hi k ho (5-37)
8) Fouling factors
In actual service, heat-transfer surfaces do not remain clean. Scale, dirt, and other solid
deposits form on one or both sides of the tubes, provide additional resistance to heat
flow, and reduce the overall coefficient.
The effect of such deposits is taken into account by adding a term 1/dA h d .
1 1
Rf =
dA i h di
+
dA o h do (5-38)
where hd : fouling factor (오염 계수)
Therefore
1 Do Do x Do
= + + w + 1 + 1 (5-39)
Uo Di hi D i h di k DL h do ho
or
═════════════════════════════════════════════
1 1 + 1 + xw Di + Di + Di
Ui
=
hi h di k DL Do ho D oh do (5-40)
The actual thicknesses of the deposits are neglected in Eqs.(5-39) and (5-40).
[Ex. 5-4] Methyl alcohol flowing in the inner pipe of a double-pipe exchanger is cooled
with water flowing in the jacket. The inner pipe is made from 1 in.(25㎜) Schedule
40 steel pipe. The thermal conductivity of steel is 26Btu/ft-h-℉(45W/m℃). The
individual coefficients and fouling factors are given in Table5-4. What is the overall
coefficient, based on the outside area of the inner pipe?
Table 5-4 Data for example 5-4

Coefficient
Btu/ft-h-℉ W/m 2 - ℃
Acohol coefficient hi 180 1,020
Water coefficient ho 300 1,700
Inside fouling factor hdi 1000 5,680
Outside fouling factor hdo 500 2,840
Solution>
The diameters and wall thickness of Schedule 40 1-in. pipe are
D i = 1.049 = 0.0874 ft D o = 1.315 = 0.1096 ft x w = 0.133 = 0.0111 ft
12 12 12
The logarithmic mean diameter D L is calculated as in Eq.(5-12b), using diameter in

place of radius :
Do - Di 0.1096 - 0.0874
DL = = = 0.0983 ft
2.303 log (D o/D i ) 2.303 log (0.1096/0.0874)
The overall coefficient is found from Eq.(5-35)
Uo = 1
0.1096 + 0.1096 + 0.0111×0.1096 + 1 + 1
0.0874×1000 0.0874×180 26×0.0983 300 500
= 71.3 Btu/ft 2 -h- ℉(405 W/m - ℃)

2
═════════════════════════════════════════════

Condensation Process Heat Transfer

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Condensation Process Heat Transfer

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CHAPTER 5.

Fig. 5-1 Counterflow shell-and-tube heat exchanger

Fig.5-2 Type of contact condensers

3) Comparison of contact condensers with surface condensers

3. Principles of Heat Transfer

3) Radiation-the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic wave.

4. Heat Transfer by Conduction in Solids

Ⅰ : at instant of exposure of wall to

Ⅱ : during heating at time t

Fig. 5-3 Temperature distributions

· Unsteady - state conduction (curve Ⅱ)

ⅰ) Dimension & units of k

ⅲ) Value of thermal conductivities

Table 5-1 Thermal conductivities of metals†

Table 5-3 Thermal conductivities of liquids other than water†

Assume : (ⅰ) k is independent of temperature

If x is the distance from the hot side

where x2 - x1 = B : thickness of slab.

k = 0.021 + ( 110 - 32)( 0.032 - 0.021)

Also, A = 25 ft 2 , ΔT = 180 -40 = 140 ℉, B = 6

Substituting in Eq.(5-5) gives

5) Compound resistances in series

Fig. 5-4 Thermal resistance in series.

Eq.(5-5) can be written for each layer ; using k in place of k

where RA , RB , RC : resistance of individual layers

and that of the common brick is

The total resistance is

The overall temperature drop is

(b) The temperature drop in one of a series of resistances is to the individual

from which ΔT a = 1025 ℉

(c) The total resistance, which now includes a contact resistance, is

The heat loss from 1ft2 is

1230 = 201 Btu/hr

Fig. 5-5 Flow of heat through thick-walled cylinder

[Ex. 5-3] A tube 60 mm(2.36in.) OD is lagged with a 50mm(1.97in.) layer of asbestos,

and for the cork layer

5. Principles of Heat Flow in Fluids

1) Typical heat-exchange equipment

Fig. 5-8 Temperature-length curves for condenser

In a typical exchanger, ID = 1¼" (IPS)

Fig. 5-9 Double-pipe heat exchanger.

2) Countercurrent and parallel-current flows

Fig. 5-10 Temperaures in (a) countercurrent and (b) parallel flow

For one stream through the exchanger

For the warm fluid

For the cold fluid

Therefore, from Eqs. (5-14) and (5-15)

ⅱ) Enthalpy balances in total condensers

where m ḣ : rate of condensation of vapor

4) Rate of Heat Transfer

ⅱ) Average temperature of fluid stream

The local flux on a differential area dA is

where U : proportionality factor so called "local overall heat-transfer

ⅰ) Integration over total surface : logarithmic mean temp. difference

Since T c and T h vary linearly with q , ΔT does likewise and d( ΔT)/dq,

Eq. (5-24) can be written

ⅱ) Variable overall coefficient

where U 1 ,U 2 : local overall coefficient at ends of exchanger

Fig. 5-11 Temperature gradient in forced convection.

The change in temperature with distance is shown by the broken line

(ⅰ) One through each of the two fluids { viscous sublayer

Eliminating dq/dA from Eqs.(5-28) & (5-29)

Note that h must always be positive.