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 1

UNIT–01
UNIT-01/LECTURE-01
DATA COMMUNICATIONS

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Transmission of signals in a reliable and efficient matter.
COMMUNICATION MODEL
 The purpose of a communications system is to exchange data between two entities.
Source:

 Entity that generates data.For example a person who speaks into the phone, or a
computer sending data to the modem.
Transmitter:
m
 A device to transform/encode the signal generated by the source.The transformed

o
signal is actually sent over the transmission system.For example a modem transforms

.c
digital data to analog signal that can be handled by the telephone network.
Transmission System (Channel):
 Medium that allows the transfer of a signal from one point to another. For example a
telephone network for a computer/modem.
Receiver: a
m
 A device to decode the received signal for handling by destination device. For example

a
a modem converts the received analog data back to digital for the use by the
computer.
Destination:
n
y
 Entity that finally uses the data. For example Computer on other end of a receiving
modem.

d
Data Communications:

u
 Data communications is the transfer of information that is in digital form, before it

t
enters the communication system.
Basic Elements of a Communication System

S
 Signal s(t) Channel r(t) Output transducer Information source & input transducer
Transmitter Receiver n(t) Noise
 2

m
Information:
 Information generated by the source may be in the form of voice, a picture or a plain

o
text. An essential feature of any source that generates information is that its output is

.c
described in probabilistic terms; that is, the output is not deterministic. A transducer
is usually required to convert the output of a source in an electrical signal that is

a
suitable for transmission.
Transmitter:
 A transmitter converts the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for transmission
m
through the physical channel or transmission medium. In general, a transmitter

a
performs the matching of the message signal to the channel by a process called
modulation.
n
 The choice of the type of modulation is based on several factors, such as:

y
- the amount of bandwidth allocated,

d
- the type of noise and interference that the signal encounters in transmission
over the channel,

u
- and the electronic devices that are available for signal amplification prior to

t
transmission.
Channel:
S
 The communication channel is the physical medium that connects the transmitter to
the receiver. The physical channel may be a pair of wires that carry the electrical
signals, or an optical fibre that carries the information on a modulated light beam or
free space at which the information-bearing signal are electromagnetic waves.
Receiver:
 The function of a receiver is to recover the message signal contained in the received
signal. The main operations performed by a receiver are demodulation, filtering and
decoding.
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 3

UNIT-01/LECTURE-02
Analog And Digital Signals

Analog And Digital Signals:

The terms analog and digital correspond to continuous and discrete, respectively. These two
terms are frequently used in data communications.Analog data takes on continuous values
on some interval. The most familiar example of analog data is audio signal. Frequency
components of speech may be found between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. The basic speech energy is
concentrated between 300-3400 Hz. The frequencies up to 4000 Hz add very little to the
intelligibility of human ear. Another common example of analog data is video. The outputs of
many sensors, such as temperature and pressure sensors, are also examples of analog data.
Digital data takes on discrete values.Digital transmission is the transfer of information
through a medium in digital form. A digital signal can be transmitted only for a limited
distance.Data communications is the transfer of information that is in digital form, before it
enters the communication system.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
Time Domain: y
d
Time domain is the analysis of mathematical functions, physical signals or time series with

u
respect to time. In the time domain, the signal or function's value is known for all real

t
numbers, for the case of continuous time, or at various separate instants in the case of
discrete time.
S
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 4

Frequency Domain :

The frequency domain refers to the analysis of mathematical functions or signals with
respect to frequency. In other words a frequency-domain graph shows how much of the signal
lies within each given frequency band over a range of frequencies. A frequency-
domain representation can also include information on the phase shift that must be applied
to each sinusoid in order to be able to recombine the frequency components to recover the
original time signal.

m
o
.c
Composite Signal:
a
m
a
Composite signal is an indication of an exact reproduction of an image or picture on a
receiving end. The signal usually consists of intensity information and both horizontal and
vertical retrace signals.
n
y
d
u
t
S
Composite Signal

Bit Rate:

The bit rate is the number of bit intervals per second. This means that the bit rate is the
number of bits sent in one second, usually expressed in bits per second (bps).

Bit length:

Bit length is the number of binary digits, called bits, necessary to represent an integer
 5

Bandwidth:

Width of the spectrum or band of frequencies containing energy of the signal.

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal
or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a
channel or link. Often referred to as Capacity.
 The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or data. The bandwidth of this
line for data transmission
 can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the digital signal to
analog.
 If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases the bandwidth
to 8 kHz, we can send 112,000 bps by using the same technology.

Baseband transmission : (RGPV Dec 21012)

m
o
A type of digital data transmission in which each medium (wire) carries only one signal, or

.c
channel, at a time. Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source,
for example a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or

a
a video signal, digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM) or
more advanced source coding schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by

m
codec equipment. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation (also known as

a
detection) is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most common definition of
digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as

n
digital transmission, while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as

y
digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a form of digital-to-analog conversion.

d
u
t
S
Diagram (a) diagram (b)

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 What do you understand by baseband Dec.2012 4
transmission.
 6

UNIT-01/LECTURE-03
Broadband Transmission

Broadband Transmission : (RGPV dec 2013)

 Broadband transmission enables a single wire to carry multiple signals at the same
time. When we enter data into the computer via keyboard, each keyed element is
encoded by the electronics within the keyboard into an equivalent binary coded
pattern, using one of the standard coding schemes that are used for the interchange
of information. To represent all characters of the keyboard, a unique pattern of 7 or 8
bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits means that 128 different elements can be
represented, while 8 bits can represent 256 elements. A similar procedure is followed
at the receiver that decodes every received binary pattern into the corresponding
character.

m
o
.c
a
Diagram : m
Broadband Transmission
a
n
Attenuation: (RGPV dec 2012)


y
Reduction of signal strength during transmission. Attenuation is the opposite of

d
amplification, and is normal when a signal is sent from one point to another. If the signal
attenuates too much, it becomes unintelligible, which is why most networks require

u
repeaters at regular intervals. Attenuation is measured in decibels.

t
S
Distortion: (RGPV dec 2012)

 Distortion (or warping) is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of
something, such as an object, image, sound or waveform. Distortion is usually unwanted, and
so engineers strive to eliminate distortion, or minimize it. In some situations, however,
distortion may be desirable. The important signal processing operation of heterodyning is
based on nonlinear mixing of signals to cause intermodulation.

Noise :

 Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of

signals and data. Noise occurs in digital and analog systems, and can affect files and
communications of all types, including text, programs, images, audio, and telemetry.
 In a hard-wired circuit such as a telephone-line-based Internet hookup, external noise
 7

is picked up from appliances in the vicinity, from electrical transformers, from the
atmosphere, and even from outer space. Normally this noise is of little or no
consequence. However, during severe thunderstorms, or in locations were many
electrical appliances are in use, external noise can affect communications. In an
Internet hookup it slows down the data transfer rate, because the system must adjust
its speed to match conditions on the line. In a voice telephone conversation, noise
rarely sounds like anything other than a faint hissing or rushing

Nyquist bit rate :

In signal processing, the Nyquist rate, named after Harry Nyquist, is twice the bandwidth of a
bandlimited function or a bandlimited channel. This term means two different things under
two different circumstances:

1. as a lower bound for the sample rate for alias-free signal sampling

m
1. as an upper bound for the symbol rate across a bandwidth-limited baseband channel
such as a telegraph line or passband channel such as a limited radio frequency band or
a frequency division multiplex channel.
o
 .c
The Nyquist bit rate formula is use to calculate the theoretical maximum bit rate.
 Bit rate=2*bandwidth*log L
2 a

m
Where bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the signal level used to

a
represent data.

n
y
Nyquist rate relative to sampling (RGPV dec 2012)


d
When a continuous function, x(t), is sampled at a constant rate, f s (samples/second),

u
there is always an unlimited number of other continuous functions that fit the same

t
set of samples. But only one of them is bandlimited to ½ fs (hertz), which means that
its Fourier transform, X f , is for all |f| ≥ ½ fs (see Sampling theorem). The
S
mathematical algorithms that are typically used to recreate a continuous function
from samples create arbitrarily good approximations to this theoretical, but infinitely
long, function. It follows that if the original function, x(t), is bandlimited to ½ f s, which
is called the Nyquist criterion, then it is the one unique function the interpolation
algorithms are approximating. In terms of a function's own bandwidth (B), as depicted
above, the Nyquist criterion is often stated as fs > 2B. And 2B is called the Nyquist rate
for functions with bandwidth B. When the Nyquist criterion is not met (B > ½ fs), a
condition called aliasing occurs, which results in some inevitable differences between
x(t) and a reconstructed function that has less bandwidth. In most cases, the
differences are viewed as distortion.
 8

 Fig 2: The top 2 graphs depict Fourier transforms of 2 different functions that produce the
same results when sampled at a particular rate. The baseband function is sampled faster than
its Nyquist rate, and the bandpass function is undersampled, effectively converting it to

m
baseband (the high frequency shadows can be removed by a linear filter). The lower graphs
indicate how identical spectral results are created by the aliases of the sampling process.

o
Intentional aliasing .c
 a
It depicts a type of function called baseband or lowpass, because its positive-

m
frequency range of significant energy is [0, B). When instead, the frequency range is

a
(A, A+B), for some A > B, it is called bandpass, and a common desire (for various
reasons) is to convert it to baseband. One way to do that is frequency-mixing

n
(heterodyne) the bandpass function down to the frequency range (0, B). One of the
possible reasons is to reduce the Nyquist rate for more efficient storage. And it turns
y
out that one can directly achieve the same result by sampling the bandpass function

d
at a sub-Nyquist sample-rate that is the smallest integer-sub-multiple of frequency A
that meets the baseband Nyquist criterion: fs > 2B. For a more general discussion, see
u
bandpass sampling.

t
S
Nyquist rate relative to signaling

Shannon Capacity : (RGPV dec 2012)

To determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel, we can use

Shannon capacity.

Capacity= bandwidth * log2(1+SNR)

 9

When SNR is very high, we can use the following formula for calculate highest data

Rate then

Capacity = bacdwidth * SNRdb/3

SNR : signal to noise ratio

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q1 What do you understand by broadband transmission Dec 2013 4
Explain the nyquist criteria. Dec 2012 4
Q2
Discuss about Shannon capacity of channel. Dec 2012 4
Q3

m
Q4 Differentiate between aatenuation and distortion. Dec 2012 6

o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
 10

UNIT-01/LECTURE-04

Throughput: (RGPV dec 2012/2011)

1. In communication networks, such as Ethernet or packet radio, throughput or network

throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel.
This data may be delivered over a physical or logical link, or pass through a certain
network node. The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps),
and sometimes in data packets per second or data packets per time slot.
2. The system throughput or aggregate throughput is the sum of the data rates that are
delivered to all terminals in a network. Throughput is essentially synonymous to
digital bandwidth consumption; it can be analyzed mathematically by means of
queueing theory, here the load i packets per ti e u it is de oted arri al rate λ, a d
the throughput in packets per time unit is denoted departure rate μ.

Question : 1 m
o
.c
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute
with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?

Solution:
a
m
We can calculate the throughput as

a
n
y
d
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

u
DELEY: t
S
Propagation & Transmission delay

 Propagation speed - speed at which a bit travels though the medium from
source to destination.
 Transmission speed - the speed at which all the bits in a message arrive at
the destination. (difference in arrival time of first and last bit)
 Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed
 Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps
 Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay + Queueing time +
Processing time
 11

Diagram :

Propagation & Transmission delay

m
o
Question : 2

.c
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution: a
m
We can calculate the propagation time as

a
n
y
d
u
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a
direct cable between the source and the destination.

t
S
Question : 3

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if
the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and the
receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution:

We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as:

 12

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the
dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission
time can be ignored.

Question : 4

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if
the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and
the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution:

We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as: m

o
.c
a
m
a
Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very high,

n
the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The propagation time
can be ignored.

y
d
u
t
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Discuss the throughput and delay DEC2012 4

S Dec 2011 4
 13

UNIT-01/LECTURE-05

Bandwidth Delay Product : (RGPV dec 2012/2011)

1. In data communications, bandwidth-delay product refers to the product of a data

link's capacity and its end-to-end delay The result, an amount of data measured in bits
,is equivalent to the maximum amount of data on the network circuit at any given
time, i.e., data that has been transmitted but not yet acknowledged. Sometimes it is
calculated as the data link's capacity multiplied by its round trip time.
2. Ultra-high speed LANs may fall into this category, where protocol tuning is critical for
achieving peak throughput, on account of their extremely high bandwidth, even
though their delay is not great.
3. An important example of a system where the bandwidth-delay product is large is that
of GEO satellite connections, where end-to-end delivery time is very high and link

m
throughput may also be high. The high end-to-end delivery time makes life difficult for
stop-and-wait protocols and applications that assume rapid end-to-end response.
o
4. A high bandwidth-delay product is an important problem case in the design of

.c
protocols such as TCP in respect of performance tuning, because the protocol can only
achieve optimum throughput if a sender sends a sufficiently large quantity of data

a
before being required to stop and wait until a confirming message is received from
the receiver, acknowledging successful receipt of that data. If the quantity of data

m
sent is insufficient compared with the bandwidth-delay product, then the link is not
being kept busy and the protocol is operating below peak efficiency for the link.

a
Protocols that hope to succeed in this respect need carefully designed self-

n
monitoring, self-tuning algorithms. The TCP window scale option may be used to solve
this problem caused by insufficient window size, which is limited to 65535 bytes
without scaling.
y
d
Filling the link with bits for case 1

u
t
S
 14

Filling the link with bits in case 2

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
 d
The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

u
Concept of bandwidth-delay product

t
S

QUESTION:

Q : What is channel capacity of a noisy channel having BW = 4 khz. Given s/ n = 0

Sol : channel capacity for a noisy channel is given by

 15

𝑆
C = BW × (1+ )

= (4 × )× (1 + 0)

=0

Hence channel capacity is zero. It will not transmit data.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Discuss the bandwidth delay product ? DEC2012 4
Dec 2013 4

UNIT-01/LECTURE-06

m
o
.c
Jitter: (RGPV dec 2012/2013)

1. Jitter is the undesired deviation from true periodicity of an assumed periodic signal in
a
electronics and telecommunications, often in relation to a reference clock source.
Jitter may be observed in characteristics such as the frequency of successive pulses,
m
the signal amplitude, or phase of periodic signals. Jitter is a significant, and usually

a
undesired, factor in the design of almost all communications links.In clock recovery
applications it is called timing jitter.

n
2. Jitter can be quantified in the same terms as all time-varying signals, e.g., RMS, or

y
peak-to-peak displacement. Also like other time-varying signals, jitter can be
expressed in terms of spectral density.

d
3. Jitter period is the interval between two times of maximum effect (or minimum

u
effect) of a signal characteristic that varies regularly with time. Jitter frequency, the
more commonly quoted figure, is its inverse classifies jitter frequencies below 10 Hz
t
as wander and frequencies at or above 10 Hz as jitter.

S
4. Jitter may be caused by electromagnetic interference and crosstalk with carriers of
other signals. Jitter can cause a display monitor to flicker, affect the performance of
processors in personal computers, introduce clicks or other undesired effects in audio
signals, and loss of transmitted data between network devices. The amount of
tolerable jitter depends on the affected application.

Jitter metrics

For clock jitter, there are three commonly used metrics: absolute jitter, period jitter, and
cycle to cycle jitter.Absolute jitter is the absolute difference in the position of a clock's edge
from where it would ideally be.Period jitter is the difference between any one clock period
and the ideal/average clock period. Accordingly, it can be thought of as the discrete-time
derivative of absolute jitter. Period jitter tends to be important in synchronous circuitry like
digital state machines where the error-free operation of the circuitry is limited by the
 16

shortest possible clock period, and the performance of the circuitry is limited by the average
clock period. Hence, synchronous circuitry benefits from minimizing period jitter, so that the
shortest clock period approaches the average clock period.Cycle-to-cycle jitter is the
difference in length/duration of any two adjacent clock periods. Accordingly, it can be
thought of as the discrete-time derivative of period jitter. It can be important for some types
of clock generation circuitry used in microprocessors and RAM interfaces.Since they have
different generation mechanisms, different circuit effects, and different measurement
methodology, it is useful to quantify them separately.In telecommunications, the unit used
for the above types of jitter is usually the Unit Interval which quantifies the jitter in terms of a
fraction of the ideal period of a bit. This unit is useful because it scales with clock frequency
and thus allows relatively slow interconnects such as T1 to be compared to higher-speed
internet backbone links such as OC-192. Absolute units such as picoseconds are more
common in microprocessor applications. Units of degrees and radians are also used.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
In the normal distribution one standard deviation from the mean (dark blue) accounts for
about 68% of the set, while two standard deviations from the mean (medium and dark blue)

y
account for about 95% and three standard deviations (light, medium, and dark blue) account

d
for about 99.7%.

u
If jitter has a Gaussian distribution, it is usually quantified using the standard deviation of this

t
distribution Often, jitter distribution is significantly non-Gaussian. This can occur if the jitter is
caused by external sources such as power supply noise. In these cases, peak-to-peak
S
measurements are more useful. Many efforts have been made to meaningfully quantify
distributions that are neither Gaussian nor have meaningful peaks (which is the case in all
real jitter). All have shortcomings but most tend to be good enough for the purposes of
engineering work. Note that typically, the reference point for jitter is defined such that the
mean jitter is 0.In networking, in particular IP networks such as the Internet, jitter can refer
to the variation (statistical dispersion) in the delay of the packets.

Types

Random jitter

Random Jitter, also called Gaussian jitter, is unpredictable electronic timing noise. Random
jitter typically follows a Gaussian distribution or Normal distribution. It is believed to follow
 17

this pattern because most noise or jitter in an electrical circuit is caused by thermal noise,
which has a Gaussian distribution. Another reason for random jitter to have a distribution like
this is due to the central limit theorem. The central limit theorem states that composite
effect of many uncorrelated noise sources, regardless of the distributions, approaches a
Gaussian distribution. One of the main differences between random and deterministic jitter is
that deterministic jitter is bounded and random jitter is unbounded.

Deterministic jitter

Deterministic jitter is a type of clock timing jitter or data signal jitter that is predictable and
reproducible. The peak-to-peak value of this jitter is bounded, and the bounds can easily be
observed and predicted. Deterministic jitter can either be correlated to the data stream
(data-dependent jitter) or uncorrelated to the data stream (bounded uncorrelated jitter).
Examples of data-dependent jitter are duty-cycle dependent jitter (also known as duty-cycle
distortion) and intersymbol interference. Deterministic jitter has a known non-Gaussian
probability distribution.

m
o
.c
Q : A system sends a signal that can assume 8 different voltage levels. It sends 400 of these
signals per second. What is baud rate ?

a
Sol : Baud rate is defined as the number of signals transmitted per second. Since 400 symbols

m
are transmitted per second.
Baud rate = 400 symbols / sec

a
S.NO n
RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1
y
Explain the jitter and types of jitter Dec 7

d
2012
Dec

u 2013

t
S
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 18

UNIT-01/LECTURE-07

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 19

UNIT-01/LECTURE-08

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 20

UNIT-01/LECTURE-09

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 21

UNIT-02/LECTURE-10

m
o
An FM wave consists of infinite number of side bands so that the bandwidth is theoretically
infinite. But, in practice, the FM wave is effectively limited to a finite number of side band

.c
frequencies compatible with a small amount of distortion.

Carson’s Rule:-
a
m
An empirical formula for the bandwidth of a single tone wideband FM is given by carson s

a
rule. According to this rule, the Fm bandwidth is given by

= ∆𝜔 + 𝑚
n
= ∆𝜔 +
𝑚
y
d
∆𝜔
∆𝜔
Since =
u
𝑤𝑚 𝑓
𝑤𝑚
=
t
So ∆𝜔 𝑚𝑓

= S
∆𝜔 + 𝑚𝑓
radians
Or
= ∆ + Hz
𝑚𝑓
(i) When
∆𝜔 𝑚 (narrowband FM) i.e. 𝑓
Then
= 𝑚
Which is equivalent to AM

(ii) When

∆𝜔 𝑚 (wideband FM) i.e. 𝑓

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 22

Then
= ∆𝜔
DEVIATION RATIO:-

𝑃 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
=
ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 𝑖

∆
=
𝑚
Example:-
A carrier Acoswct is modulated by a signal f(t)= 2cos 10 4 πt + cos 3 πt + cos 4 πt
Find the bandwidth of the fm signal by using Carson s rule. Assume Kf=15 x 10 3 Hz per volt.
Also find modulation index mf.
Solution:-
The maximum frequency component in f (t) is 20 kHz.
The second term in f(t) has the maximum amplitude i.e. Em= 5 volts
Therefore the frequency deviation ∆ is given by, m
And devation ratio is given by o
.c
∆ ∆
𝑓 = =

a
m
𝑓 =

=
.
a
n
𝑓
And the bandwidth is given as
= ∆ + y
d 𝑓

= (
.
+ )
u
= t
𝐻
S ********
SOME REMARKS ABOUT PHASE MODULATION:-

The total phase angle of the PM signal is given by

𝛹𝑖 =𝜔 +𝐾

For a single tone modulating signal

= 𝑚 𝑤𝑚
Hence
𝛹𝑖 =𝜔 +𝐾 𝑚 𝑤𝑚
 23

the maximum departure in the phase is 𝐾 𝑚 . This is known as phase deviation denoted by
𝜃 . thus 𝜃 = 𝐾 𝑚 and the expression for the PM wave is

Ф𝑃 = cos 𝛹 𝑖 = [𝜔 +𝜃 𝑤𝑚 ]

The instantaneous frequency corresponding to 𝛹 𝑖 is given by

𝛹
𝜔𝑖= = 𝜔 −𝐾 𝑚 𝜔𝑚 𝑖 𝑤𝑚

The maximum departure in the frequency from 𝜔 is 𝐾 𝑚 𝜔 𝑚 .Therefore ,a frequency

deviation produced in PM is given as

∆ 𝑃 = 𝐾 𝑚 𝑚
Which is independent on the modulating frequency 𝑚.
The frequency deviation in FM is,

∆ 𝐹 = 𝐾 𝑚. m
There fore,for an equivalent bandwidth in PM and FM
o
𝐾 𝑚 = 𝐾 𝑚 𝑚
.c
a
𝐾 = 𝐾 𝑚
BANDWIDTH OF PM:-

The PM bandwidth is given by carson s rulem

𝑃 ≅ ∆ = 𝐾 𝑚 𝑚
a
n
The phase modulatin index 𝑝 is the same as the deviation 𝜃 and is given by
𝑝 = 𝐾 𝑚 =𝜃
y
d
Example:-
A odulati g sig al cos π15x103t,angle modulates carrier A coswct:

u
(i) Find the modulation index and the bandwidth for fm and pm system.

t
(ii) Determine the change in the bandwidth and the modulation index for both fm and pm ,if
fm is reduced to 5 kHz.
S
Solution:-
Given Am =5 , fm = 15 kHz
I)
FM system
Frequency deviation
∆ =
Assume = = 15 kHz/volt
So
∆ =
∆ = 𝐻

Therefore, modulation index

 24

∆
=

=
=
𝑖 ℎ= +
𝑖 ℎ= +
𝑖 ℎ=
𝑖 ℎ= 𝐻

PM system
Frequency deviation
∆ =
∆ =
∆ = 𝑀𝐻

m
modulation index
=
=
o
.c
=
Corresponding band width
𝑖 ℎ = ∆ since ∆ is so much greater than fm
𝑖 ℎ=
𝑖 ℎ= 𝑀𝐻
𝑀𝐻
a
m
a
The band width is quite large as compared to FM.this is because the Modulation index in PM
is quite large

n
y
(i) Now, if fm = 5kHz

d
For FM: The deviation ∆ is independent of fm, and remains 75 KHz.

u
=
t
= S
𝑖 ℎ= +
𝑖 ℎ= +
𝑖 ℎ=
𝑖 ℎ= 𝐻
Thus in FM the modulation index changes considerably with a change in the modulating
frequency, but the bandwidth changes only slightly.
For PM:
Deviation ∆ is dependent on fm and is given by
∆ =
∆ =
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 25

∆ = 𝑀𝐻
Hence
𝑖 ℎ= ∆ since ∆ is so much greater than fm 𝑖 ℎ= 𝑀𝐻
𝑖 ℎ= 𝑀𝐻
The modulation index is independent of fm,so
=
=
=
= 𝐻

*******

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 1

UNIT–02
UNIT-02/LECTURE-01

Data Transmission:

Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of

data over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such
channels are copper wires, optical fibres, wireless communication channels, storage media
and computer buses. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an
electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave, or infrared signal.

While analog transmission is the transfer of a continuously varying analog signal, digital
communications is the transfer of discrete messages. The messages are either represented by
a sequence of pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission), or by a limited set of
m
continuously varying wave forms (passband transmission), using a digital modulation

o
method. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation (also known as
detection) is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most common definition of

.c
digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as
digital transmission, while an alternative definition only considers the baseband signal as

a
digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a form of digital-to-analog conversion.

m
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example a

a
computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or a video signal,
digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM) or more advanced

n
source coding schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment.

y
When we enter data into the computer via keyboard, each keyed element is encoded by the

d
electronics within the keyboard into an equivalent binary coded pattern, using one of the

u
standard coding schemes that are used for the interchange of information. To represent all
characters of the keyboard, a unique pattern of 7 or 8 bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits

t
means that 128 different elements can be represented, while 8 bits can represent 256

S
elements. A similar procedure is followed at the receiver that decodes every received binary
pattern into the corresponding character.

The most widely used codes that have been adopted for this function are the Extended
Binary Coded Decimal (EBCDIC) and the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
codes (ASCII). Both coding schemes cater to all the normal alphabetic, numeric, and
punctuation characters, collectively referred to as printable characters and a range of
additional control characters, known as non-printable characters.Data transmission refers to
the movement of data in form of bits between two or more digital devices.This transfer of
data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example, coaxial cable, fiber optics
etc.)
 2

Types of Data Transmission

m
o
1. Parallel Transmission

.c
Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different subunits are
too short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate wire

a
to carry each bit of data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is
exchanged using a parallel transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal delays in
transferring each word.
m
a
• I parallel tra s issio , all the its of data are tra s itted si ulta eously o separate
communication lines.
n
y
• I order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.

• All d
its of o e group are tra s itted ith ea h lo k pulse fro o e de i e to a other i.e.
u
multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.

t
• Parallel tra s issio is used for short distance communication.
S
As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to
 3

receiver.

Advantage of parallel transmission

m
It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a
single clock pulse.
o
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
.c
a
It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same

m
time.

a
n
y
d
u
S.NO t RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1
S How data transmission occur in data
communication.
Dec2012 7

Q.2 Explain the parallel transmission of data. June2010 5

 4

UNIT-02/LECTURE-02

TRANSMISSION MODES(RGPV DEC-2012)

 Data is transmitted between two digital devices on the network in the form of bits.
 Transmission mode refers to the mode used for transmitting the data. The transmission
medium may be capable of sending only a single bit in unit time or multiple bits in unit
time.
 When a single bit is transmitted in unit time the transmission mode used is Serial
Transmission and when multiple bits are sent in unit time the transmission mode used
is called Parallel transmission.

Types of Transmission Modes

m
There are two basic types of transmission modes Serial and Parallel as shown in the figure
below.

o
Serial transmission is further categorized into Synchronous and Asynchronous Serial

.c
transmission

a
m
a
n
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d
u
t
S
FIG:-Types of Transmission Modes

Serial Transmission (RGPV/ Dec.2012)

When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the separation
is more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single pair
of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval for each bit.
This mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.

• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the
other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from
 5

sender to receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to
destination. Then least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by
other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single
communication line.
• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to
change this parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side
so that it can be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the
interval circuitry of computer can accept it
• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Diagram :

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
Advantage of Serial transmission

S
Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as
compared to parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in
overall transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted
serially one after the other.

Types of Serial Transmission

• There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these
transmissions use 'Bit synchronization'
 6

• Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning

and end of the data transmission occurs.
• Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end
during a transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.

Asynchronous Transmission (RGPV/Dec.2013)

• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is

either a letter of the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of
data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.
• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new
group of bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished,
one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s
are called stop bits.

m
o
.c
a
m
• a
Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is

n
consumed in asynchronous transmission.

y
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is
also known as Gap

d
u
•
t
The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called

S
Asynchronous, because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be
synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be synchronized with the incoming
bit stream.

Application of Asynchronous Transmission

1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape
devices. The advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at
the terminal or the computer as transmission takes place character by character.
 7

2 Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is

transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.

m
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

o
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g.

.c
If lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low
and idle time will not be expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character
a
is corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be
affected.
m
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.

a
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

n
y
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

d
1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the

u
overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These
t
bits can be missed or corrupted.

S
Application

 Keyboard

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain the asynchronous transmission. Dec.2013 6
Q.2 Explain the serial transmission Dec.2012 4
 8

UNIT-02/LECTURE-03

Synchronous Transmission

• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.

• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain
multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

m
o
.c
a
• m
In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender

• a
& receiver by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.

n
Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility
of receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original

•
information.
y
d
In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same
clock frequency.

u
t
Application of Synchronous transmission

•
S
Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.

Advantage of Synchronous transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit
& stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at

the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized
clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires
 9

proper synchronization which makes the system complicated.

Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission:

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous. :

y
d
u
t
S
 10

DATA FLOW

 The devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can flow
between the two devices in the following ways.

1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex

Simplex

m
o
.c
a

m
In Simplex, communication is unidirectional Only one of the devices sends the data and the

a
other one only receives the data.
 Simplex communication refers to communication that occurs in one direction only. Two

n
definitions have arisen over time: a common definition, which is used in ANSI standard and

y
elsewhere, and an ITU-T definition.


d
Example: in the above diagram: a CPU send data while a monitor only receives data

Half Duplex
u
t
S

 In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa (as shown in figure above.)
 11

 A half-duplex system provides communication in both directions, but only one direction at a
time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the
transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying.

 An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system such as a walkie-talkie,

wherein one must use "Over" or another previously designated command to indicate
the end of transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time, because
both parties transmit and receive on the same frequency.

 Example: A walkie-talkie

Full Duplex

m
o
.c
a
m

 a
In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
Example: mobile phones

n
y
S.NO
d RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1
u
Differentiate between synchronous and June 2013 4

t
asynchronous transmission. Dec 2012 4

S
 12

UNIT-04/LECTURE-04

ENCODING:-Unipolar, Polar & Bipolar (RGPV JUNE-2011)

Digital Data to Digital Signal Coding methods Coding methods are used to convert digital
data into digital signals. There are two types of coding methods:
1 Line Coding
2 Block Coding

Scrambling is also one of the ways to convert digital data to digital signals but is not used.
Line Encoding It is the process of converting Digital data into digital signal. In other
words, it is converting of binary data(i.e. A sequence of bits) into digital signal (i.e. a sequence
of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses)

m
o
.c
a
Classification of Line Codes The following figure shows the classification of Line coding
schemes:
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S

Figure : Classification of line coding schemes

 13

A Unipolar
 All signal levels are either above or below the time axis.
 NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The signal level does not return
to zero during a symbol transmission.

B Polar
 NRZ-voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
 Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.

There are two variations:

 NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative for the other

 NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity determines the value of a
symbol. E.g. a ―1‖ symbol inverts the polarity a ―0‖ does not.

m
Polar – RZ
 The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.

o
.c
 Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low to zero

 More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error detection capability

a
m
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Figure : Unipolar(NRZ) & Polar(RZ & NRZ) Encoding.

 14

Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

Manchester coding is a combination of NRZ-L and RZ schemes.

Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low to high.
It uses only two voltage levels.

Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.

Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the beginning of the symbol
is determined by the symbol value. One symbol causes a level change the other does not.

m
o
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a
m
a
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Figure : Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester coding schemes

y
C Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
 This coding scheme uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols
d
 Voltage level for one symbol is at ―0‖ and the other alternates between + & -.

u
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) –
 the ―0‖ symbol is represented by zero voltage and the ―1‖ symbol alternates between +V
t
and -V.

S
Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI

Figure: Bipolar coding scheme - AMI and Pseudoternary

 15

m
o
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a
NRZ(Non-Return-Zero) (RGPV/ Dec 2012) m
a
n
• Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme,
in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. It is
y
called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.

d
• Compared with its polar counterpart, Polar NRZ, this scheme is very expensive. The
normalized power (power required to send 1 bit per unit line resistance) is double
u
that for polar NRZ. For this reason, this scheme is not normally used in data

t
communications today.

S
Return to zero codes (RGPV/ Dec 2012)

• Return-to-zero (RZ) describes a line code used in telecommunications signals in which

the signal drops (returns) to zero between each pulse. This takes place even if a
number of consecutive 0s or 1s occur in the signal. The signal is self-clocking. This
means that a separate clock does not need to be sent alongside the signal, but suffers
from using twice the bandwidth to achieve the same data-rate as compared to non-
return-to-zero format.
• The "zero" between each bit is a neutral or rest condition, such as a zero amplitude in
pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), zero phase shift in phase-shift keying (PSK), or
mid-frequency in frequency-shift keying (FSK). That "zero" condition is typically
halfway between the significant condition representing a 1 bit and the other
significant condition representing a 0 bit.
 16

• Although return-to-zero (RZ) contains a provision for synchronization, it still has a DC

component resulting in baseline wander during long strings of 0 or 1 bits, just like
the line code non-return-to-zero.
• Bipolar Line Encoding
• In telecommunication, bipolar encoding is a type of line code, where two nonzero values are
used, so that the three values are +,-, and zero. Such a signal is called a duobinary signal.
Bipolar encoding typically has at least a rough a balance of +'s and -'s.

m
o
.c
•
a
One kind of bipolar encoding is a paired disparity code. The simplest example of this is
alternate mark inversion. In this code, a binary 0 is encoded as zero volts, as in unipolar

m
encoding, whereas a binary 1 is encoded alternately as a positive voltage or a negative

a
voltage. The name arose because, in the context of a T-carrier, a binary '1' is referred to as a
"mark", while a binary '0' is called a "space".

n
y
S.NO
d RGPV QUESTIONS(IT) Year Marks

u
Q.1 Explain the RZ and NRZ codes DEC2013 4
Dec 2012 4
S.NO t RGPV QUESTIONS(CS) Year Marks

.
Q.1
S
Explain the various encoding schemes briefly. Dec 2011 7
 17

UNIT-02/LECTURE-05

Line Codes (RGPV Dec 2011 / june 2013)

• In base band transmission best way is to map digits or symbols into pulse waveform.
• This waveform is generally termed as Line codes.
• RZ: Return to Zero [ pulse for half the duration of Tb ]
• NRZ Return to Zero[ pulse for full duration of Tb ]

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m
a
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Unipolar NRZ

• 1 maps to +A pulse 0 maps to no pulse

• Poor timing
• Low-frequency content
• Simple
 18

• Long strings of 1s and 0s ,synchronization problem

Polar - (NRZ)

• 1 maps to +A pulse 0 to –A pulse

• Better Average Power
• simple to implement
• Long strings of 1s and 0s ,synchronization problem
• Poor timing

Bipolar Code
m
o
.c
a
m
• Three signal levels: {-A, 0, +A} a
•
• n
1 maps to +A or –A in alternation

y
0 maps to no pulse
• Long string of 0’s causes receiver to loose synchronization
•
d
Suitable for telephone systems.

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t
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Manchester coding:
• 1 maps into A/2 first for Tb/2, and -A/2 for next Tb/2
• 0 maps into -A/2 first for Tb/2, and A/2 for Tb/2
• Every interval has transition in middle
– Timing recovery easy
• Simple to implement
Suitable for satellite telemetry and optical communications
 19

UNIT-02/LECTURE-06

Synchronization and Zeroes

1. Bipolar encoding is preferable to non-return-to-zero whenever signal transitions are

required to maintain synchronization between the transmitter and receiver. Other
systems must synchronize using some form of out-of-band communication, or add
frame synchronization sequences that don't carry data to the signal. These alternative
approaches require either an additional transmission medium for the clock signal or a
loss of performance due to overhead, respectively. A bipolar encoding is an often
good compromise: runs of ones will not cause a lack of transitions.
2. However, long sequences of zeroes remain an issue. Long sequences of zero bits
result in no transitions and a loss of synchronization. Where frequent transitions are a

m
requirement, a self-clocking encoding such as return-to-zero or some other more
complicated line code may be more appropriate, though they introduce significant
overhead.
o
.c
3. The coding was used extensively in first-generation PCM networks, and is still
commonly seen on older multiplexing equipment today, but successful transmission

a
relies on no long runs of zeroes being present. No more than 15 consecutive zeros
should ever be sent to ensure synchronization.

m
4. There are two popular ways to ensure that no more than 15 consecutive zeros are
ever sent: robbed-bit signaling and bit stuffing.

a
5. T-carrier uses robbed-bit signaling: the least-significant bit of the byte is simply forced

n
to a "1" when necessary.
6. The modification of bit 7 causes a change to voice that is undetectable by the human

y
ear, but it is an unacceptable corruption of a data stream. Data channels are required

d
to use some other form of pulse-stuffing,such as always setting bit 8 to '1', in order to
maintain a sufficient density of ones.

u
7. If the characteristics of the input data do not follow the pattern that every eighth bit

t
is '1', the coder using alternate mark inversion adds a '1' after seven consecutive zeros
to maintain synchronisation. On the decoder side, this extra '1' added by the coder is
S
removed, recreating the correct data. Using this method the data sent between the
coder and the decoder is longer than the original data by less than 1% on average. Of
course, this lowers the effective data throughput to 56 kbit/s per channel.

Error detection

• Another benefit of bipolar encoding compared to unipolar is error detection. In the T-

carrier example, the bipolar signals are regenerated at regular intervals so that signals
diminished by distance are not just amplified, but detected and recreated anew.
Weakened signals corrupted by noise could cause errors, a mark interpreted as zero,
or zero as positive or negative mark. Every single-bit error results in a violation of the
bipolar rule. Each such bipolar violation (BPV) is an indication of a transmission error.
 20

Baud

• Baud is synonymous to symbols per second or pulses per second. It is the unit of
symbol rate, also known as baud or modulation rate; the number of distinct symbol
changes (signaling events) made to the transmission medium per second in a digitally
modulated signal or a line code. Baud is related to but should not be confused with
gross bit rate expressed as bits per second, bps, b/s, bit/s or bits/s. However, though
technically incorrect, in the case of modem manufacturers baud commonly refers to
bits per second. They make a distinction by also using the term characters per second
(CPS). In these anomalous cases, refer to the modem manufacturer's documentation
to ensure an understanding of their use of the term "baud".
• The symbol duration time, also known as unit interval, can be directly measured as
the time between transitions by looking into an eye diagram of an oscilloscope. The
symbol duration time Ts can be calculated as:

m
•
• o
where fs is the symbol rate. There is also a chance of miscommunication which leads

.c
to ambiguity.
• example: A baud of 1 kBd = 1,000 Bd is synonymous to a symbol rate of 1,000 symbols per

a
second. In case of a modem, this corresponds to 1,000 tones per second, and in case of a line
code, this corresponds to 1,000 pulses per second. The symbol duration time is 1/1,000

•
second = 1 millisecond.
m
In digital systems (i.e., using discrete/discontinuous values) with binary code, 1 Bd = 1
a
bit/s. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to

n
represent information and in these systems the exact informational size of 1 Bd varies

y
d
Modem (RGPV/ Dec 2012)

Modem,
u

t
moden short for modulator-demodulator is an electronic device that converts a

S
computer’s digital signals into specific frequencies to travel over telephone or cable
television lines. At the destination, the receiving modem demodulates the frequencies
back into digital data. Computers use modems to communicate with one another over a
network. The modem has significantly evolved since the 1970s when the 300 baud
modem was used for connecting computers to bulletin board systems (BBSs). With this
type of modem, each bit, represented digitally by a 1 or 0, was transmitted as a specific
tone. The receiving modem responded with its own dedicated frequencies so that the
modems could “talk at the same time.”
 The technical term for this type of modem is Asynchronous.
 Image of modem:
 21

Types of modem: External modem:

1. External modems. m
2. Usb modem
o
.c
3. Cable modem:
4. Wireless modem

a
5. Gprs modem
6. High speed modem
7. Null modem
m
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S.NO n
RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS
Q.1
y
What is modem and explain its type ? DEC2012 7

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 22

UNIT-02/LECTURE-07

Types of modem: External modem:

1. External modems. It is the second term we have to consider from different types of
computer modem. An External modem can be used to the same purpose and in the
same conditions as internal computer modem. However, external modem is a small box
that uses other kind of interfaces to be connected to the computer.

m
o
.c
2. Usb modem: It could be a serial modem, named thus because it uses the serial port to
a
connect to the computer. Usually installed on the back of the computer, the serial port
is an easy-to-install option for the external modem. The same small box, on the other

m
hand, can be an USB modem, which normally uses USB port usually placed on the back

a
or in front of the computer.

n
y
d
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3. Cable modem:
The cable modem uses a coaxial cable television lines to provide greater bandwidth than the
dial-up computer modem. An extremely fast access to the Web is providing by the cable
modem with downstream transmission up to 38 Mbits/s and an upstream transmission up to 1
Mbits/s.
 23

4. Wireless modem:
Some Internet Service Providers supports wireless internet services. The wireless

m
modems are used for this service. These modems work similar to traditional wired

o
modems except its structure.

.c
a
m
a
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5. Gprs modem:
The GPRS modems are used to browser internet and for other communication using the GPRS
services. The GPRS (General Packet Radio Signals) service is provided on the cellular
networks. If we have cellular connection then we can communicate using the GPRS modems.
The GPRS services are costly as compared with other communication services.
 24

6. High speed modem:

56k modems are designed to take advantage of the new digital telephone networks. These
use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) to convert your voice, fax or modem signal into a
digital stream at your local exchange. The amplitude of the analog signal is measured
8000 times per second. Each measurement produces a PCM code in the form of an
eight bit byte to represent the amplitude.
7. Null modem:

m
Null modem is a communication method to connect two DTEs (computer, terminal,

o
printer etc.) directly using an RS-232serial cable. The RS-232 standard is asymmetrical
as to the definitions of the two ends of the communications link so it assumes that one

.c
end is a DTE and the other is a DCE e.g. a modem. With a null modem connection, the
transmit and receive lines are crosslinked. Depending on the purpose, sometimes also

a
one or more handshake lines are crosslinked. Several wiring layouts are in use because
the null modem connection is not covered by a standard
Advantages:
m
a
1. More useful in connecting LAN with the Internet
2. Speed depends on the cost
Disadvantages: n
y
1. Acts just as a interface between LAN and Internet

d
2. No traffic maintenance is present

u
t
S.NO
Q.1
S RGPV QUESTION
Explain the functioning of modem
YEAR
DEC 2011
MARKS
7
 25

UNIT-02/LECTURE-08

Point to point (RGPV/ Dec 2012)

• In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communications

connection between two nodes or endpoints. An example is a telephone call, in which
one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one caller can only be
heard by the other. This is contrasted with a point-to-multipoint or broadcast
communication topology, in which many nodes can receive information transmitted
by one node. Other examples of point-to-point communications links are leased lines,
microwave relay links, and two way radio. Examples of point-to-multipoint
communications systems are radio and television broadcasting.
• The term is also used in computer networking and computer architecture to refer to a

m
wire or other connection that links only two computers or circuits, as opposed to
other network topologies such as buses or crossbar switches which can connect many
communications devices.
o
Basic point-to-point data link
.c
•
a
A traditional point-to-point data link is a communications medium with exactly two

m
endpoints and no data or packet formatting. The host computers at either end had to
take full responsibility for formatting the data transmitted between them. The

a
connection between the computer and the communications medium was generally
implemented through an RS-232 interface, or something similar. Computers in close
n
proximity may be connected by wires directly between their interface cards .
•
y
When connected at a distance, each endpoint would be fitted with a modem to
convert analog telecommunications signals into a digital data stream. When the
d
connection used a telecommunications provider, the connections were called a

u
dedicated, leased, or private line. The ARPANET used leased lines to provide point-to-

t
point data links between its packet-switching nodes, which were called Interface
Message Processors.

S
Modern point-to-point links

• In 2003, the term point-to-point telecommunications relates to fixed wireless data

communications for Internet or voice over IP via radio frequencies in the multi-
gigahertz range. It also includes technologies such as laser for telecommunications but
in all cases expects that the transmission medium is line of sight and capable of being
fairly tightly beamed from transmitter to receiver. The Telecommunications Industry
Association's engineering committees develop U.S. standards for point-to-point
communications and related cellular tower structures. Online tools help users find if
they have such line of sight.
• The telecommunications signal is typically bi-directional, either time division multiple
access (TDMA) or channelized.
• In hubs and switches, a hub provides a point-to-multipoint (or simply multipoint)
 26

circuit which divides the total bandwidth supplied by the hub among each connected
client node. A switch on the other hand provides a series of point-to-point circuits, via
microsegmentation, which allows each client node to have a dedicated circuit and the
added advantage of having full-duplex connections.

Q: Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d=0.

Sol: For QPSK 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This means that r=2.So the signal rate
(baud rate) is S=N × (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d=0 we have B=S=6 Mhz

S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Explain the point to point configuration. Dec2012 7

m
o
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a
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a
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 27

UNIT-02/LECTURE-09

Point to multipoint configuration (RGPV/ Dec 2012)

Point to Multi-Point Network Diagram

m
o
.c
a
m
Description: a
n
•
y
Point to multi-point networks are used to connect one location to one or more
remote locations. The above diagram shows three connected multi-user networks
d
(using a Hub or Switch). Any location may be configured as a Direct connection

• u
(without a Hub or Switch).

t
Air-Frame 100 at location B can be used to create many, co-located point to multi-
point networks or cells.

•
•
S
Applications:
Internet, Intranet or Extranet configurations. ISP access networks. LAN to LAN
applications (bridged or routed see below). Remote data capture (Telemetry or
SCADA). Remote Control. Remote Monitoring, Security, Hub and Spoke, Conferencing.

Bridged or Routed:

• In a bridged connection (Air-Frame 10 or 100 range) the network traffic is sent from
one location to all other locations and consists of:
• Traffic for a PC or system on any other network i.e. traffic from location A to, say, a
system at location B, is also received by Location C (but is only sent once over the
radio) and is placed on the local LAN at C by the bridging function.
• In effect all the locations operate as a single, fully transparent LAN. Where one or more
 28

locations consist of many PCs or systems the broadcast traffic alone can be considerable and
consideration should be given to using a routed network. In addition the redundant traffic
• received at each location can stress the local LAN network and cause security
concerns. In this case also a routed solution should be considered.
• In a routed connection (Air-Frame 100 range) the traffic is sent from one location to
all other Locations consists and consists only of:
• Traffic for a PC or system on any other network i.e. traffic from location A to, say, a
system at location B, is also received by Location C (but is only sent once). The routing
function however prevents this redundant traffic from being placed on the local LAN
at C.
• In this configuration the LANs operate independently but communication is enabled
between them.

Q.1
S.NO RGPV QUESTION
Explain the point to multipoint m
YEAR
Dec2012
MARKS
7
configuration.
o
.c
Q.2 Explain the line configuration DEC2012 7

a
m
a
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 29

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a
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 1

UNIT–03
UNIT-03/LECTURE-01

Telephone Network (RGPV dec 2011)

A telephone network is a telecommunications network used for telephone calls between two
or more parties.

There are a number of different types of telephone network:

 A fixed line network where the telephones must be directly wired into a single
telephone exchange. This is known as the public switched telephone network or PSTN.
 A wireless network where the telephones are mobile and can move around anywhere
within the coverage area.
m
o
 A private network where a closed group of telephones are connected primarily to
each other and use a gateway to reach the outside world. This is usually used inside

.c
companies and call centres and is called a private branch exchange (PBX).

a
Public telephone operators (PTOs) own and build networks of the first two types and provide
services to the public under license from the national government. Virtual Network Operators

m
(VNOs) lease capacity wholesale from the PTOs and sell on telephony service to the public

a
directly.

Network Topology
n

y
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a

d
computer network. Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be
depicted physically or logically. Physical topology refers to the placement of the
u
network's various components, including device location and cable installation, while

t
logical topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical

S
design. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates,
and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be
identical.
 A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one or
more physical links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links
results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the
network. Conversely, mapping the data flow between the components determines
the logical topology of the network.
 2

1. Mesh Topology

 In a mesh network, devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between
network nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in
the network. There are two types of mesh topologies:
 Full mesh topology occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every other node

m
in a network. Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of
redundancy, so in the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to

 o
any of the other nodes. Full mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks.
Partial mesh topology is less expensive to implement and yields less

.c
redundancy than full mesh topology. With partial mesh, some nodes are organized in a full
mesh scheme but others are only connected to one or two in the network. Partial mesh

a
topology is commonly found in peripheral networks connected to a full meshed backbone.

m
2. Star Topology

a
n
y
d
 u
In a star network devices are connected to a central computer, called a hub. Nodes

t
communicate across the network by passing data through the hub.

S
Advantage:

 In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantage:

 If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes unusable

 3

3. Bus Topology

 Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects
all devices on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often
used to describe the main network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks
are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet systems use
a bus topology.

Advantage:
m
 o
.c
It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it requires less cable than a star
topology.

Disadvantage: a
 m
a
The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and it can be difficult to
identify the problem if the network shuts down.

n
y
d
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Discuss the telephone network with network Dec2011 7
u
topology.

t
S
 4

UNIT-03/LECTURE-02

4. Ring Topology

 Ring Topology: A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all of the
nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each
node reading those messages addressed to it. One main advantage to a ring network

m
is that it can span larger distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks,

o
because each node regenerates messages as they pass through it.

.c
5. Tree Topology

a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t

S
This is a "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. In a
tree network, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone
cable.

Advantage:

 A Tree topology is a good choice for large computer networks as the tree topology
"divides" the whole network into parts that are more easily manageable.
 5

Disadvantage:

 The entire network depends on a central hub and a failure of the central hub can cripple the
whole network.

Signaling (RGPV dec 2013)

 Signalling System No. 7 (SS7) is a set of telephony signaling protocols which are being
used to set up most of the world's public switched telephone network (PSTN)
telephone calls. The main purpose is to set up and tear down telephone calls. Other
uses include number translation, local number portability, prepaid billing
mechanisms, short message service (SMS), and a variety of other mass market
services.

Functionality

m
 The term signaling, when used in telephony, refers to the exchange of control
information associated with the setup and release of a telephone call on a
o
telecommunications circuit. An example of this control information is the digits dialed

.c
by the caller, the caller's billing number, and other call-related information.
 When the signaling is performed on the same circuit that will ultimately carry the

a
conversation of the call, it is termed channel associated signaling (CAS). This is the
case for earlier analogue trunks, MF and R2 digital trunks, and DSS1/DASS PBX trunks.

m
 In contrast, SS7 signaling is termed Common Channel Signaling (CCS) in that the path
and facility used by the signaling is separate and distinct from the telecommunications

a
channels that will ultimately carry the telephone conversation. With CCS, it becomes

n
possible to exchange signaling without first seizing a voice channel, leading to
significant savings and performance increases in both signaling and channel usage.

y
Because of the mechanisms used by signaling methods prior to SS7 (battery reversal,

d
multi-frequency digit outpulsing, A- and B-bit signaling), these older methods could
not communicate much signaling information. Usually only the dialed digits were

u
signaled, and only during call setup. For charged calls, dialed digits and charge number

t
digits were outpulsed. SS7, being a high-speed and high-performance packet-based
communications protocol, can communicate significant amounts of information when
S
setting up a call, during the call, and at the end of the call. This permits rich call-
related services to be developed. Some of the first such services were call
management related, call forwarding (busy and no answer), voice mail, call waiting,
conference calling, calling name and number display, call screening, malicious caller
identification, busy callback.
 The earliest deployed upper layer protocols in the SS7 signaling suite were dedicated
to the setup, maintenance, and release of telephone calls. The Telephone User Part
(TUP) was adopted in Europe and the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) User
Part (ISUP) adapted for public switched telephone network (PSTN) calls was adopted
in North America. ISUP was later used in Europe when the European networks
upgraded to the ISDN. (North America never accomplished full upgrade to the ISDN
and the predominant telephone service is still the older POTS). Due to its richness and
the need for an out-of-band channel for its operation, SS7 signaling is mostly used for
 6

signaling between telephone switches and not for signaling between local exchanges
and customer-premises equipment (CPE).
 Because SS7 signaling does not require seizure of a channel for a conversation prior to the
exchange of control information, non-facility associated signalling (NFAS) became
possible. NFAS is signaling that is not directly associated with the path that a
conversation will traverse and may concern other information located at a centralized
database such as service subscription, feature activation, and service logic. This makes
possible a set of network-based services that do not rely upon the call being routed to
a particular subscription switch at which service logic would be executed, but permits
service logic to be distributed throughout the telephone network and executed more
expediently at originating switches far in advance of call routing. It also permits the
subscriber increased mobility due to the decoupling of service logic from the
subscription switch. Another characteristic of ISUP made possible by SS7 with NFAS is
the exchange of signaling information during the middle of a call.
 Also possible with SS7 is Non-Call-Associated Signaling, which is signaling that is not
directly related to the establishment of a telephone call. An example of this is the

m
exchange of the registration information used between a mobile telephone and a

o
home location register (HLR) database: a database that tracks the location of the
mobile. Other examples include Intelligent Network and local number portability

.c
databases.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS

a Year Marks
m
Q.1 Explain the telephone network technology & Dec.2013 6

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signalling SS7 for data communication.

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 7

UNIT-03/LECTURE-03

Physical network

1. SS7 separates signalling from the voice circuits. An SS7 network must be made up of
SS7-capable equipment from end to end in order to provide its full functionality. The
network can be made up of several link types (A, B, C, D, E, and F) and three signaling
nodes - Service switching point (SSPs), signal transfer point (STPs), and service control
point (SCPs). Each node is identified on the network by a number, a signalling point
code. Extended services are provided by a database interface at the SCP level using
the SS7 network.
2. The links between nodes are full-duplex 56, 64, 1,536, or 1,984 kbit/s graded
communications channels. In Europe they are usually one (64 kbit/s) or all (1,984

m
kbit/s) timeslots (DS0s) within an E1 facility; in North America one (56 or 64 kbit/s) or
all (1,536 kbit/s) timeslots (DS0As or DS0s) within a T1 facility. One or more signaling

o
links can be connected to the same two endpoints that together form a signaling link

.c
set. Signaling links are added to link sets to increase the signaling capacity of the link
set.

a
3. In Europe, SS7 links normally are directly connected between switching exchanges
using F-links. This direct connection is called associated signaling. In North America,

m
SS7 links are normally indirectly connected between switching exchanges using an
intervening network of STPs. This indirect connection is called quasi-associated

a
signaling. Quasi-associated signaling reduces the number of SS7 links necessary to

n
interconnect all switching exchanges and SCPs in an SS7 signaling network.

Dial-Up Modems
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d
1. Dial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public

u
switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish a dialed connection to an Internet

t
service provider (ISP) via telephone lines. The user's computer or router uses an
attached modem to encode and decode Internet Protocol packets and control

S
information into and from analogue audio frequency signals, respectively.
2. Dial-up connections to the Internet require no infrastructure other than the
telephone network and the modems and servers needed to make and answer the
calls. Where telephone access is widely available, dial-up remains useful and it is often
the only choice available for rural or remote areas, where broadband installations are
not prevalent due to low population density and high infrastructure cost. Dial-up
access may also be an alternative for users on limited budgets, as it is offered free by
some ISPs, though broadband is increasingly available at lower prices in many
countries due to market competition.
3. Dial-up requires time to establish a telephone connection (up to several seconds,
depending on the location) and perform configuration for protocol synchronization
before data transfers can take place. In locales with telephone connection charges,
each connection incurs an incremental cost. If calls are time-metered, the duration of
 8

the connection incurs costs.

4. Dial-up access is a transient connection, because either the user, ISP or phone
company terminates the connection. Internet service providers will often set a limit
on connection durations to allow sharing of resources, and will disconnect the user—
requiring reconnection and the costs and delays associated with it. Technically
inclined users often find a way to disable the auto-disconnect program such that they
can remain connected for days.

Modem (RGPV dec 2013)

 A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier

signal to encode digital information and demodulates the signal to decode the
transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily
and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used with any
means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. The most
familiar type is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a computer into

m
modulated electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a telephone channel.

o
These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by another
modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

.c
 Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of
time, usually expressed in bits per second (bit/s or bps), or bytes per second (B/s).

a
Modems can also be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit
denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a

m
new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency shift keying with
two possible frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit per
a
symbol), to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22

n
standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols (two bits per
symbol), transmitted 1,200 bits by sending 600 symbols per second (600 baud) using
phase shift keying.
y
Modem standards d
u
t
1. Dial-up modems utilize traditional copper phone lines to transmit analog signals. Out
of all types of modems — dial-up, ISDN, DSL, cable — dial-up connections offer the
S
slowest transmission speeds.
2. The CCITT, an international committee that specifies the way modems and fax machines
transmit information to ensure compatibility among modems, has classified dial-up modems
according to the following modulation standards:

 Bell 103M & 212A: Older standards, Bell 103 transmits at 300 bps at 300 baud and
212A transmits at 1200 bps at 600 baud.
 V.21: Capable of only 300 bps, it is an international standard used mainly outside of
the U.S.
 V.22: Capable of 1200 bps at 600 baud. Used mainly outside the U.S.
 V.22bis: Used in the U.S. and out, it is capable of 2400 bps at 600 baud.
 V.23: Used mainly in Europe, it allows the modem to send and receive data at the
same time at 75 bps.
 9

 V.29: A one-way (half-duplex) standard that is used mostly for fax machines. Capable
of 9600 bps.
 V.32: A full-duplex standard capable of 9600 bps at 2400 baud. V.32 modems
automatically adjust their transmission speeds based on the quality of the lines.
 V.32bis: A second version of V.32, it is capable of 14,400 bps. It will also fallback onto
V.32 if the phone line is impaired.
 V.32ter: The third version of V.32, capable of 19,200 bps.
 V.34: Capable of 28,000 bps or fallback to 24,000 and 19,200. This standard is
backwards compatible with V.32 and V.32bis.
 V.34bis: Capable of 33,600 bps or fallback to 31,200.
 V.42: Same transfer rate as V.34 but is more reliable because of error correction.
 V.42bis: A data compression protocol that can enable modems to achieve a data
transfer rate of 34,000 bps.
 V.44: Allows for compression of Web pages at the ISP end and decompression by the
V.44-compliant modem, so transmitting the same information requires fewer data
packets.

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V.90: The fastest transmissions standard available for analog transmission, it is capable

o
of 56,000 bps.
 V.92: Transmits at the same speed as V.90 but offers a reduced handshake time and an

.c
on-hold feature

a
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S.NO
Q.1 a
RGPV QUESTIONS
Discuss the modem with modem standards.
Year
dec 2013 4
Marks

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 10

UNIT-03/LECTURE-04

List of dialup speeds

 These values are maximum values, and actual values may be slower under certain
conditions (for example, noisy phone lines). For a complete list see the companion
article list of device bandwidths. A baud is one symbol per second; each symbol may
encode one or more data bits.

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Digital subscriber line (RGPV dec 2013)

 Digital subscriber line is a family of technologies that provide Internet access by

transmitting digital data over the wires of a local telephone network. In
telecommunications marketing, the term DSL is widely understood to mean
asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL), the most commonly installed DSL
technology. DSL service is delivered simultaneously with wired telephone service on
the same telephone line. This is possible because DSL uses higher frequency bands for
 11

data. On the customer premises, a DSL filter on each non-DSL outlet blocks any high
frequency interference, to enable simultaneous use of the voice and DSL services.
 The bit rate of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit/s to over 100
Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL technology,
line conditions, and service-level implementation. Bit rates of 1 Gbit/s have been
reached in trials. In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (the
direction to the service provider) is lower, hence the designation of asymmetric
service. In symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) services, the downstream and
upstream data rates are equal.
 When you connect to the Internet, you might connect through a regular modem,
through a local-area network connection in your office, through a cable modem or
through a digital subscriber line (DSL) connection. DSL is a very high-speed
connection that uses the same wires as a regular telephone line.

Advantages of DSL:


m
You can leave your Internet connection open and still use the phone line for voice

o
calls.
 The speed is much higher than a regular modem

.c
 DSL doesn't necessarily require new wiring; it can use the phone line you already
have.

a
The company that offers DSL will usually provide the modem as part of the
installation.

Disadvantages: m
a
n
 A DSL connection works better when you are closer to the provider's central office.
The farther away you get from the central office, the weaker the signal becomes.

y
The connection is faster for receiving data than it is for sending data over the Internet.

d
 The service is not available everywhere.

Telephone Lines
u
 t
If you have read How Telephones Work, then you know that a standard telephone
S
installation in the United States consists of a pair of copper wires that the phone
company installs in your home. The copper wires have lots of room for carrying more
than your phone conversations -- they are capable of handling a much greater
bandwidth, or range of frequencies, than that demanded for voice. DSL exploits this
"extra capacity" to carry information on the wire without disturbing the line's ability
to carry conversations. The entire plan is based on matching particular frequencies to
specific tasks.
 To understand DSL, you first need to know a couple of things about a normal
telephone line the kind that telephone professionals call POTS, for Plain Old
Telephone Service. One of the ways that POTS makes the most of the telephone
company's wires and equipment is by limiting the frequencies that the switches,
telephones and other equipment will carry. Human voices, speaking in normal
conversational tones, can be carried in a frequency range of 0 to 3,400 Hertz (cycles
 12

per second -- see How Telephones Work for a great demonstration of this). This range
of frequencies is tiny. For example, compare this to the range of most stereo
speakers, which cover from roughly 20 Hertz to 20,000 Hertz. And the wires
themselves have the potential to handle frequencies up to several million Hertz in
most cases.
 The use of such a small portion of the wire's total bandwidth is historical remember
that the telephone system has been in place, using a pair of copper wires to each
home, for about a century. By limiting the frequencies carried over the lines, the
telephone system can pack lots of wires into a very small space without worrying
about interference between lines. Modern equipment that sends digital rather than
analog data can safely use much more of the telephone line's capacity. DSL does just
that.
 A DSL internet connection is one of many effective communication tools for keeping
employees in touch with the office

m
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS
oYear Marks

.c
Q.1 Discuss DSL with its advantages and DEC2013 4
disadvantages.

a
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a
n
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d
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 13

UNIT-03/LECTURE-05

ADSL (RGPV dec 2012)

 Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a type of digital subscriber line (DSL)
technology, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission
over copper telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. It
does this by utilizing frequencies that are not used by a voice telephone call. A
splitter, or DSL filter, allows a single telephone connection to be used for both ADSL
service and voice calls at the same time. ADSL can generally only be distributed over
short distances from the telephone exchange (the last mile), typically less than 4
kilometres , but has been known to exceed 8 kilometres if the originally laid wire
gauge allows for further distribution.

m
At the telephone exchange the line generally terminates at a digital subscriber line
access multiplexer (DSLAM) where another frequency splitter separates the voice
o
band signal for the conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL are

.c
typically routed over the telephone company's data network and eventually reach a
conventional Internet Protocol network.

a
 FDD uses two separate frequency bands, referred to as the upstream and
downstream bands. The upstream band is used for communication from the end user

m
to the telephone central office. The downstream band is used for communicating
from the central office to the end user.
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DSL

 Currently, most ADSL communication is full-duplex. Full-duplex ADSL communication

is usually achieved on a wire pair by either frequency-division duplex (FDD), echo-
cancelling duplex (ECD), or time-division duplex (TDD). FDD uses two separate
frequency bands, referred to as the upstream and downstream bands. The upstream
band is used for communication from the end user to the telephone central office.
The downstream band is used for communicating from the central office to the end
user.
 14

 Frequency plan for ADSL Red area is the frequency range used by normal voice telephony
(PSTN), the green (upstream) and blue (downstream) areas are used for ADSL.
 With commonly deployed ADSL over POTS , the band from 26.075 kHz to 137.825 kHz
is used for upstream communication, while 138 kHz – 1104 kHz is used for
downstream communication. Under the usual DMT scheme, each of these is further
divided into smaller frequency channels of 4.3125 kHz. These frequency channels are
sometimes termed bins. During initial training to optimize transmission quality and
speed, the ADSL modem tests each of the bins to determine the signal-to-noise ratio
at each bin's frequency. Distance from the telephone exchange, cable characteristics,

m
interference from AM radio stations, and local interference and electrical noise at the
modem's location can adversely affect the signal-to-noise ratio at particular

o
frequencies. Bins for frequencies exhibiting a reduced signal-to-noise ratio will be

.c
used at a lower throughput rate or not at all; this reduces the maximum link capacity
but allows the modem to maintain an adequate connection. The DSL modem will
make a plan on how to exploit each of the bins, sometimes termed "bits per bin"
a
allocation. Those bins that have a good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) will be chosen to
transmit signals chosen from a greater number of possible encoded values (this range
m
of possibilities equating to more bits of data sent) in each main clock cycle. The

a
number of possibilities must not be so large that the receiver might incorrectly
decode which one was intended in the presence of noise. Noisy bins may only be
n
required to carry as few as two bits, a choice from only one of four possible patterns,

y
or only one bit per bin in the case of ADSL2+, and very noisy bins are not used at all. If
the pattern of noise versus frequencies heard in the bins changes, the DSL modem can
d
alter the bits-per-bin allocations, in a process called "bitswap", where bins that have

u
become more noisy are only required to carry fewer bits and other channels will be

t
chosen to be given a higher burden. The data transfer capacity the DSL modem
therefore reports is determined by the total of the bits-per-bin allocations of all the

S
bins combined. Higher signal-to-noise ratios and more bins being in use gives a higher
total link capacity, while lower signal-to-noise ratios or fewer bins being used gives a
low link capacity.
 The total maximum capacity derived from summing the bits-per-bin is reported by
DSL modems and is sometimes termed sync rate. This will always be rather
misleading, as the true maximum link capacity for user data transfer rate will be
significantly lower; because extra data are transmitted that are termed protocol
overhead, reduced figures for PPPoA connections of around 84-87 percent, at most,
being common. In addition, some ISPs will have traffic policies that limit maximum
transfer rates further in the networks beyond the exchange, and traffic congestion on
the Internet, heavy loading on servers and slowness or inefficiency in customers'
computers may all contribute to reductions below the maximum attainable. When a
wireless access point is used, low or unstable wireless signal quality can also cause
 15

reduction or fluctuation of actual speed.

 In fixed-rate mode, the sync rate is predefined by the operator and the DSL modem chooses a
bits-per-bin allocation that yields an approximately equal error rate in each bin.In variable-
rate mode, the bits-per-bin are chosen to maximize the sync rate, subject to a tolerable error
risk. These choices can either be conservative, where the modem chooses to allocate fewer
bits per bin than it possibly could, a choice which makes for a slower connection, or less
conservative in which more bits per bin are chosen in which case there is a greater risk case of
error should future signal-to-noise ratios deteriorate to the point where the bits-per-bin
allocations chosen are too high to cope with the greater noise present. This conservatism,
involving a choice of using fewer bits per bin as a safeguard against future noise increases, is
reported as the signal to-noise ratio margin or SNR margin. The telephone exchange can
indicate a suggested SNR margin to the customer's DSL modem when it initially
connects, and the modem may make its bits-per-bin allocation plan accordingly. A
high SNR margin will mean a reduced maximum throughput, but greater reliability
and stability of the connection. A low SNR margin will mean high speeds, provided the
noise level does not increase too much; otherwise, the connection will have to be
dropped and renegotiated (resynced). ADSL2+ can better accommodate such
m
circumstances, offering a feature termed seamless rate adaptation (SRA), which can

o
accommodate changes in total link capacity with less disruption to communications.

.c
a
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 Frequency spectrum of modem on ADSL line
 Vendors may support usage of higher frequencies as a proprietary extension to the

y
standard. However, this requires matching vendor-supplied equipment on both ends

d
of the line, and will likely result in crosstalk problems that affect other lines in the
same bundle.

u
There is a direct relationship between the number of channels available and the

t
throughput capacity of the ADSL connection. The exact data capacity per channel

S
depends on the modulation method used.
 ADSL initially existed in two versions (similar to VDSL), namely CAP and DMT. CAP was
the de facto standard for ADSL deployments up until 1996, deployed in 90 percent of
ADSL installations at the time. However, DMT was chosen for the first ITU-T ADSL
standards, G.992.1 and G.992.2 (also called G.dmt and G.lite respectively). Therefore
all modern installations of ADSL are based on the DMT modulation scheme.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 What is the purpose of DSLAM. Why is ADSL is Dec 2012 7
unsuitable for business.
Which DSL technology is best suited for DEC 2013 4
businessman.
 16

UNIT-03/LECTURE-06

SDSL

Symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) can have two meanings:

 In the wider sense it is a collection of Internet access technologies based on DSL that
offer symmetric bandwidth upstream and downstream, including IDSL, HDSL, HDSL2,
G.SHDSL, and the SDSL variant below. It is considered the opposite of asymmetric
digital subscriber line (ADSL) technologies where the upstream bandwidth is lower
than the downstream bandwidth.
 In the narrow sense SDSL is a particular proprietary and non-standardized DSL variant
that supports data only on a single line and does not support analog calls, see below.

Proprietary SDSL technology m

o
.c
 SDSL is a rate-adaptive digital subscriber line (DSL) variant with T1/E1-like data rates
(T1: 1.544 Mbit/s, E1: 2.048 Mbit/s). It runs over one pair of copper wires, with a

a
maximum range of 10,000 feet (3,000 m). It cannot co-exist with a conventional voice
service on the same pair as it takes over the entire bandwidth.

VDSL (RGPV dec 2012) m

 a
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL) is a digital subscriber line
n
(DSL) technology providing data transmission faster than ADSL over a single flat

y
untwisted or twisted pair of copper wires (up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16 Mbit/s
upstream), and on coaxial cable (up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream) using the
d
frequency band from 25 kHz to 12 MHz. These rates mean that VDSL is capable of

u
supporting applications such as high-definition television, as well as telephone

t
services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a single connection. VDSL is
deployed over existing wiring used for analog telephone service and lower-speed DSL

 S
connections. This standard was approved by ITU in November 2001.
Second-generation systems (VDSL2; ITU-T G.993.2 approved in February 2006) use
frequencies of up to 30 MHz to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/s
simultaneously in both the upstream and downstream directions. The maximum
available bit rate is achieved at a range of about 300 meters; performance degrades
as the loop attenuation increases.

VDSL standards

 A VDSL connection uses up to seven frequency bands, so one can allocate the data
rate between upstream and downstream differently depending on the service
offering and spectrum regulations. First generation VDSL standard specified both
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) and discrete multi-tone modulation (DMT).
 17

In 2006, ITU-T standardized VDSL in recommendation G.993.2 which specified only

DMT modulation for VDSL2.

Multiplexing

 In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing is a method by which

multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal
over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in
telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire.

m
Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the 1870s, and is now widely applied in
communications. In telephony, George Owen Squier is credited with the development
of telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.
o
.c
 The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a
physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the high-level

a
communication channel into several low-level logical channels, one for each message
signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing,

m
can extract the original channels on the receiver side.
 A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device

 a
that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).

n
Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break
one data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several

y
communication channels, and recreate the original data stream.

d
Frequency-division multiplexing (RGPV dec 2013)

u
t
S

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrum of each input signal is shifted to a

distinct frequency range.
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM
achieves the combining of several signals into one medium by sending signals in
several distinct frequency ranges over a single medium.
 One of FDM's most common applications is the old traditional radio and television
broadcasting from terrestrial, mobile or satellite stations, using the natural
 18

atmosphere of Earth, or the cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer's
residential area, but the service provider can send multiple television channels or
signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers without interference.
Receivers must tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired
signal.

S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Explain the working principle of VDSL. DEC 2012 7
Q.2 Differentiate between FDM TDM and DEC 2013 7
FDM

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 19

UNIT-03/LECTURE-07

Time-division multiplexing

1. Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology

which uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data

m
streams. TDM involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual
input stream, one after the other, and in such a way that they can be associated with

o
the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently quickly, the receiving devices will not

.c
detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve another logical communication
path.

a
2. Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central
computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 bit/s, so rather than acquire four

m
individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a
pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 bit/s modems and one dedicated analog

a
communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are
also installed.
n
3. Carrier sense multiple access and multidrop communication methods are similar to

y
time-division multiplexing in that multiple data streams are separated by time on the
same medium, but because the signals have separate origins instead of being
d
combined into a single signal, are best viewed as channel access methods, rather than

u
a form of multiplexing.

t
Wave length division multiplexing

S
1. In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical
fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e., colors) of laser light. This technique enables
bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of
capacity.
2. The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical carrier
(which is typically described by its wavelength), whereas frequency-division
multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier (which is more often described by
frequency). Since wavelength and frequency are tied together through a simple
directly inverse relationship, in which the product of frequency and wavelength
equals c (the propagation speed of light), the two terms actually describe the same
concept.
3. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a method of combining multiple signals
 20

on laser beams at various infared (IR) wavelengths for transmission along fiber optic
media. Each laser is modulated by an independent set of signals. Wavelength-
sensitive filters, the IR analog of visible-light color filters, are used at the receiving
end.
4. WDM is similar to frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). But instead of taking place
at radio frequencies (RF), WDM is done in the IR portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Each IR channel carries several RF signals combined by means of FDM or
time-division multiplexing (TDM). Each multiplexed IR channel is separated, or
demultiplexed, into the original signals at the destination. Using FDM or TDM in each
IR channel in combination with WDM or several IR channels, data in different formats
and at different speeds can be transmitted simultaneously on a single fiber.
5. In early WDM systems, there were two IR channels per fiber. At the destination, the IR
channels were demultiplexed by a dichroic (two-wavelength) filter with a cutoff
wavelength approximately midway between the wavelengths of the two channels. It
soon became clear that more than two multiplexed IR channels could be
demultiplexed using cascaded dichroic filters, giving rise to coarse wavelength-

m
division multiplexing (CWDM) and dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM).

o
In CWDM, there are usually eight different IR channels, but there can be up to 18. In
DWDM, there can be dozens. Because each IR channel carries its own set of

.c
multiplexed RF signals, it is theoretically possible to transmit combined data on a
single fiber at a total effective speed of several hundred gigabitsper second (Gbps).

a
6. The use of WDM can multiply the effective bandwidth of a fiber optic communications
system by a large factor, but its cost must be weighed against the alternative of using

m
multiple fibers bundled into a cable. A fiber optic repeater device called the erbium
amplifier can make WDM a cost-effective long-term solution.
a
n
Pulse code modulation

y
1. Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a digital scheme for transmitting analogdata. The

d
signals in PCM are binary; that is, there are only two possible states, represented by
logic 1 (high) and logic0 (low). This is true no matter how complex the analog

u
waveform happens to be. Using PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data,

t
including full-motion video, voices, music, telemetry, and virtual reality (VR).

S
2. To obtain PCM from an analog waveform at the source (transmitter end) of a
communications circuit, the analog signal amplitude is sampled (measured) at regular
time intervals.The sampling rate, or number of samples per second, is several times
the maximum frequency of the analog waveform in cycles per second or hertz. The
instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal at each sampling is rounded off to the
nearest of several specific, predetermined levels. This process is called quantization.
The number of levels is always a power of 2.for example, 8, 16, 32, or 64. These
numbers can be represented by three, four, five, or six binary digits (bits)respectively.
The output of a pulse code modulator is thus a series of binary numbers, each
represented by some power of 2bits.
3. At the destination (receiver end) of the communications circuit, a pulse code
demodulator converts the binary numbers back into pulses having the same quantum
levels as those in the modulator. These pulses are further processed to restore the
 21

original analog waveform.

PDH (RGPV dec 2012/2013)

1. The plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in

telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital
transport equipment such as fibre optic and microwave radio systems. The term
plesiochronous is derived from Greek plēsios, meaning near, and chronos, time, and
refers to the fact that PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the
network are nearly, but not quite perfectly, synchronised.
2. PDH is typically being replaced by synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) or synchronous
optical networking (SONET) equipment in most telecommunications networks.
3. PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the same rate,
but allowing some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. By analogy, any two
watches are nominally running at the same rate, clocking up 60 seconds every minute.
However, there is no link between watches to guarantee they run at exactly the same

m
rate, and it is highly likely that one is running slightly faster than the other.

Implementation
o
.c
1. The data rate is controlled by a clock in the equipment generating the data. The rate is

a
allowed to vary by ±50 ppm of 2.048 Kbit/s (according to ITU-T recommendation. This
means that different data streams can be (probably are) running at slightly different

m
rates to one another.
2. In order to move multiple data streams from one place to another, they are

a
multiplexed in groups of four. This is done by taking 1 bit from stream #1, followed by

n
1 bit from stream #2, then #3, then #4. The transmitting multiplexer also adds
additional bits in order to allow the far end receiving multiplexer to decode which bits

y
belong to which data stream, and so correctly reconstitute the original data streams.

d
These additional bits are called "justification" or "stuffing" bits.
3. Because each of the four data streams is not necessarily running at the same rate,

u
some compensation has to be introduced. The transmitting multiplexer combines the

t
four data streams assuming that they are running at their maximum allowed rate. This
means that occasionally, (unless the 2 Mbit/s really is running at the maximum rate)
S
the multiplexer will look for the next bit but it will not have arrived. In this case, the
multiplexer signals to the receiving multiplexer that a bit is "missing". This allows the
receiving multiplexer to correctly reconstruct the original data for each of the four 2
Mbit/s data streams, and at the correct, different, plesiochronous rates.
4. The resulting data stream from the above process runs at 8.448 Mbit/s (about 8
Mbit/s). Similar techniques are used to combine four × 8 Mbit/s together, plus bit
stuffing, giving 34 Mbit/s. Four × 34 Mbit/s, gives 140. Four × 140 gives 565.

S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Explain the working principle of VDSL. DEC 2012 7
Q.2 Differentiate between FDM TDM and DEC 2013 7
FDM
 22

UNIT-03/LECTURE-08

Difference Between Pdh And Sdh (RGPV dec 2011/2013)

SDH which stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy was developed recently and was made to
do away with PDH's weaknesses while PDH which stands for Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy,
is a type that is used for of data transferring data mainly in large file groups. PDH was made
around 1990 is cheap and compatible compared to SDH.

Stm 1 frame

STM-1

m
o
 The STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module level-1) is the SDH ITU-T fiber optic
network transmission standard. It has a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s. Higher levels go up

.c
by a factor of 4 at a time: the other currently supported levels are STM-4, STM-16,
STM-64 and STM-256. Beyond this we have wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
commonly used in submarine cabling.
a
Frame structure
m

a
The STM-1 frame is the basic transmission format for SDH (Synchronous Digital

n
Hierarchy). A STM-1 frame has a byte-oriented structure with 9 rows and 270 columns
of bytes, for a total of 2,430 bytes (9 rows * 270 columns = 2430 bytes). Each byte
y
corresponds to a 64kbit/s channel.

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 23

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TOH: Transport Overhead (RSOH + AU4P + MSOH)
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 MSOH: Multiplex Section Overhead
.c
a
 RSOH: Regeneration Section Overhead
 AU4P: AU-4 Pointers

m
VC4: Virtual Container-4 payload (POH + VC-4 Data)

 POH: Path Overhead a

n
Frame characteristics
y
d
The STM-1 base frame is structured with the following characteristics:

 u
Length: 270 column × 9 row = 2430 bytes

t
Byte: 1-byte = 64kbit/s speech channel

 S
Duration Fra e repetitio ti e : 5 μs i.e. 8 fra e/s
Rate (Frame capacity): 2430 × 8 × 8000 = 155.520 Mbit/s
 Payload = 2349bytes × 8bits × 8000frames/sec = 150.336 Mbit/s

RSOH (regenerator section overhead)

 24

 1st row = Unscrambled bytes. Their contents should therefore be monitored

 X = Bytes reserved for national use
 D = Bytes depending on the medium (satellite, radio relay system, ...)

The Regenerator Section OverHead uses the first three rows & nine columns in the STM-1
frame

 A1, A2 The Frame Alignment Word is used to recognize the beginning of an STM-N
frame
 A1: 1111 0110 = F6 (HEX)
 A2: 0010 1000 = 28 (HEX)
 J0: Path Trace. It is used to give a path through an SDH Network a "Name". This
message (Name) enables the receiver to check the continuity of its connection with


the desired transmitter
m
B1: Bit Error Monitoring. The B1 Byte contains the result of the parity check of the
o
previous STM frame, after scrambling of the actual STM frame. This check is carried

.c
out with a Bit Interleaved Parity check (BIP-8).
 E1 Engineering Orderwire (EOW). It can be used to transmit speech signals between

a
Regenerator Sections for operating and maintenance purposes
 F1 User Channel. It is used to transmit data and speech for service and maintenance

m
 D1 to D3 Data Communication Channel at 192 kbit/s (DCCR). This channel is used to
transmit management information via the STM-N frames

a
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S.NO
y
RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

d
Q.1 Discuss the standards of sdh Dec2013 7
hierarchy. Dec2011 4

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 25

UNIT-03/LECTURE-09

MSOH (multiplex section overhead) (RGPV dec 2011)

m
o
.c
X = Bytes reserved for national use.

a
The Multiplex Section OverHead uses the 5th through 9th rows, and first 9 columns in the
STM-1 frame.

 m
B2 : Bit Error Monitoring. The B2 Bytes contains the result of the parity check of the
a
previous STM frame, except the RSOH, before scrambling of the actual STM frame.

n
This check is carried out with a Bit Interleaved Parity check (BIP24)
 K1, K2 Automatic Protection Switching (APS). In case of a failure, the STM frames can

y
be routed new with the help of the K1, K2 Bytes through the SDH Network. Assigned

d
to the multiplexing section protection (MSP) protocol
 K2 (Bit6,7,8) MS_RDI: Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication (former MS_FERF:

u
Multiplex Section Far End Receive Failure)

t
D4 to D12 Data Communication Channel at 576 kbit/s (DCCM). (See also D1-D3 in

S
RSOH above)
 S1 (Bit 5 - 8) Synchronization quality level:
o 0000 Quality unknown
o 0010 G.811 10-11/day frequency drift
o 0100 G.812T transit 10-9 /day frequency drift
o 1000 G.812L local 2*10-8/day frequency drift
o 1011 G.813 5*10-7/day frequency drift
o 1111 Not to be used for synchronization
 E2 Engineering Orderwire (EOW). Same function as E1 in RSOH
 M1 MS_REI: Multiplex Section Remote Error Indicator, number of interleaved bits
which have been detected to be erroneous in the received B2 bytes. (former
MS_FEBE: Multiplexing Section Far End Block Errored)
 Z1, Z2 Spare bytes
 26

Question:

Five channels each with a 100khz bandwidth are to be multiplied together.What is the
minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 khz between the
channels to prevent interference.

Solution:

For five channels we need at least four guard bands.This means that the required bandwidth
is at least 5 × 100 ÷ 4 × 10 = 540 khz.

S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Define
overhead.
multiplex section Dec 2011
m 4

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 27

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 1

UNIT–04
UNIT-04/LECTURE-01

Switching Techniques

Switching is a technique which is used in large network,large I mean those networks that
contains large no. of node,wire,device etc.In this type of networks it is difficult to connect
nodes point to point.So in this situation we used Switching Technique.In simple words
Switching is a hardware or software device which create a connection between one or more
than one device/node/computer.

Packet Switching


m
Packet switching features delivery of variable bitrate data streams (sequences of

o
packets) over a shared network which allocates transmission resources as needed
using statistical multiplexing or dynamic bandwidth allocation techniques. When

.c
traversing network adapters, switches, routers, and other network nodes, packets are
buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the

 a
network's capacity and the traffic load on the network.
Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit

m
switching, a method which sets up a limited number of dedicated connections of

a
constant bit rate and constant delay between nodes for exclusive use during the
communication session. In cases where traffic fees are charged (as opposed to flat

n
rate), for example in cellular communication services, circuit switching is

y
characterized by a fee per unit of connection time, even when no data is transferred,
while packet switching is characterized by a fee per unit of information transmitted

 d
(characters, packets, messages)

u
Packet mode communication may be utilized with or without intermediate forwarding
nodes (packet switches or routers). Packets are normally forwarded by intermediate
t
network nodes asynchronously using first-in, first-out buffering, but may be

S
forwarded according to some scheduling discipline for fair queuing, traffic shaping, or
for differentiated or guaranteed quality of service, such as weighted fair queuing or
leaky bucket. In case of a shared physical medium (radio, 10BASE5 or thick Ethernet,),
the packets may be delivered according to a multiple access scheme.
 Packet switching features delivery of variable bitrate data streams (sequences of
packets) over a shared network which allocates transmission resources as needed
using statistical multiplexing or dynamic bandwidth allocation techniques. When
traversing network adapters, switches, routers, and other network nodes, packets are
buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the
network's capacity and the traffic load on the network.
 Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit
switching, a method which sets up a limited number of dedicated connections of
constant bit rate and constant delay between nodes for exclusive use during the
communication session. In cases where traffic fees are charged (as opposed to flat
 2

rate), for example in cellular communication services, circuit switching is

characterized by a fee per unit of connection time, even when no data is transferred,
while packet switching is characterized by a fee per unit of information transmitted
(characters, packets, messages.

Circuit Switching

 Circuit switching is a methodology of implementing a telecommunications network in

which two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit)
through the network before the nodes may communicate. The circuit guarantees the
full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected for the duration of the
communication session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were physically
connected as with an electrical circuit.
 The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early analog telephone
network. When a call is made from one telephone to another, switches within the
telephone exchanges create a continuous wire circuit between the two telephones,


for as long as the call lasts.
m
o
Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which divides the data to be
transmitted into packets transmitted through the network independently. In packet

.c
switching, instead of being dedicated to one communication session at a time,
network links are shared by packets from multiple competing communication

a
sessions, resulting in the loss of the quality of service guarantees that are provided by
circuit switching.

m
In circuit switching, the bit delay is constant during a connection, as opposed to
packet switching, where packet queues may cause varying and potentially indefinitely
a
long packet transfer delays. No circuit can be degraded by competing users because it

n
is protected from use by other callers until the circuit is released and a new
connection is set up. Even if no actual communication is taking place, the channel
y
remains reserved and protected from competing users.

d
Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching technology that emulates circuit
switching, in the sense that the connection is established before any packets are
u
transferred, and packets are delivered in order.

t
While circuit switching is commonly used for connecting voice circuits, the concept of

S
a dedicated path persisting between two communicating parties or nodes can be
extended to signal content other than voice. Its advantage is that it provides for
continuous transfer without the overhead associated with packets making maximal
use of available bandwidth for that communication. Its disadvantage is that it can be
relatively inefficient because unused capacity guaranteed to a connection cannot be
used by other connections on the same network.

Hybrid Switching (RGPV Dec2012)

 Our new-generation Hybrid Switch Technology represents a major evolution. With full
bandwidth for SDH and packet connections, it offers traffic switching in native formats and the
deployment flexibility of non-blocking connectivity, using patent-pending technology.
 The new technology provides a bandwidth of 480Gb/s for both TDM circuits and packet
connections, with the native-format traffic switching including native SDH cross-connecting,
 3

free of circuit emulation penalties for TDM switching. Similarly, native packet switching is
achieved without any stranded bandwidth.
 Non-blocking connectivity enables every input to connect to any output, while offering native
multicast broadcast functionality, with Fujitsu s technology reducing the overall complexity of
the system and increasing its throughput.

Single Bit Error And Burst Error

 When data is being transmitted from one machine to another, it may be possible that
data become corrupted on its, way. Some of the bits may be altered, damaged or lost
during transmission. Such a condition is known as error.
 The error may occur because of noise on line, attenuation and delay distortion. For
reliable communication, it is important that errors are detected and corrected.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS

mYear Marks
Q.1 Explain briefly about the hybrid switching
oDec2012 7

.c
technique
Q.2 Explain the packet switching technique. Dec 2012 7
Q.3 What is circuit switching? Discuss how packet Dec 2013 7
a
switching is better than circuit switching for
communication.
m
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 4

UNIT-04/LECTURE-02

Type of Errors (RGPV Dec2013)

There are two main types of errors in transmissions:

1 single bit error

2 burst error

m
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Single bit error:
a

m
It means only one bit of data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 as shown in

a
fig.

n
y
d
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 Single bit error can happen in parallel transmission where all the data bits are
transmitted using separate wires. Single bit errors are the least likely type of error in
serial transmission.
 5

Burst Error:

 It means two or more bits in data unit are changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1 as shown
in fig.

m
o
 In burst error, it is not necessary that only consecutive bits are changed. The length of
burst error is measured from first changed bit to last changed bit. As shown in fig.

.c
length of burst error is 8, although some bits are unchanged in between. Burst error is
most likely to occur in a serial transmission. The noise occurring for a longer duration

a
affects multiple bits. The number of bits affected depends on the data rate & duration
of noise. For e.g. if data rate is 1 kbps, a noise of 1/100 second can affect 10 bits.

m
a
Error Detection Schemes


n
Error detection is most commonly realized using a suitable hash function (or

y
checksum algorithm). A hash function adds a fixed-length tag to a message, which
enables receivers to verify the delivered message by recomputing the tag and

 d
comparing it with the one provided.

u
There exists a vast variety of different hash function designs. However, some are of
particularly widespread use because of either their simplicity or their suitability for

t
detecting certain kinds of errors (e.g., the cyclic redundancy check's performance in

S
detecting burst errors).
 Random-error-correcting codes based on minimum distance coding can provide a
suitable alternative to hash functions when a strict guarantee on the minimum
number of errors to be detected is desired. Repetition codes, described below, are
special cases of error-correcting codes: although rather inefficient, they find
applications for both error correction and detection due to their simplicity.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain the types of error in data communication Dec.2013 6
 6

UNIT-04/LECTURE-03

Error Detection (RGPV DEC-2013)

 Error detection is most commonly realized using a suitable hash function (or checksum
algorithm). A hash function adds a fixed-length tag to a message, which enables receivers to
verify the delivered message by recomputing the tag and comparing it with the one provided.
 There exists a vast variety of different hash function designs. However, some are of
particularly widespread use because of either their simplicity or their suitability for detecting
certain kinds of errors (e.g., the cyclic redundancy check's performance in detecting burst
errors).
 Random-error-correcting codes based on minimum distance coding can provide a suitable
alternative to hash functions when a strict guarantee on the minimum number of errors to be
detected is desired. Repetition codes, described below, are special cases of error-correcting

m
codes: although rather inefficient, they find applications for both error correction and

o
detection due to their simplicity.

.c
a
m
a
n
1.Parity Check:
y
 d
In this technique, a redundant bit called a parity bit is addedto every data unit so that the

u
total number of 1 s in the unit(including the parity bit) becomes even (or odd). Following

t
Figure shows this concept when transmit the binary data unit110101.

S
 7

 Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors. It can also detect burst errors as long as
the total number of bits changed is odd. This method cannot detect errors where the total
number of bits changed is even.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check:

 A better approach is the two dimensional parity checks. In this method, a block of bits is
organized in a table (rows and columns). First we calculate the parity bit for each data unit.
Then we organize them into a table. We then calculate the parity bit for each column and
create a new row of 8 bits. Consider the following example; we have four data units to send.
They are organized in the tabular form as shown below.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
 We then calculate the parity bit for each column and create a new row of 8 bits; they are the
parity bits for the whole block. Note that the first parity bit in the fifth row is calculated based

t
on all first bits: the second parity bit is calculated based on all second bits: and so on. We then

S
attach the 8 parity bits to the original data and send them to the receiver. Two-dimensional
parity check increases the likelihood of detecting burst errors. A burst error of more than
‗n bits is also detected by this method with a very high probability.

2.Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 Most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
This method is based on the binary division. In CRC, the desired sequence of redundant bits
are generated and is appended to the end of data unit. It is also called as CRC reminder. So
that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a predetermined binary number.
 At its destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there
is no remainder then the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.A
remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be
rejected. The redundancy bits used by CRC are derived by dividing the data unit by a
predetermined divisor; the remainder is the CRC.To be valid, a CRC must have two qualities: It
 8

must have exactly one less bit than the divisor, and appending it to the end of the data string
must make the resulting bit sequence exactly divisible by the divisor.

The following figure shows the process:

m
o
.c
a
Step1: A string of 0 s is appended to the data unit. It is n bits long. The number n is 1 less if-number of
bits in the predetermined divisor which is n + 1 bits.

m
a
Step 2: The newly generated data unit is divided by the divisor, using a process called as binary
division. The remainder resulting from this division is the CRC.

n
Step 3: the CRC of n bits derived in step 2 replaces the appended 0 s at the data unit. Note that the
CRC may consist of all 0 s.
y
d
The data unit arrives at the receiver data first, followed by the CRC. The receiver treats the whole

u
string as a unit and divides it by the same divisor that was used the CRC remainder. If the string

t
arrives without error, the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero, the data unit passes. If the string
has been changed in transit, the division yields zero remainder and the data unit does not pass.

S
Following figure shows the process of generating CRC reminder:
 9

A CRC checker functions does exactly as the generator does. After receiving the data appended with
the CRC, it does the samemodulo-2 division. If the remainder is all 0 s, the CRC is dropped and the
data is accepted: otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and data is resent.

Following Figure shows the same process of division in the receiver.

m
o
Performance: CRC is a very effective error detection method. If the divisor is chosen according

.c
to the previously mentioned rules, 1.CRC can detect all burst errors that affect an odd number
of bits. 2.CRC can detect all burst errors of length less than or equal to the degree of the

a
polynomial 3.CRC can detect, with a very high probability, burst errors of length greater than
the degree of the polynomial.

m
a
3.Checksum
A checksum is fixed length data that is the result of performing certain operations on the data

n
to be sent from sender to the receiver. The sender runs the appropriate checksum algorithm
to compute the checksum of the data, appends it as a field in the packet that contains the
y
data to be sent, as well as various headers. When the receiver receives the data, the receiver

d
runs the same checksum algorithm to compute a fresh checksum. The receiver compares this
freshly computed checksum with the checksum that was computed by the sender. If the two
u
checksum matches, the receiver of the data is assured that the data has not changed during
the transit
t
S.NO
Q.1
S RGPV QUESTIONS
Discuss briefly about redundancy checks
Year
Dec 2013 4
Marks

Q.2 Explain error detection & error correction methods Dec.2013 7

briefly.
 10

UNIT-04/LECTURE-04

Redudancy
 redudancy In order to detect and correct the errors in the data communication we add some
extra bits to the original data. These extra bits are nothing but the redundant bits which will
be removed by the receiver after receiving the data. Their presence allows the receiver to
detect or correct corrupted bits. Instead of repeating the entire data stream, a short group of
bits may be attached to the entire data stream.This technique is called redundancy because
the extra bits are redundant to the information: they are discarded as soon as the accuracy of
the transmission has been determined.

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
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There are different techniques used for transmission error detection and correction.

Error Correction methods:- (RGPV DEC-2013,DEC-2012)

Hamming Code:
 The Hamming code can be applied to data units of any length and uses the relationship
between data and redundancy bits discussed above. For example, a 7-bit ASCII code requires 4
redundancy bits that can be added 10 the end of the data unit or interspersed with the
original data bits. In following Figure,these bits are placed in positions 1, 2,4, and 8 (the
positions in an 11-bit sequence that are powers of 2). For clarity in the examples below, we
refer to these bits as r1, r2, r4, and r8.
 11

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 12

 Now imagine that by the time the above transmission is received, the number 7 bit has been
changed from 1 to 0.The receiver takes the transmission and recalculates 4 new parity bits,
using the same sets of bits used by the sender plus the relevant parity r bit for each set (see

m
following Fig.). Then it assembles the new parity values into a binary number in order of r

o
position (r8 r4, r2, r1). In our example, this step gives us the binary number 0111 (7 in
decimal), which is the precise location of the bit in error.

.c
a
m
a
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 Once the bit is identified, the receiver can reverse its value and correct the error. The beauty
of the technique is that it can easily be implemented in hardware and the code is corrected
before the receiver knows about it.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain error detection & error correction Dec.2013 7
methods briefly.
 13

UNIT-04/LECTURE-05

Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN) (RGPV Dec2012/Dec 2013)

Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in
the CCITT red book. Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport
voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it
integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the
classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to ISDN defined as Basic
Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN), and Broadband
ISDN (B-ISDN).

m
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides access to packet
o
switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary

.c
telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog phone
can provide. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-

a
switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. A major market application for
ISDN in some countries is Internet access, where ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128

m
kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions. Channel bonding can achieve a greater
data rate; typically the ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels)
are bonded.
a
n
ISDN should not be mistaken for its use with a specific protocol, such as Q.931 where as ISDN

y
is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the OSI model. In a

d
broad sense ISDN can be considered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of
the OSI model. ISDN is designed to provide access to voice and data services simultaneously.

u
t
However, common use reduced ISDN to be limited to Q.931 and related protocols, which are
a set of protocols for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for

S
advanced calling features for the user. They were introduced in 1986.

In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission

between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing
systems

ISDN Interface

The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic(s) Rate Interface (BRI), a 128 kbit/s service
delivered over a pair of standard telephone copper wires. The 144 kbit/s payload rate is
broken down into two 64 kbit/s bearer channels ('B' channels) and one 16 kbit/s signaling
channel ('D' channel or data channel). This is sometimes referred to as 2B+D.
 14

The interface specifies the following network interfaces:

 The U interface is a two-wire interface between the exchange and a network

terminating unit, which is usually the demarcation point in non-North American
networks.
 The T interface is a serial interface between a computing device and a terminal
adapter, which is the digital equivalent of a modem.
 The S interface is a four-wire bus that ISDN consumer devices plug into; the S & T
reference points are commonly implemented as a single interface labeled 'S/T' on an
Network termination 1 (NT1).
 The R interface defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a terminal adapter
(TA) which provides translation to and from such a device.

Primary Rate Interface

The other ISDN access available is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI), which is carried over an E1

m
(2048 kbit/s) in most parts of the world. An E1 is 30 'B' channels of 64 kbit/s, one 'D' channel
of 64 kbit/s and a timing and alarm channel of 64 kbit/s.
o
.c
In North America PRI service is delivered on one or more T1 carriers (often referred to as
23B+D) of 1544 kbit/s (24 channels). A PRI has 23 'B' channels and 1 'D' channel for signalling

a
(Japan uses a circuit called a J1, which is similar to a T1). Inter-changeably but incorrectly, a
PRI is referred to as T1 because it uses the T1 carrier format. A true T1 (commonly called

m
"Analog T1" to avoid confusion) uses 24 channels of 64 kbit/s of in-band signaling. Each
channel uses 56 kb for data and voice and 8 kb for signaling and messaging. PRI uses out of

a
band signaling which provides the 23 B channels with clear 64 kb for voice and data and one

n
64 kb 'D' channel for signaling and messaging. In North America, Non-Facility Associated
Signalling allows two or more PRIs to be controlled by a single D channel, and is sometimes

y
called "23B+D + n*24B". D-channel backup allows for a second D channel in case the primary

d
fails. NFAS is commonly used on a T3.

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PRI-ISDN is popular throughout the world, especially for connecting PBXs to PSTN.

t
While the North American PSTN can use PRI or Analog T1 format from PBX to PBX, the POTS
S
or BRI can be delivered to a business or residence. North American PSTN can connect from
PBX to PBX via Analog T1, T3, PRI, OC3, etc.

Even though many network professionals use the term "ISDN" to refer to the lower-
bandwidth BRI circuit, in North America BRI is relatively uncommon whilst PRI circuits serving
PBXs are commonplace.

ISDN Devices

 ISDN devices include terminals, terminal adapters (TAs), network-termination devices,

line-termination equipment, and exchange-termination equipment. ISDN terminals
come in two types. Specialized ISDN terminals are referred to as terminal equipment
type 1 (TE1). Non-ISDN terminals, such as DTE, that predate the ISDN standards are
 15

referred to as terminal equipment type 2 (TE2). TE1s connect to the ISDN network
through a four-wire, twisted-pair digital link. TE2s connect to the ISDN network
through a TA. The ISDN TA can be either a standalone device or a board inside the
TE2. If the TE2 is implemented as a standalone device, it connects to the TA via a
standard physical-layer interface. Examples include EIA/TIA-232-C (formerly RS-232-
C), V.24, and V.35.
 Beyond the TE1 and TE2 devices, the next connection point in the ISDN network is the
network termination type 1 (NT1) or network termination type 2 (NT2) device. These
are network-termination devices that connect the four-wire subscriber wiring to the
conventional two-wire local loop. In North America, the NT1 is a customer premises
equipment (CPE) device. In most other parts of the world, the NT1 is part of the
network provided by the carrier. The NT2 is a more complicated device that typically
is found in digital private branch exchanges (PBXs) and that performs Layer 2 and 3
protocol functions and concentration services. An NT1/2 device also exists as a single
device that combines the functions of an NT1 and an NT2.
 ISDN specifies a number of reference points that define logical interfaces between

m
functional groups, such as TAs and NT1s. ISDN reference points include the following:


o
R - The reference point between non-ISDN equipment and a TA.

.c
 S - The reference point between user terminals and the NT2.
 T - The reference point between NT1 and NT2 devices.

a
 U - The reference point between NT1 devices and line-termination equipment in the
carrier network. The U reference point is relevant only in North America, where the NT1

m
function is not provided by the carrier network.


a
Figure: Sample ISDN Configuration Illustrates Relationships Between Devices and
n
Reference Points illustrates a sample ISDN configuration and shows three devices

y
attached to an ISDN switch at the central office. Two of these devices are ISDN-
compatible, so they can be attached through an S reference point to NT2 devices. The
d
third device (a standard, non-ISDN telephone) attaches through the reference point to

u
a TA. Any of these devices also could attach to an NT1/2 device, which would replace

t
both the NT1 and the NT2. In addition, although they are not shown, similar user
stations are attached to the far-right ISDN switch.

S
 16

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 o
Figure: Sample ISDN Configuration Illustrates Relationships Between Devices and

.c
Reference Points

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS

a Year
Q.1 What is ISDN.Discuss ISDN services and ISDN DEC2013 7
Marks

protocols
m Dec 2012 7

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 17

UNIT-04/LECTURE-06

Services (RGPV Dec2013)

There are two types of services associated with ISDN:

 BRI
 PRI

ISDN BRI Service

 The ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) service offers two B channels and one D channel
(2B+D). BRI B-channel service operates at 64 kbps and is meant to carry user data; BRI

m
D-channel service operates at 16 kbps and is meant to carry control and signaling
information, although it can support user data transmission under certain

o
circumstances. The D channel signaling protocol comprises Layers 1 through 3 of the

.c
OSI reference model. BRI also provides for framing control and other overhead,
bringing its total bit rate to 192 kbps. The BRI physical layer specification is

a
International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunications Standards Section (ITU-
T) (formerly the Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone

m
[CCITT]) I.430.

ISDN PRI Service

a
n
 ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI) service offers 23 B channels and 1 D channel in

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North America and Japan, yielding a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbps (the PRI D channel
runs at 64 kbps). ISDN PRI in Europe, Australia, and other parts of the world provides
d
30 B channels plus one 64-kbps D channel and a total interface rate of 2.048 Mbps.

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The PRI physical layer specification is ITU-T I.431.

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ISDN Specifications

S
 This section describes the various ISDN specifications for Layer 1, Layer 2, and Layer 3.

Layer 1

 ISDN physical layer (Layer 1) frame formats differ depending on whether the frame is
outbound (from terminal to network) or inbound (from network to terminal). Both
physical layer interfaces are shown in Figure: ISDN Physical Layer Frame Formats
Differ Depending on Their Direction.
 The frames are 48 bits long, of which 36 bits represent data. The bits of an ISDN
physical layer frame are used as follows:

 F - Provides synchronization
 L - Adjusts the average bit value
 18

 E - Ensures contention resolution when several terminals on a passive bus contend for
a channel
 A - Activates devices
 S - Is unassigned
 B1, B2, and D - Handle user data

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Figure: ISDN Physical Layer Frame Formats Differ Depending on Their Direction

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 Multiple ISDN user devices can be physically attached to one circuit. In this
d
configuration, collisions can result if two terminals transmit simultaneously.

u
Therefore, ISDN provides features to determine link contention. When an NT receives

t
a D bit from the TE, it echoes back the bit in the next E-bit position. The TE expects the
next E bit to be the same as its last transmitted D bit.
S
 Terminals cannot transmit into the D channel unless they first detect a specific
number of ones (indicating "no signal") corresponding to a pre-established priority. If
the TE detects a bit in the echo (E) channel that is different from its D bits, it must
stop transmitting immediately. This simple technique ensures that only one terminal
can transmit its D message at one time. After successful D-message transmission, the
terminal has its priority reduced by requiring it to detect more continuous ones
before transmitting. Terminals cannot raise their priority until all other devices on the
same line have had an opportunity to send a D message. Telephone connections have
higher priority than all other services, and signaling information has a higher priority
than nonsignaling information.
 19

Layer 2

 Layer 2 of the ISDN signaling protocol is Link Access Procedure, D channel (LAPD).
LAPD is similar to High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Link Access Procedure,
Balanced (LAPB). As the expansion of the LAPD acronym indicates, this layer is used
across the D channel to ensure that control and signaling information flows and is
received properly. The LAPD frame format (see Figure: LAPD Frame Format Is Similar
to That of HDLC and LAPB)is very similar to that of HDLC; like HDLC, LAPD uses
supervisory, information, and unnumbered frames. The LAPD protocol is formally
specified in ITU-T Q.920 and ITU-T Q.921.

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Figure: LAPD Frame Format Is Similar to That of HDLC and LAPB

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 The LAPD Flag and Control fields are identical to those of HDLC. The LAPD Address
u
field can be either 1 or 2 bytes long. If the extended address bit of the first byte is set,

t
the address is 1 byte; if it is not set, the address is 2 bytes. The first Address-field byte

S
contains the service access point identifier (SAPI), which identifies the portal at which
LAPD services are provided to Layer 3. The C/R bit indicates whether the frame
contains a command or a response. The Terminal Endpoint Identifier (TEI) field
identifies either a single terminal or multiple terminals. A TEI of all ones indicates a
broadcast.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 What is ISDN. Discuss ISDN services Dec 2013 7
 20

UNIT-04/LECTURE-07

Layer 3

 Two Layer 3 specifications are used for ISDN signaling: ITU-T (formerly CCITT) I.450
(also known as ITU-T Q.930) and ITU-T I.451 (also known as ITU-T Q.931). Together,
these protocols support user-to-user, circuit-switched, and packet-switched
connections. A variety of call-establishment, call-termination, information, and
miscellaneous messages are specified, including SETUP, CONNECT, RELEASE, USER
INFORMATION, CANCEL, STATUS, and DISCONNECT. These messages are functionally
similar to those provided by the X.25 protocol.

Figure: An ISDN Circuit-Switched Call Moves Through Various Stages to Its Destination, from

m
ITU-T I.451, shows the typical stages of an ISDN circuit-switched call.

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Figure: An ISDN Circuit-Switched Call Moves Through Various Stages to Its Destination
 21

 ISDN is comprised of digital telephony and data-transport services offered by regional

telephone carriers. ISDN involves the digitization of the telephone network to
transmit voice, data, text, graphics, music, video, and other source material over
existing telephone wires.
 ISDN devices include the following:

 Terminals
 Terminal adapters (TAs)
 Network-termination devices
 Line-termination equipment
 Exchange-termination equipment

 The ISDN specification references specific connection points that define logical
interfaces between devices.
 ISDN uses the following two types of services:

 m
Basic Rate Interface (BRI, which offers two B channels and one D channel (2B+D)

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Primary Rate Interface (PRI), which offers 23 B channels and 1 D channel in North

.c
America and Japan, and 30 B channels and 1 D channel in Europe and Australia

a
 ISDN runs on the bottom three layers of the OSI reference model, and each layer uses
a different specification to transmit data.

• m
Terminal Adapter (TA) - Converter device that converts standard electrical signals into

• a
the form used by ISDN - allows non-ISDN devices to operate on an ISDN network.

n
Terminal Equipment Type 1 (TE1) - Compatible with the ISDN network.
Example:Telephones, personal computers, fax machine or videoconferencing machine.
•
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Terminal Equipment Type 2 (TE2) - Not compatible with the ISDN network. Example:

d
Analog phone or modem, requires a TA (TE2 connects to TA).
• Network termination type 1 & 2 (NT1 and NT2) - A small connection box that

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physically connects the customer site to the telco local loop, provides a four-wire

t
connection to the customer site and a two-wire connection to the network (PRI –
CSU/DSU).
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Protocols

 ISDN User Part (ISUP)

 DSS1 (ETSI "Euro-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries)
 DSS2 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2)
 ETS 300 specification at ETSI

 NI-1 (US National ISDN Phase 1)

 NI-2 (US National ISDN Phase 2)
 4ESS (Lucent 4ESS specific protocol defined in AT&T TR 41459)

 INS-NET 64/1500 (Japanese national/NTT carrier-specific protocol)

 DACS used in the UK by British Telecom it uses non standard D channel signalling for
 22

pair gain

 QSIG
 Remote Operations Service Element protocol (ROSE)
 Q.931

 FTZ 1 TR 6 (obsolete German national protocol)

 TS.013/TS.014 (obsolete Australian national protocol)
 VN2/VN3/VN4 (obsolete French national protocols)

Specifications defining the physical layer and part of the data link layers of ISDN:

 ISDN BRI: ITU-T I.430.

 ISDN PRI: ITU-T I.431.

From the point of view of the OSI architecture, an ISDN line has a stack of three protocols

 physical layer m
 data link layer
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 network layer (the ISDN protocol, properly)[

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ISDN services (RGPV Dec2013)

•
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Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
– Two 64 Kbps B channels, one 16 Kbps D channel, and 48 Kbps worth of framing
and synchronization.
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– Available data bandwidth: 128 Kbps (2 x 64 Kbps)
n
– User bandwidth: 144 Kbps (128 Kbps + a 16 Kbps D channel)

• y
– Total line capacity: 192 Kbps (144 Kbps + 48 Kbps framing)
Each B channel can be used for separate applications
d
– Such as Internet and Voice
•
• u
Allows individual B channels to be aggregated together into a Multilink channel

t
Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
– A PRI connection can assign various 64 Kbps channels to both ISDN and analog

S modem connections
– North America and Japan – PRI service has 23 64 Kbps B channels, one 64 Kbps
D channel, and 8 Kbps of synchronization and framing for a total bit rate of up
to 1.544 Mbps (same as T1)
– Europe, Australia, and other parts of the world – PRI service has 30 64 Kbps B
channels, one 64 Kbps D channel, and 64 Kbps of framing and synchronization
for a total bit rate of up to 2.048 Mbps (same as E1)
• Each B channel to be used for separate applications including voice, data and Internet
• Multiple B channels can be Multilinked together

S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Discuss ISDN services and ISDN DEC 2013 7
protocols
 23

UNIT-04/LECTURE-08

ISDN refrence points

• U - Two wire cable that connects the customer s equipment to the

telecommunications provider
• R - Point between non-ISDN equipment (TE2) and the TA
• S - Four-wire cable from TE1 or TA to the NT1 or NT2
• T - Point between NT1 and NT2

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 24

m
o
•
•
The ISDN Physical Layer
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The ISDN Data Link Layer
• The ISDN Network Layer

Physical layer ISDN protocols

m
– a
BRI (ITU-T I.430) / PRI (ITU-T I.431)

n
• Defines two ISDN physical layer frame formats

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– Inbound (local exchange to ISDN customer)
– Outbound (ISDN customer to local exchange )
•
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Data link layer ISDN protocols

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– LAPD signaling protocol (ITU-T Q.920 for BRI and Q.921 for PRI) for
transmitting control and signaling information over the D channel
t • LAPD frame format similar to ISO HDLC frame format
•
S
Network layer ISDN protocols
– ITU-T I.930 and ITU-T Q.931 defines switching and signaling methods using the
D channel.
 25

UNIT-04/LECTURE-09

UNIT-04/LECTURE-10

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 1

UNIT–05
UNIT-01/LECTURE-01
Transmission Media

Transmission Media

 A transmission medium is a material substance that can propagate energy waves. For
example, the transmission medium for sounds is usually air, but solids and liquids may
also act as transmission media for sound.
 The absence of a material medium in vacuum may also constitute a transmission
medium for electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves. While material
substance is not required for electromagnetic waves to propagate, such waves are
usually affected by the transmission media they pass through, for instance by
absorption or by reflection or refraction at the interfaces between media.
m
 The term transmission medium also refers to a technical device that employs the

o
material substance to transmit or guide waves. Thus, an optical fibre or a copper cable
is a transmission medium. Not only this but also is able to guide the transmission of

.c
networks.

A transmission medium can be classified as a:

a

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Linear medium, if different waves at any particular point in the medium can be

a
superposed;
 Bounded medium, if it is finite in extent, otherwise unbounded medium;

n
Uniform medium or homogeneous medium, if its physical properties are unchanged at

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different points;
 Isotropic medium, if its physical properties are the same in different directions.

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Coaxial cable

 Electromagnetic radiation can be transmitted through an optical medium, such as

optical fiber, or through twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, or dielectric-slab
waveguides. It may also pass through any physical material that is transparent to the
specific wavelength, such as water, air, glass, or concrete. Sound is, by definition, the
vibration of matter, so it requires a physical medium for transmission, as do other
kinds of mechanical waves and heat energy. Historically, science incorporated various
aether theories to explain the transmission medium. However, it is now known that
 2

electromagnetic waves do not require a physical transmission medium, and so can

travel through the "vacuum" of free space. Regions of the insulative vacuum can
become conductive for electrical conduction through the presence of free electrons,
holes, or ions.

Transmission and reception of data is performed in four steps.

1. The data is coded as binary numbers at the sender end

2. A carrier signal is modulated as specified by the binary representation of the data
3. At the receiving end, the incoming signal is demodulated into the respective binary
numbers
4. Decoding of the binary numbers is performed.

 Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are
twisted together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference
(EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded

m
twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighbouring pairs. It was invented
by Alexander Graham Bell.
o
 In balanced pair operation, the two wires carry equal and opposite signals and the

.c
destination detects the difference between the two. This is known as differential
mode transmission. Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by coupling of

a
electric or magnetic fields and tend to couple to both wires equally. The noise thus
produces a common-mode signal which is cancelled at the receiver when the

m
difference signal is taken.
 This method starts to fail when the noise source is close to the signal wires; the closer

a
wire will couple with the noise more strongly and the common-mode rejection of the

n
receiver will fail to eliminate it. This problem is especially apparent in
telecommunication cables where pairs in the same cable lie next to each other for

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many miles. One pair can induce crosstalk in another and it is additive along the

d
length of the cable. Twisting the pairs counters this effect as on each half twist the
wire nearest to the noise-source is exchanged.

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 Providing the interfering source remains uniform, or nearly so, over the distance of a

t
single twist, the induced noise will remain common-mode. Differential signaling also
reduces electromagnetic radiation from the cable, along with the associated
S
attenuation allowing for greater distance between exchanges.
 The twist rate (also called pitch of the twist, usually defined in twists per meter)
makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. Where nearby pairs have
equal twist rates, the same conductors of the different pairs may repeatedly lie next
to each other, partially undoing the benefits of differential mode. For this reason it is
commonly specified that, at least for cables containing small numbers of pairs, the
twist rates must differ.[1]
 In contrast to ScTP (screened twisted pair), STP (shielded twisted pair), FTP (foiled
twisted pair) and other shielded cabling variations, UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
cable is not surrounded by any shielding. It is the primary wire type for telephone
usage and is very common for computer networking, especially as patch cables or
temporary network connections due to the high flexibility of the cables.
 3

 The earliest telephones used telegraph lines, or open-wire single-wire earth return
circuits. In the 1880s electric trams were installed in many cities, which induced noise
into these circuits. Lawsuits being unavailing, the telephone companies converted to
balanced circuits, which had the incidental benefit of reducing attenuation, hence
increasing range.
m
 As electrical power distribution became more commonplace, this measure proved

o
inadequate. Two wires, strung on either side of cross bars on utility poles, shared the

.c
route with electrical power lines. Within a few years, the growing use of electricity
again brought an increase of interference, so engineers devised a method called wire
transposition, to cancel out the interference.
a
 In wire transposition, the wires exchange position once every several poles. In this
way, the two wires would receive similar EMI from power lines. This represented an
m
early implementation of twisting, with a twist rate of about four twists per kilometre,

a
or six per mile. Such open-wire balanced lines with periodic transpositions still survive
today in some rural areas.

n
 Twisted pair cables were invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1881. By 1900, the

y
entire American telephone line network was either twisted pair or open wire with
transposition to guard against interference. Today, most of the millions of kilometres

d
of twisted pairs in the world are outdoor landlines, owned by telephone companies,

u
used for voice service, and only handled or even seen by telephone workers.

t
S.NO
Q.1
S RGPV QUESTIONS
Explain transmission media.
Year
Dec2012
Marks
7
Q.2 Explain the different types of guided media with Dec 2013 7
examples.
 4

UNIT-05/LECTURE-02

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) (RGPV Dec 2012)

Unshielded twisted pair

m
 For urban outdoor telephone cables containing hundreds or thousands of pairs, the
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cable is divided into smaller but identical bundles. Each bundle consists of twisted

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pairs that have different twist rates. The bundles are in turn twisted together to make
up the cable. Pairs having the same twist rate within the cable can still experience

a
some degree of crosstalk. Wire pairs are selected carefully to minimize crosstalk
within a large cable.

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Unshielded twisted pair cable with different twist rates

 UTP cable is also the most common cable used in computer networking. Modern
Ethernet, the most common data networking standard, can use UTP cables. Twisted
pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections
because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.
 UTP is also finding increasing use in video applications, primarily in security cameras.
Many cameras include a UTP output with screw terminals; UTP cable bandwidth has
improved to match the baseband of television signals. As UTP is a balanced
transmission line, a balun is needed to connect to unbalanced equipment, for
example any using BNC connectors and designed for coaxial cable.
 5

Cable Shielding

F/UTP cable

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S/FTP cable
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U/FTP, F/UTP and F/FTP are used in Cat.6a cables

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S/UTP cable

 Twisted pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic

interference. Shielding provides an electric conductive barrier to attenuate
electromagnetic waves external to the shield and provides conduction path by which
induced currents can be circulated and returned to the source, via ground reference
connection.
 6

 This shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the collection of pairs.
Individual pairs are foiled, while overall cable may use braided screen, foil, or braiding
with foil.

 When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is usually referred to as

screening, however different vendors and authors use different terminology,
employing "screening" and "shielding" interchangeably; for example, STP (shielded
twisted pair) or ScTP (screened twisted pair) has been used to denote U/FTP, S/UTP,
F/UTP, SF/UTP and S/FTP construction).
 Because the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a ground. Usually a
shielded or a screened twisted pair cable has a special grounding wire added called a
drain wire which is electrically connected to the shield or screen. The drain wire
simplifies connection to ground at the connectors.

Common shielded cable types used by Cat. 6a, Cat.7 and Cat.8 cables include:

Shielded twisted pair (U/FTP)

m
 Also pair in metal foil. Individual shielding with foil for each twisted pair or quad. This type of

o
shielding protects cable from external EMI from entering or exiting the cable and also protects

.c
neighboring pairs from crosstalk.
 Screened twisted pair (F/UTP, S/UTP and SF/UTP)
 Also foiled twisted pair for F/UTP. Overall foil, braided shield or braiding with foil across all of

a
the pairs within the 100 Ohm twisted pair cable. This type of shielding protects EMI from
entering or exiting the cable.

m
 Screened shielded twisted pair (F/FTP and S/FTP)
 Also fully shielded twisted pair, shielded screened twisted pair, screened foiled twisted pair,
a
shielded foiled twisted pair. Individual shielding using foil between the twisted pair sets, and

n
also an outer metal and/or foil shielding within the 100 Ohm twisted pair cable. This type of
shielding protects EMI from entering or exiting the cable and also protects neighboring pairs
from crosstalk.
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 7

 The code before the slash designates the shielding for the cable itself, while the code after the
slash determines the shielding for the individual pairs:

TP = twisted pair
TQ = twisted pair, individual shielding in quads
U = unshielded
F = foil shielding
S = braided shielding (outer layer only)

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 How signal travel in twisted pair cable and in Dec.2013 6
coaxial cable

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 8

UNIT-05/LECTURE-03

Most common twisted-pair cables:

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Solid Core Cable Vs Stranded Cable

 A solid core cable uses one solid wire per conductor and in a four pair cable there
would be a total of eight solid wires. Stranded conductor uses multiple wires wrapped
around each other in each conductor and in a four pair with seven strands per
conductor cable, there would be a total of 56 wires (2 per pair x 4 pairs x 7 strands).
 Solid core cable is supposed to be used for permanently installed runs. It is less
flexible than stranded cable and is more prone to failure if repeatedly flexed.
Stranded cable is used for fly leads at patch panel and for connections from wall-ports
to end devices, as it resists cracking of the conductors.
 9

 Connectors need to be designed differently for solid core than for stranded. Use of a
connector with the wrong cable type is likely to lead to unreliable cabling. Plugs
designed for solid and stranded core are readily available, and some vendors even
offer plugs designed for use with both types. The punch-down blocks on patch-panel
and wall port jacks are designed for use with solid core cable.

Advantages

 It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string between walls.

 More lines can be run through the same wiring ducts.
 Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented.
 Cross-talk is minimized.

Disadvantages

 Twisted pair's susceptibility to electromagnetic interference greatly depends on the

m
pair twisting schemes (usually patented by the manufacturers) staying intact during
the installation. As a result, twisted pair cables usually have stringent requirements for
o
maximum pulling tension as well as minimum bend radius. This relative fragility of

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twisted pair cables makes the installation practices an important part of ensuring the
cable's performance.

 a
In video applications that send information across multiple parallel signal wires,

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twisted pair cabling can introduce signaling delays known as skew which cause subtle
color defects and ghosting due to the image components not aligning correctly when

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recombined in the display device. The skew occurs because twisted pairs within the

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same cable often use a different number of twists per meter in order to prevent
crosstalk between pairs with identical numbers of twists. The skew can be

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compensated by varying the length of pairs in the termination box, in order to

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introduce delay lines that take up the slack between shorter and longer pairs, though
the precise lengths required are difficult to calculate and vary depending on the

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overall cable length.

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Minor twisted pair variants
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Loaded Twisted Pair
 A twisted pair that has intentionally added inductance, formerly common practice on
telecommunication lines. The added inductors are known as load coils and reduce
attenuation for voiceband frequencies but increase it on higher frequencies. Load coils cause
distortion in voiceband on very long lines.[10] In this context a line without load coils is referred
to as an unloaded line.

Bonded Twisted Pair

 A twisted pair variant in which the pairs are individually bonded to increase robustness of the
cable. Pioneered by Belden, it means the electrical specifications of the cable are maintained
despite rough handling.
 10

Twisted Ribbon Cable

 A variant of standard ribbon cable in which adjacent pairs of conductors are bonded and
twisted together. The twisted pairs are then lightly bonded to each other in a ribbon format.
Periodically along the ribbon there are short sections with no twisting to enable connectors
and PCB headers to be terminated using the usual ribbon cable IDC techniques.

S.N RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

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Q.1 Explain the different types of guided media with Dec 2013 7
examples.

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 11

UNIT-05/LECTURE-04

Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a
tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial
cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the
inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was
invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the
design in 1880. Coaxial cable differs from other shielded cable used for carrying lower-
frequency signals, such as audio signals, in that the dimensions of the cable are
controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to
function efficiently as a radio frequency transmission line.

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 Coaxial cable conducts electrical signal using an inner conductor surrounded by an

insulating layer and all enclosed by a shield, typically one to four layers of woven
metallic braid and metallic tape. The cable is protected by an outer insulating jacket.
Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a voltage is applied to the center
 12

conductor to carry electrical signals. The advantage of coaxial design is that electric
and magnetic fields are confined to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield.
Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from
causing interference to signals inside the cable. Larger diameter cables and cables
with multiple shields have less leakage. This property makes coaxial cable a good
choice for carrying weak signals that cannot tolerate interference from the
environment or for higher electrical signals that must not be allowed to radiate or
couple into adjacent structures or circuits.
 Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and
microwave transmission, and computer and instrumentation data connections.
 The characteristic impedance of the cable is determined by the dielectric constant of
the inner insulator and the radii of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable
characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should
be matched to ensure maximum power transfer and minimum standing wave ratio.
Other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of
frequency, voltage handling capability, and shield quality.

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Construction

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 Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation,
power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, and cost. The inner conductor might
be solid or stranded; stranded is more flexible. To get better high-frequency
performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is
often used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry.
 The insulator surrounding the inner conductor may be solid plastic, a foam plastic, or
air with spacers supporting the inner wire. The properties of dielectric control some
electrical properties of the cable. A common choice is a solid polyethylene (PE)
insulator, used in lower-loss cables. Solid Teflon (PTFE) is also used as an insulator.
Some coaxial lines use air and have spacers to keep the inner conductor from
touching the shield.
 Many conventional coaxial cables use braided copper wire forming the shield. This
allows the cable to be flexible, but it also means there are gaps in the shield layer, and
 13

the inner dimension of the shield varies slightly because the braid cannot be flat.
Sometimes the braid is silver-plated. For better shield performance, some cables have
a double-layer shield. The shield might be just two braids, but it is more common now
to have a thin foil shield covered by a wire braid. Some cables may invest in more
than two shield layers, such as "quad-shield", which uses four alternating layers of foil
and braid. Other shield designs sacrifice flexibility for better performance; some
shields are a solid metal tube. Those cables cannot be bent sharply, as the shield will
kink, causing losses in the cable.
 For high-power radio-frequency transmission up to about 1 GHz, coaxial cable with a
solid copper outer conductor is available in sizes of 0.25 inch upward. The outer
conductor is rippled like a bellows to permit flexibility and the inner conductor is held
in position by a plastic spiral to approximate an air dielectric.
 Coaxial cables require an internal structure of an insulating (dielectric) material to
maintain the spacing between the center conductor and shield. The dielectric losses
increase in this order: Ideal dielectric, vacuum, air, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
polyethylene foam, and solid polyethylene. A low relative permittivity allows for

m
higher-frequency usage. An inhomogeneous dielectric needs to be compensated by a

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non-circular conductor to avoid current hot-spots.
 While many cables have a solid dielectric, many others have a foam dielectric that

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contains as much air or other gas as possible to reduce the losses by allowing the use
of a larger diameter center conductor. Foam coax will have about 15% less

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attenuation but some types of foam dielectric can absorb moisture—especially at its
many surfaces — in humid environments, significantly increasing the loss. Supports

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shaped like stars or spokes are even better but more expensive and very susceptible
to moisture infiltration. Still more expensive were the air-spaced coaxials used for
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some inter-city communications in the mid-20th century. The center conductor was

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suspended by polyethylene discs every few centimeters. In some low-loss coaxial
cables such as the RG-62 type, the inner conductor is supported by a spiral strand of
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polyethylene, so that an air space exists between most of the conductor and the

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inside of the jacket. The lower dielectric constant of air allows for a greater inner
diameter at the same impedance and a greater outer diameter at the same cutoff
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frequency, lowering ohmic losses. Inner conductors are sometimes silver-plated to

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smooth the surface and reduce losses due to skin effect. A rough surface prolongs the

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path for the current and concentrates the current at peaks and, thus, increases ohmic
losses.
 The insulating jacket can be made from many materials. A common choice is PVC, but
some applications may require fire-resistant materials. Outdoor applications may
require the jacket resist ultraviolet light, oxidation and rodent damage. Flooded
coaxial cables use a water blocking gel to protect the cable from water infiltration
through minor cuts in the jacket. For internal chassis connections the insulating jacket
may be omitted.

Applications

 Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications
include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas,
computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cable television signals.
 14

One advantage of coaxial over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal
coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space
between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed
next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other
types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from
external electromagnetic interference

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS(IT) Year Marks

Q.1 Discuss the parameters of ultimate analysis of coal. DEC2013 4
Dec 2011 4
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS(CS) Year Marks
Q.1 Briefly describe the broadband coaxial cable. JUNE 2011 7

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 15

UNIT-05/LECTURE-05

Uses of coaxial cable

 Short coaxial cables are commonly used to connect home video equipment, in ham
radio setups, and in measurement electronics. They used to be common for
implementing computer networks, in particular Ethernet, but twisted pair cables have
replaced them in most applications except in the growing consumer cable modem
market for broadband Internet access.
 Micro coaxial cables are used in a range of consumer devices, military equipment, and
also in ultra-sound scanning equipment.
 The most common impedances that are widely used are 50 or 52 ohms, and 75 ohms,
although other impedances are available for specific applications. The 50 / 52 ohm

m
cables are widely used for industrial and commercial two-way radio frequency
applications (including radio, and telecommunications), although 75 ohms is
commonly used for broadcast television and radio.
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 Coax cable is often used to carry data or signals from an antenna to a receiver from a
satellite dish to a satellite receiver, from a television antenna to a television receiver,

a
from a radio mast to a radio receiver, etc. In many cases, the same single coax cable
carries power in the opposite direction, to the antenna, to power the low-noise

m
amplifier. In some cases a single coax cable carries (unidirectional) power and
bidirectional data or signals.

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Fiber Optical Cable (RGPV Dec2013)

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 An optical fiber cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibers that are used to

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carry light. The optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic
layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment where the

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cable will be deployed. Different types of cable are used for different applications, for

t
example long distance telecommunication, or providing a high-speed data connection
between different parts of a building.

 Optical fiber consists of a core and a cladding layer, selected for total internal
reflection due to the difference in the refractive index between the two. In practical
fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a layer of acrylate polymer or polyimide.
This coating protects the fiber from damage but does not contribute to its optical
waveguide properties. Individual coated fibers (or fibers formed into ribbons or
 16

bundles) then have a tough resin buffer layer and/or core tube(s) extruded around
them to form the cable core. Several layers of protective sheathing, depending on the
application, are added to form the cable. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-
absorbing glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from
entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber
bundle imaging applications.

All four connectors have white caps covering the ferrules. m

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 For indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a bundle of
flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid , in a lightweight plastic cover

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to form a simple cable. Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized
optical fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from

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transmitting and receiving equipment.

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 Fibre-optic cable in a Telstra pit

 An optical fiber breakout cable

 For use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable construction is
required. In loose-tube construction the fiber is laid helically into semi-rigid tubes,
allowing the cable to stretch without stretching the fiber itself. This protects the fiber
from tension during laying and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be
"dry block" or gel-filled. Dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled,
but costs considerably less. Instead of a loose tube, the fiber may be embedded in a
heavy polymer jacket, commonly called "tight buffer" construction. Tight buffer cables
 17

are offered for a variety of applications, but the two most common are "Breakout"
and "Distribution". Breakout cables normally contain a ripcord, two non-conductive
dielectric strengthening members an aramid yarn, and 3 mm buffer tubing with an
additional layer of Kevlar surrounding each fiber. The ripcord is a parallel cord of
strong yarn that is situated under the jacket of the cable for jacket removal.
Distribution cables have an overall Kevlar wrapping, a ripcord, and a 900 micrometer
buffer coating surrounding each fiber. These fiber units are commonly bundled with
additional steel strength members, again with a helical twist to allow for stretching.
 A critical concern in outdoor cabling is to protect the fiber from contamination by
water. This is accomplished by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, and water-
repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder surrounding the fiber.
 Finally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental hazards, such as
construction work or gnawing animals. Undersea cables are more heavily armored in
their near-shore portions to protect them from boat anchors, fishing gear, and even
sharks, which may be attracted to the electrical power that is carried to power
amplifiers or repeaters in the cable.

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 Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for

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applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as power lines, installation in
conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine installation, and insertion in

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paved streets.

Color Coding
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S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 (a)Explain the principle of Dec 2012 7
transmission in optical fibers.
(b)Discuss the terrestrial propagation 7
of electromagnetic waves.
 18

UNIT-05/LECTURE-06

Radio wave transmission

 In the radio signal. The electrons in our wire are moving, but not in one direction. These
electrons are moving back and forth. Actually, the wave displayed in the activity is a
representation of the back and forth movement of electrons. If the wave has a frequency of
200,000 Hz (cycles per second), the electrons in the wire are moving back and forth 200,000
times a second. When electrons move in a wire, an electromagnetic field is created around
that wire. There's no magic behind this; it's just the way things work. Just as the electrons
move in the wire, they move in the transmitter's antenna. And just as an electromagnetic field
is created around the wire, a field is created around the antenna. But there is a difference

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between the wire and the antenna. The wire is shielded (surrounded by another wire) to keep

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the electromagnetic field in. The antenna, on the other hand, is designed to radiate the
electromagnetic field. The electromagnetic field travels from the antenna in all directions and

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at the speed of light. It travels until it hits your radio's antenna as well as hundreds of other
receiving antennas. And what happens at the receiving antenna? Just as a current in a wire

a
produces an electromagnetic field, an electromagnetic field produces current in a wire (or
antenna). This current is then amplified and processed by the radio.
 For the propagation and interception of radio waves, a transmitter and receiver are
m
employed. A radio wave acts as a carrier of information-bearing signals; the

a
information may be encoded directly on the wave by periodically interrupting its
transmission (as in dot-and-dash telegraphy) or impressed on it by a process called
n
modulation. The actual information in a modulated signal is contained in its

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sidebands, or frequencies added to the carrier wave, rather than in the carrier wave
itself. The two most common types of modulation used in radio are amplitude
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modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). Frequency modulation minimizes

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noise and provides greater fidelity than amplitude modulation, which is the older

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method of broadcasting. Both AM and FM are analog transmission systems, that is,
they process sounds into continuously varying patterns of electrical signals which

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resemble sound waves. Digital radio uses a transmission system in which the signals
propagate as discrete voltage pulses, that is, as patterns of numbers; before
transmission, an analog audio signal is converted into a digital signal, which may be
transmitted in the AM or FM frequency range. A digital radio broadcast offers
compact-disc-quality reception and reproduction on the FM band and FM-quality
reception and reproduction on the AM band.
 In its most common form, radio is used for the transmission of sounds (voice and
music) and pictures (television). The sounds and images are converted into electrical
signals by a microphone (sounds) or video camera (images), amplified, and used to
modulate a carrier wave that has been generated by an oscillator circuit in a
transmitter. The modulated carrier is also amplified, then applied to an antenna that
converts the electrical signals to electromagnetic waves for radiation into space. Such
waves radiate at the speed of light and are transmitted not only by line of sight but
 19

also by deflection from the ionosphere.

 Receiving antennas intercept part of this radiation, change it back to the form of
electrical signals, and feed it to a receiver. The most efficient and most common
circuit for radio-frequency selection and amplification used in radio receivers is the
superheterodyne. In that system, incoming signals are mixed with a signal from a local
oscillator to produce intermediate frequencies (IF) that are equal to the arithmetical
sum and difference of the incoming and local frequencies. One of those frequencies is
applied to an amplifier. Because the IF amplifier operates at a single frequency,
namely the intermediate frequency, it can be built for optimum selectivity and gain.
The tuning control on a radio receiver adjusts the local oscillator frequency. If the
incoming signals are above the threshold of sensitivity of the receiver and if the
receiver is tuned to the frequency of the signal, it will amplify the signal and feed it to
circuits that demodulate it, i.e., separate the signal wave itself from the carrier wave.
 There are certain differences between AM and FM receivers. In an AM transmission
the carrier wave is constant in frequency and varies in amplitude (strength) according
to the sounds present at the microphone; in FM the carrier is constant in amplitude

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and varies in frequency. Because the noise that affects radio signals is partly, but not

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completely, manifested in amplitude variations, wideband FM receivers are inherently
less sensitive to noise. In an FM receiver, the limiter and discriminator stages are

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circuits that respond solely to changes in frequency. The other stages of the FM
receiver are similar to those of the AM receiver but require more care in design and

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assembly to make full use of FM's advantages. FM is also used in television sound
systems. In both radio and television receivers, once the basic signals have been

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separated from the carrier wave they are fed to a loudspeaker or a display device
(usually a cathode-ray tube), where they are converted into sound and visual images,
respectively.
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Microwave transmission (RGPV DEC 2013)

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 Microwave transmission refers to the technology of transmitting information or
energy by the use of radio waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in

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small numbers of centimetre; these are called microwaves. This part of the radio

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spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz. These

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correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to 1.0 cm.
 Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small
wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams,
which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave
equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, as lower
frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is that the high frequency of
microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying capacity; the
microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum
below it. A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation;
they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.
 Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication
systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space
radio communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars,
radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.
 20

 The next higher part of the radio electromagnetic spectrum, where the frequencies
are above 30 GHz and below 100 GHz, are called "millimeter waves" because their
wavelengths are conveniently measured in millimeters, and their wavelengths range
from 10 mm down to 3.0 mm. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly
attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it, especially during
wet weather. Also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves are
strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. The electronic
technologies needed in the millimeter wave band are also much more difficult to
utilize than those of the microwave band.
 Wireless transmission of information

 One-way (e.g. television broadcasting) and two-way telecommunication using

communications satellite
 Terrestrial microwave radio broadcasting relay links in telecommunications networks
including e.g. backbone or backhaul carriers in cellular networks linking BTS-BSC and
BSC-MSC. m
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A parabolic satellite antenna for Erdfunkstelle Raisting,

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C band horn-reflector antennas on the roof of a telephone switching center

S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Write a note microwave transmission Dec 2013 7
and infrared transmission
 21

UNIT-01/LECTURE-07

Infrared Transmission

 Infrared transmission refers to energy in the region of the electromagnetic radiation

spectrum at wavelengths longer than those of visible light, but shorter than those of
radio waves. Correspondingly, infrared frequencies are higher than those of
microwaves, but lower than those of visible light.
 Scientists divide the infrared radiation (IR) spectrum into three regions. The
wavelengths are specified in microns (symbolized µ, where 1 µ = 10-6 meter) or in
nanometers (abbreviated nm, where 1 nm = 10-9 meter = 0.001 5). The near IR band
contains energy in the range of wavelengths closest to the visible, from approximately

m
0.750 to 1.300 5 (750 to 1300 nm). The intermediate IR band (also called the middle IR
band) consists of energy in the range 1.300 to 3.000 5 (1300 to 3000 nm). The far IR
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band extends from 2.000 to 14.000 5 (3000 nm to 1.4000 x 104 nm).

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 Infrared is used in a variety of wirelesscommunications, monitoring, and control
applications. Here are some examples:

 Home-entertainment remote-control boxes a

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 Wireless (local area networks)
 Links between notebook computers and desktop computers


Cordless modem
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Intrusion detectors
 Motion detectors


Fire sensors
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Night-vision systems
 Medical diagnostic equipment

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Missile guidance systems

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 Geological monitoring devices

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Transmitting IR data from one device to another is sometimes referred to as beaming.

RJ 45 (RGPV Dec2013)

 A registered jack (RJ) is a standardize ]physical network interface—both jack

construction and wiring pattern—for connecting telecommunications or data
equipment to a service provided by a local exchange carrier or long distance carrier.
The standard designs for these connectors and their wiring are named RJ11, RJ14,
RJ21,RJ35, RJ45, RJ48, etc. Many of these interface standards are commonly used in
North America, though some interfaces are used world-wide. It is common to find a
dash (hyphen) between the RJ and the number, but the actual standard has no dash
or hyphen.
 The physical connectors that registered jacks use are mainly of the modular connector
 22

and 50-pin miniature ribbon connector types. For example, RJ11 uses a six-position
two-conductor (6P2C), RJ14 uses a six-position four-conductor (6P4C) modular plug
and jack, while RJ21 uses a 25-pair (50-pin) miniature ribbon connector.
 The RJ45 physical connector is standardised as the IEC 60603-7 8P8C modular
connector with different "categories" of performance, with all eight conductors
present. A similar standard jack once used for modem/data connections, the RJ45S,
used a "keyed" variety of the 8P8C body with an extra tab that prevents it mating with
other connectors; the visual difference compared to the more common 8P8C is
subtle, but it is a different connector. The original RJ45S [6][7] keyed 8P2C modular
connector had pins 5 and 4 wired for tip and ring of a single telephone line and pins 7
and 8 shorting a programming resistor, but is obsolete today.
 Electronics catalogs commonly advertise 8P8C modular connectors as "RJ45". An
installer can wire the jack to any pin-out or use it as part of a generic structured
cabling system such as ISO/IEC 15018 or ISO/IEC 11801 using 8P8C patch panels for
both phone and data. Virtually all electronic equipment which uses an 8P8C connector
(or possibly any 8P connector at all) will document it as an "RJ45" connector.

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Network interface card (RGPV Dec2013)

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 A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or cardthat is installed in a computer
so that it can be connected to a network. A network interface card provides the

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computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network. Personal computers
and workstations on a local area network (LAN) typically contain a network interface

m
card specifically designed for the LAN transmissiontechnology.

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Straight Connection Cable Coding Standards

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 The information listed here is to assist Network Administrators in the color coding of Ethernet
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cables. Please be aware that modifying Ethernet cables improperly may cause loss of network

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connectivity. Use this information at your own risk, and insure all connectors and cables are
modified in accordance with standards. The Internet Centre and its affiliates cannot be held

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liable for the use of this information in whole or in part.

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S.NO RGPV QUESTION YEAR MARKS
Q.1 Write short note on RJ 45 and Dec2013 7
network interface card.
Q.2 (a)Explain the principle of Dec 2012 7
transmission in optical fibers.
(b)Discuss the terrestrial propagation 7
of electromagnetic waves.
 23

UNIT-05/LECTURE-08

T-568A Straight-Through Ethernet Cable :

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The TIA/EIA 568-A standard which was ratified in 1995, was replaced by the TIA/EIA 568-B
standard in 2002 and has been updated since. Both standards define the T-568A and T-568B

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pin-outs for using Unshielded Twisted Pair cable and RJ-45 connectors for Ethernet

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connectivity. The standards and pin-out specification appear to be related and
interchangeable, but are not the same and should not be used interchangeably.

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T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable :

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Both the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used most often as
patch cords for your Ethernet connections. If you require a cable to connect two Ethernet
devices directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, you will
 24

need to use a Crossover cable instead.

RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable :

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A good way of remembering how to wire a Crossover Ethernet cable is to wire one end using
the T-568A standard and the other end using the T-568B standard. Another way of
remembering the color coding is to simply switch the Green set of wires in place with the
a
Orange set of wires. Specifically, switch the solid Green (G) with the solid Orange, and switch
the green/white with the orange/white.
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Ethernet Cable Instructions:

 n
Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. If you are pulling cables through

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holes, its easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable is pulled. The total length of wire

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segments between a PC and a hub or between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328
feet) for 100BASE-TX and 300 Meters for 10BASE-T.

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Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using a stripper or a knife. Be

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extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you will need to start over.
 Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end.
S
Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so they
are even with one another, leaving only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer than 1/2" it will
be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure there are no spaces
between wires.
 Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the wires firmly into
the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Check the order of the
wires. Double check again. Check that the jacket is fitted right against the stop of the plug.
Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 with the crimper.
 Check the color orientation, check that the crimped connection is not about to come
apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If even one of
these are incorrect, you will have to start over. Test the Ethernet cable.
 25

Ethernet Cable Tips:

 A straight-thru cable has identical ends.

 A crossover cable has different ends.
 A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
 A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two
hubs.
 A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the Green set.
 Odd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always solid colored.
 Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on the right, and
pin 1 is on the left.
 No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be
susceptible to crosstalk.
 Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power
cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.

Basic Theory:
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By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable with

d
a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding RX

u
(receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. You can also see that both the blue and

t
brown wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used in either standard. What you may not
realize is that, these same pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well.

S
So why bother using these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection
with all the wires grouped together. Otherwise you'll be spending time trying to fit those tiny
little wires into each of the corresponding holes in the RJ-45 connector.
 26

UNIT-05/LECTURE-09

Ethernet Cable Tips:

 A straight-thru cable has identical ends.

 A crossover cable has different ends.
 A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
 A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two
hubs.
 A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the Green set.
 Odd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always solid colored.
 Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on the right, and
pin 1 is on the left.

m
 No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be
susceptible to crosstalk.

o
Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power

.c
cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.

a
Basic Theory:

m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable with
a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding RX
(receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. You can also see that both the blue and
brown wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used in either standard. What you may not
realize is that, these same pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well.
So why bother using these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection
with all the wires grouped together. Otherwise you'll be spending time trying to fit those tiny
little wires into each of the corresponding holes in the RJ-45 connector.
 27

REFERENCCE

BOOK AUTHOR PRIORITY

Data 1
Communication Forouzan
Data 2
Communication Tanenbaum

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
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