1

I N T R O D U C T I O N

If you want to know the essence of

scientific method, don’t listen to what a
scientist may tell you. Watch what he does.
A. Eins t e in

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 P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e

1.1 The Breadth of Physics

Students learn to:
• recognise the role played by physics as a fundamental science
• identify the relevance of physics to modern society.

Physics is one of the basic or fundamental sciences. It focuses on the study of

energy and its interaction with matter. Using observation, investigation and
scientific thinking, it strives to identify fundamental concepts that underpin the
universe. From the particles of which all matter is comprised to the limitless
outreaches of space, the physicist knows no boundaries.
As a human endeavour, physics has a rich and colourful history, peopled by
characters both bizarre and mundane, and encompassing events that have changed
the lives of ordinary people forever. At different times it has been used as a weapon by
and against religions and philosophies. It is common for theories to gain universal
acceptance only to be later proved wrong by more detailed observations. The
replacement theory may in turn be shown to be unacceptable. In extreme cases, this
may lead to its proponents being ostracised from the scientific community.
The relationship between society and physics has been a roller-coaster ride.
Sometimes physics has impacted irrevocably on society and sometimes society has
directed and controlled physics. But society cannot function efficiently if the populace
is ignorant. A glance at the news reveals many instances when rational decisions can be
made only from a position of understanding. For instance, how many understand the
difference between ‘radiation’ and ‘radioactivity’? The health of the environment and
the course of human progress depend on an informed citizenship.
A grounding in physics allows us to make informed judgments on scientific or
technical issues, to appreciate the way in which the separate parts of the world interact,
to infer outcomes of commonplace events, and to understand how modern
devices/instruments work and to appreciate their limitations.
The appreciation of natural phenomena in terms of physical interactions has allowed
us to develop technologies that are now taken for granted. Everyday applications have
revolutionised transport, communication, and the use of energy in the community. The
instruments of physics have also enabled us to understand our place in the universe and
to escape the bounds of our earthly home.
A background in physics is necessary if you are to establish some measure of control
over your world. We can apply the principles of physics to help us with activities such as
taking the lid off a jar, practising sport, learning to drive, or ensuring our personal safety.
Finally, the practise of physics provides us with living skills, for example investigating,
collecting information, problem solving and communication skills.

1.2 Observation and Measurement

Students learn to:
• analyse the roles of observation, measurement, recording and theory in the process of scientific
investigation
• recognise the need to test theory against observations.

One of the most important aspects of science is the accurate observation of events.
The simplest observations often involve shapes, colours, sizes, positions and patterns
in the motion of objects.

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 Introduction

We observe things and events every day, and we base our actions on these
observations. We become skilled at associating different observations, and using our
past observations to predict future events. For example, when crossing the road we
observe the position of cars, trucks, etc., we estimate their speed, and then judge
whether it is safe to cross the road. Or, we look at a box of sweets and classify the sweets
according to their colour. We might give away all the black ones, because they are
liquorice and taste horrible.
In science we make similar observations, but in a more rigorous way. Rough estimates
may provide a hint of how things work. However, to make the best model of the universe
we must make the most accurate observations possible. This may lead us to design new
measuring instruments and techniques.

Language and recording

In science it is not enough merely to observe. If your observations are to be of any use
then you must be able to record them in some way which is understandable to other
scientists. You need to be able to communicate and discuss your work.
Scientists keep experimental notebooks (or diaries) in which they record precise
details of their observations, thoughts and theories.
English has became the internationally recognised language of science. To avoid
misunderstandings, scientific terms have more precise meanings than words used in
everyday speech. New words have been introduced which deal with units of
measurement, for example kilogram, metre, second, ampere, volt. These terms have
precise scientific meanings.
There are also various text types scientists use in different contexts: procedure (how
to), report (description), explanation (why) and experimental record. There are others
less commonly used in science, which express a point of view (exposition and
discussion) or tell a story (recount). Each of these has its own rules of construction and
expression. For instance, most scientific explanations are written in the third person
and use action verbs.
Mathematics can also be considered as a language that allows scientists to express
observations and ideas in numerical form. Algebra has led to the use of formulas as a
shorthand way to manipulate ideas and numbers. Albert Einstein’s famous equation
relating mass (m) and energy (E), E = mc 2, has a very precise meaning. It tells us that
1 kg of mass has an ‘energy equivalence’ or related energy of 1 kg multiplied by c, the
speed of light (3 × 108 m s–l), squared. This small amount of mass has an enormous
energy equivalence of 9 × 1016 joules (we measure energy in joules).
‘A picture paints a thousand words’ is a statement that cannot be quoted too often.
A properly labelled diagram can often communicate a scientific idea or observation
more effectively than ten pages of closely written text. Many breakthroughs have been
made as a result of preliminary sketches in the margins of notebooks, on serviettes or
on the back of old envelopes.
Results in the form of a graph can be more informative than a table extending over
several pages. Relationships between quantities can become more obvious when they
are plotted on a graph.
Good scientific writing is a mixture of text, diagrams and formulas. It allows you to:
• record your observations
• analyse the meaning of those observations
• communicate the results and conclusions of your experiment or your ideas
• allow others to reproduce and confirm your results.

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Models and theories

It is possible to spend all of your career gathering observations. Some scientists have
done just this, Tycho Brahe spent over 25 years meticulously recording the position of
the planet Mars. Later, in the hands of his more famous assistant Johannes Kepler,
Brahe’s data were to result in a very accurate description of planetary motion. Generally,
however, most scientists have a desire to extend their work, to explain their observations
and to develop theories that will advance science.
Most scientists handle difficult ideas by having a mental image of what is going on in
terms of everyday experience. The model gives us a deeper insight into the problem,
and often suggests new experiments we can perform and questions we can ask. Models
may be wrong, but they often act as a stimulus to others working in the same field.
Communication has had an important role to play in developing scientific models.
Many great advances have come about as the result of hours of discussion between
scientists working on the same problem.
When talking about an atom, for example, you could imagine a mini-planetary
system. Could gravity provide the force that holds the atom together or do we need
another type of force to explain this?
A model is a fairly simple concept, while a theory is a broader, more detailed attempt
to explain a phenomenon. A theory attempts to explain the observations in a more
precise, often mathematical, way.
Theories are created to explain the observations. In order to be of any use to science,
a theory must:
• explain the observations made in an experiment or field of study; and
• make predictions on the outcome of a modified experiment which can be tested in
the laboratory.
New theories are accepted by scientists when their predictions are in better
agreement with experimental results than previously accepted theories, or they explain
a wider range of phenomena than the previous theories. Scientists must be prepared to
abandon models in the case of evidence to the contrary. The famous Newton held to a
particle model of light which was later abandoned by scientists with conclusive
evidence supporting a wave model. Advances in technology and knowledge have now
provided a more sophisticated theory of the nature of light.

Testing and healthy scepticism

When you are first presented with a new theory or idea, there are several questions you
should ask.
• On what observations is the theory based (what has already been observed that needs
explaining)?
• Are these observations already explained by existing theories?
• Does the new theory extend the observations and make predictions about
experiments that have yet to be carried out? Can the new theory be tested?
• Is the new theory more complicated than necessary to explain existing observations?
Often the simplest ideas are the best.
An example of a theory would be:
The Earth is getting warmer as a result of the greenhouse effect (the combustion of
fossil fuels).
The previous four questions could be asked of this theory.
Generally, scientists proceed from observations of the phenomena they seek to
explain. These observations present a problem that they answer with an educated guess
or hypothesis. The next step is to design an experiment that will test this hypothesis.

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 Introduction

The scientist collects the results of the experiment, usually involving more observations,
and then comes to a conclusion. Has the hypothesis been proved or disproved? The
results are then published and other scientists may choose to replicate the experiment.
This is the essence of scientific method.

1.3 Physical Laws

Students learn to:
• recognise physical laws as concise statements about how nature is observed to function.

Scientists often refer to the laws of physics as if these ‘laws’ explained completely how
everything works. The laws of physics are often concise, general statements about
how nature is observed to behave. They may take the form of a sentence or paragraph,
for example:

An object will continue in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an
external force acts upon it. (Newton’s first law)
Physical laws can also be represented by mathematical equations, for example the
mass–energy relationship mentioned earlier:
E = mc2
A scientific law is descriptive. We accept a statement as a law only when it has been
found to apply to a range of observed phenomena, rather than to one very small corner
of physics.
Like political laws, scientific laws can be changed. As new information comes in and
is tested, scientists may agree to modify or even reject an existing law that has ceased to
be useful. To make progress in their work scientists build on a foundation of existing
laws, as if they were true. One should, however, always remember to keep an open
mind, in case new experimental methods throw existing laws into question.

E x e r ci s e

1.1 a What is a scientific model?

b Why are scientific models so useful?

1.4 Units of Measurement

Students learn to:
• recognise the nature of fundamental quantities and the need for standardised units of measurement
(Système International)
• appreciate the range of masses, length and time intervals commonly found in our Universe
• review the use of exponential notation and prefixes in expressing observational data.

If you are going to communicate your observations and theories to other scientists, then
you must share a common system of basic measurement. The measurement of any
observable event is made in terms of units of some agreed standard. The units of length
may be feet, inches, metres, centimetres or millimetres. For example, we can talk of a
pencil as being 0.33 feet, 4.0 inches, 10.0 centimetres or 0.1 metres long. To specify its
length as 10.0 without giving the units is confusing and meaningless.

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Système International d’Unités

Two hundred years ago units of measurement had not standardised. At different times
and in different places, people measured length in fathoms, hands, leagues, and even
pyramid inches. Britain and France, as the two major powers in Europe, established rival
systems of units. The imperial and metric systems of units arose from the need for
standard weights and measures in international trade. You still find that some areas
which were colonised by the British (e.g. the USA) use imperial measurements, such as
gallon, pound, mile, in their daily life, whereas those influenced by the French use
metric units (litre, kilogram, kilometre). Of course, of those initially colonised by the
British, many now use metric units; Australia is such an example.
In the 1790s the French Academy of Science established the first scientifically based
unit of length, the metre (abbreviated m). The French were making an accurate survey
of the Earth at this time. The metre was chosen to be ‘one ten-millionth of the distance
from the equator to the pole’. The primary standard metre was the distance between
two marks on a platinum alloy rod, kept in carefully controlled conditions at the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris. Copies, or secondary standards,
were sent to other centres around the world. Imagine having to travel half way round
the world to check the calibration of your metre ruler!
Today, where possible, the units of mass, length and time are defined in terms of
phenomena that can be observed in individual laboratories. This enables repeatedly
reliable and portable standards to exist all over the world.

Fundamental quantities
Most physical measurements can be expressed in terms of the three basic or
fundamental quantities: mass, length, and time. As we investigate heat, light, electricity
and matter we find that a further five fundamental units are necessary. Table 1.1 shows
the fundamental quantities and their units in the SI (Système International) system.
All other physical quantities encountered can be expressed in terms of these quantities.
Table 1.1 The eight fundamental quantities and their units
Fundamental quantity Unit Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Light intensity candela cd
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Plane angle radian rad

These units may all be determined in a laboratory situation in terms of measurable

effects. They are independent of any theory.
The fundamental units used to discuss motion, forces and energy are mass, length
and time.

Mass
In formulas, the lower case m is the symbol for mass. The m in E = mc 2 stands for mass.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). The standard kilogram is a block of platinum
alloy kept in Paris. The alloy is carefully preserved, and it was chosen because it suffers
minimum corrosion. Masses may be compared using sensitive beam balances.
Mechanical or electronic top-pan scales are often used to measure a mass. However, it
should be remembered that these must have been calibrated using a standard mass at
some stage.

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 Introduction

Examples of masses of objects encountered in physics include:

• the mass of the Milky Way galaxy is about 7 × 1041 kg
• the mass of the Sun is about 2 × 1030 kg
• the mass of a coal truck is about 104 kg
• the mass of a human body is about 50 kg to 100 kg
• the mass of a human hair is about 10–6 kg
• the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67 × 10–27 kg
• the mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg

Length
In formulas the letter s stands for displacement, while d (distance), r (radius) and
l (length) have particular meanings in different contexts. The SI unit of length is the
metre (m). As explained earlier, this was once defined in terms of the separation
of two points on a platinum bar kept in Paris. In 1960 the standard metre was defined
in terms of the wavelength of orange light emitted by a krypton gas lamp. The metre
is 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of the orange emission line from Krypton 86.
Since 1983 the metre has been defined in terms of the speed of light. The current
definition states: ‘The metre is the length of path travelled by light in a vacuum during
a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second’.
Examples of lengths encountered in physics include:
• the diameter of the Milky Way galaxy is about 1.4 × 1021 m
• the distance to the Sun is about 1.5 × 1011 m
• the circumference of the Earth is about 4 × 107 m
• the height of a human is about 1 m to 2 m
• the diameter of a typical cell is about 10–6 m
• the diameter of an atom is about 10–10 m.

Time
In formulas, time has the symbol t. The SI unit of time is the second (s). The original
standard of time was based on the daily rotation of the Earth about its axis: ‘The second
is 1/86 400 of a mean solar day’.
The second is now defined in terms of the frequency of radiation (radio waves)
emitted by excited caesium atoms as they lose energy: ‘A second is the time required
for 9 192 631 770 periods (cycles) of this radiation’.
Examples of time intervals encountered in physics include:
• the age of the universe is thought to be about 12–15 billion years
• the age of the Earth is about 5 billion years
• man appeared on the Earth about 1 million years ago
• human history has been recorded for about 5000 years
• the human lifetime is about 70 years
• the Earth revolves around the Sun in 1 year
• the world record for a 100 m sprint is about 10 s
• a television screen displays a picture every 0.02 s.

Exponential notation
We can express measurements of length fairly easily if they fall within the range 0.001 m
to 1000 m. When we try to talk about the size of an atom (0.000 000 000 1 m) or the
distance to Pluto (6 000 000 000 000 m) we experience problems with the length of
the number. It is common for scientists to use a shorthand in which we write large
numbers in a form using powers of ten. This is called exponential notation. For example:
• 10 000 is written as 104
• 1/10 000 or 0.0001 is written as 10–4.

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Sometimes, instead of writing 104, we shorten the notation further so that 104 is
written as 1 E4. This final approach is often used in computer languages and
spreadsheets. It is common practice to adopt the following conventions:
1 Write numbers in exponential notation with one numeral in the digits place and
others after the decimal point, that is, 3.43 × 104 not 34.3 × 103.
2 Leave numbers between 0.1 and 100 as they are.

E xample s
1 56 000 000 is 5.6 × 10 000 000. It is written as 5.6 × 107 (or 5.6 E7).
2 0.000 000 56 is 5.6/10 000 000. It is written as 5.6 × 10–7 (or 5.6 E – 7).
Care must be taken when entering numbers in exponential notation in a calculator. To enter
the number 5.6 × 107 press the buttons:

5 . 6 EXP 7

The display reads 5.607 which is read as 5.6 × 107.

Note: A common error is to enter the number 1 × 109 as:

1 0 EXP 9 instead of 1 EXP 9

E x e r ci s e s

1.2 Express the following numbers in ordinary arithmetical notation:

a 7.892 × 107 b 7.69 × 104 c 4.8532 × 10–3 d 1.0001 × 10–10

1.3 Write the following numbers in exponential notation:

a 0.000 002 5 b 25 000 000 000 c 1.354 d 0.0104

1.4 Use your calculator to perform the following calculations:

a (2.6 × 104) × (3.2 × 10–6) b (2.6 × 104) – (3.2 × 106)
(3.0 × 10–3)
c (1.2 × 107)2 d × (5.0 × 104)
(4.5 × 107)

Prefixes
In the metric system we refer to multiples of the fundamental units by adding
appropriate prefixes to the unit’s name. We can use these prefixes not only for
fundamental qualities of mass, length and time, but also for derived units of volume,
velocity or any other unit. Commonly used prefixes and their meanings are listed
in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Commonly used prefixes
Prefix Symbol Meaning Common examples in use
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109 gigawatt (GW)
Mega M 106 megabyte (Mb)
Kilo k 103 kilometre (km), kilogram (kg)
Hecto h 102 hectopascal (hPa)
Deca da 101
Deci d 10–1 decibel (db)
Centi c 10–2 centimetre (cm)
Milli m 10–3 millimetre (mm), millilitre (mL)
Micro µ 10–6 micrometre or micron (µm)
Nano n 10–9 nanometre (nm)
Pico p 10–12 picofarad (pF)
Femto f 10–15 femtosecond (fs)

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 Introduction

E x e r ci s e s

1.5 Convert the following to exponential notation:

a 32 nm b 120 µF (3 sig figs) c 1020 hPa (4 sig figs)
d 32 kg e 200 MW (3 sig figs) f 2.00 mW
1.6 Convert the following to their simplest metric measure (using appropriate
prefixes):
a 3.0 × 108 m b 7.0 × 10–5 m c 6.7 × 10–3 g d 0.53 × 10–1 g

Some derived quantities

Any measurement can be represented in terms of the fundamental units. Some of the
more common units that can be derived are area, volume, density, and velocity.

Area
The amount of space covered by a body is called its area. Area is measured in square
metres (m2) and is the product of length and width, that is:
area = length × width
Volume
The amount of space taken up by a body is called its volume and is measured in cubic metres
(m3). The volume of a rectangular body is the product of its length, width and height, that is:
volume = length × width × height
A cubic metre has sides 1 m long and is rather cumbersome for laboratory work. It is
often more useful to measure volumes in terms of cubic centimetres (cm3). A cube with
sides 1 cm (1 × 10–2 m) long has a volume of 1 cm3, or:
l cm3 = 1 × 10–2 m × 1 × 10–2 m × 1 × 10–2 m
= 1 × 10–6 m3
It is common to measure the volume of a gas or liquid in litres (L). Lemonade
bottles and milk cartons are often in 1 or 2 litre sizes. A litre is defined as 1000 cm3 or
1 × 10–3 m3. Thus, 1 cm3 = 1 mL.
Density
The mass per unit volume of a substance is called its density, or:
mass
density =
volume
Density is usually expressed in terms of kg m–3 or g cm–3. Thus:
1 × 10–3 kg
1 g cm–3 =
1 × 10–6 m3
= 1 × 103 kg m–3
Speed
The distance travelled in 1 second is called the speed of a body, or:
distance
velocity =
time
Speed is usually measured in m s–1. Thus:
103
1 km s–1 = = 103 m s–1
1s
103 m
1 km h–1 = = 0.278 m s–1
60 × 60
Some of the more important derived quantities may be given their own name, and
these are listed in Table 1.3. Note that their units are often the names of scientists who
were closely connected with work in the same area.

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Table 1.3 Additional derived quantities commonly used in physics

Quantity Equation Unit Symbol Fundamental units

Force F = ma newton N kg m s–2
1
Energy E= mv 2 joule J kg m2 s–2
2
∆E
Power power = ∆ t watt W kg m2 s–3

force
Pressure pressure = pascal Pa kg m–1 s–2
area
1
Frequency f= hertz Hz s–1
time

1.5 Units and Dimensions

Students learn to:
• convert measurements made in non-standard units to SI units.

All constants referred to in equations are stated in terms of SI units. When carrying out
measurements and calculations you should always work in SI units, making the
necessary conversion from the units in which you measured to the equivalent SI unit
as early as possible in your calculations.

E xample
P roble m
You have made the following measurements of a box and have been asked to calculate the
volume of the box. The measurements are: length = 10.0 cm, width = 5.0 cm, height = 2.0 cm.
S olution
Volume = length × width × height
1 cm = 1 × 10–2 m
Step 1: Convert the measurements to relevant SI units (metres):
length = 10.0 cm = 10.0 × 1 x 10–2 m = 0.100 m
width = 5.0 cm = 5.0 × 1 × l0–2 m = 5 × l0–2 m
height = 2.0 cm = 2.0 × 1 × 10–2m = 2 × 10–2m
Step 2: Calculate the volume:
Volume = 0.100 m × 5 × 10–2 m × 2 × 10–2 m = 1.0 × 10–4 m3

E x e r ci s e

1.7 Complete the following table of derived quantities.

Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Area metres squared m2
Density kilograms per metres cubed
Velocity
Acceleration
Volume
Force
Frequency
Energy
Power

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 Introduction

1.6 Significant Figures

Students learn to:
• recognise that the number of significant figures in a measurement reflects the accuracy of the
observation.

When making a measurement it is normal practice to record all integers that are certain
and one more in which there is some uncertainty. The integers known with certainty
plus the next figure are called significant figures. There is no relation between the
number of significant figures in a measurement and the location of the decimal point.
A metre ruler marked in centimetre divisions is used to record the width of a book as
30.4 cm. This number has three significant figures. The first two integers are measured
with certainty while the third is a mental estimate. The number could also be written
as 0.304 m; however, the number still has three significant figures because the first zero
is used only to emphasise the location of the decimal place. Similarly, the measurement
0.0304 has three significant figures, but the measurement 0.030 40 has four significant
figures. A zero used to indicate the position of the decimal point is not a significant
figure.
Consider a ruler marked in millimetre divisions. We use it to draw a line of length
10 mm. This could also be written as a length of 0.01 m or 0.010 m. Which is correct?
The answer is 0.010 m, because the line was measured to two significant figures
(10 mm). When a number such as 10 or 1000 is a precise measurement, all the digits are
significant figures. If, however, a number of 15 000 is suggested by a commentator as
the number in a crowd at a sporting event, then the figure is an estimate probably to the
nearest thousand. This possible ambiguity can be removed using scientific notation.
The crowd estimate is 1.5 × 104 (two significant figures) but if we were to allow entry to
exactly 15 000 people, we would record it as 1.5000 × 104 people (five significant figures).

E x e r ci s e s

1.8 How many significant figures are there in each of the following (assume that all
numbers are precise measurements):
a 25.32 b 10.0 c 10 d 100 e 36 090
f 0.001 g 10.0010 h 1901 i 30.925 j 20 000?
1.9 Rewrite the following figures in exponential notation (assume that all numbers
are precise measurements):
a 215.52 b 10.0 c 1000 d 100 e 336 090
f 0.001 g 0.0010 h 1900 i 0.000 000 965 j 1 00 000

1.7 Handling Data

Students learn to:
• recognise the necessity for valid and reliable data
• recognise that repeated measurements show a spread or uncertainty about an average or mean value
• express measurements and their uncertainties in a statistically meaningful way using the mean and
mean deviation
• calculate absolute and relative errors of measurement
• compare results within their uncertainties.

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To make conclusions with any degree of certainty, the data used must be valid and
reliable. Valid data is that which actually measures what you set out to measure. For
example, when carrying out an investigation about the effect of exercise on core body
temperature, it is critical to know whether temperature taken under the armpit is a valid
measure of core body temperature.
Reliable data is data that does not vary widely, that is, is reproducible. A sensitive
electronic balance whose readings change with atmospheric pressure would not
produce reliable data outside a specialised environment, or without an automatic
adjustment device. A Coulomb’s law experiment that yields results with 100% variation
does not produce reliable data. Results should be capable of being replicated anywhere
in the world and at different times in the same location unless these are variables in
the procedure.
Non-numerical information also needs to be valid and reliable. It is important to
check your sources. You can hardly expect the ‘Aliens are Among Us Cult’ website to
provide much usable or believable information on space travel. However, even sites of
reputable organisations such as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory or NASA, which contain
much valuable factual information, may be biased toward the expenditure of vast
amounts of money on space travel. It is important to balance your sources and look for
hidden agendas. Just because it is in print does not mean it is true, anyone can publish
on the Internet.

Measuring techniques and uncer tainties

Comparison of results
You will often be placed in a situation where you will be challenged to ‘prove it’. When you
were in primary school the challenge may have been to prove that ‘Helen is bigger than Bill’.
In making measurements there may be an argument as to who does the measuring;
who do you trust? When the measurements have been done you may dispute the
results. You might ask for a better ruler to be used rather than the original one, which has
had the end nibbled off, or you might ask for a re-measurement by an impartial onlooker.
You may even decide that the fairest way to determine the heights is to ask 50 people
to measure each of the two siblings.
You can make a bar chart of the number of people measuring a certain height,
against that height. The height most people measured for Helen is 1.64 m and that for
Bill is 1.66 m. These may be termed the most probable heights. Notice that not everyone

most probable height

Figure 1.1
Distribution of
measurements of Helen Bill
height of Helen and
Bill. Note the spread
Number measuring height (H)

in measurements,
and the most width at half height
probable or mean
heights.
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
.63
1.64
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.70
1.71

1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
.63
1.64
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.70
1.71

Height (m) Height (m)

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 Introduction

measured the same height for each person. There is a spread of values about the most
probable height.
We can also calculate the average or mean height by adding up the heights measured
by each of the 50 people for Helen and dividing this by 50 (the number of
measurements). From the average height values, Bill is the taller.
There is clearly some spread or uncertainty in the measurements. In order to answer
the question ‘Who is the taller?’ properly we need to be able to take this uncertainty into
account. One simple estimate of this uncertainty is the half width of the bar chart at a
point about halfway down from the peak.
We can express our final answer by stating the average value along with its
uncertainty. Thus we write:
Helen has a height of 164 ± 2 cm
Bill has a height of 166 ± 2 cm
We can state that within the measurement uncertainties both have the same height.
The questions raised in this hypothetical situation also apply to scientific
measurements. If you perform an experiment and use its results to develop a hypothesis,
you will be challenged to ‘prove it’. You will need to question the accuracy of your
measurements and to be able to compare your result with those of other scientists.

Uncer tainties in multiple readings

When we take multiple readings of a measurement we often do not have sufficient data to form
a normal distribution. A common procedure is to calculate the mean and express the uncertainty
as the mean deviation from the observed mean.

E xample
P roble m
Five students measured the mass of a rock. Their measurements were 18 g, 22 g, 19 g, 18 g
and 22 g. What is the mean and the mean deviation of the results?
S olution
18 + 22 + 19 + 18 + 19
The mean is = 19 g.
5
1+3+0+1+0
The mean deviation is = 1 g.
5
The mass of the rock is written as 19 ± 1 g.

Uncer tainties in measurement

Every measurement published involves a person and an instrument. You may not realise
it but you often introduce personal errors into your measurements. Perhaps you are not
paying attention to what you are doing. Perhaps you didn’t sleep very well or you didn’t
have time for breakfast. Perhaps you were nudged at the critical moment. These factors
all affect your measurements and cause your results to be different from those of others
in the class.
Instruments, too, are prone to errors. These errors may be built into the instrument.
Cheap rulers have mm graduations stamped into the plastic. In the process the plastic
will flow slightly, resulting in graduations that are slightly larger or smaller than a
standard millimetre.

Limits of measurement or reading

When you read an instrument, the limit of your measurement is the smallest graduation
on the instrument scale. When you make a measurement you should state it to the
nearest graduation on the scale.

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 P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e

Absolute and relative errors

If you make a measurement to the nearest graduation on the scale, you can estimate the
maximum error as being half the limit of reading of the instrument. The absolute error
in measuring a single position on a metre rule that is graduated in millimetre intervals is
therefore 1/2 millimetre.
The measurement of a single position is of little use. Imagine driving to Sydney from
Wollongong, for an interview. You want to be able to claim for the kilometres you have
driven, so you note down the number of kilometres on the odometer when you arrive at
Sydney. Then you realise that you do not know what the reading was when you left home!
When you measure the length or the mass of an object you are in fact taking two
readings from your instrument—you measure a start position and a finish position.
Each measurement has an uncertainty of half the limit of reading. Upon combining
the measurements, you have an absolute error equal to the limit of reading of the
instrument or of the smallest graduation on the instrument’s scale.
You may state your uncertainties or error as a relative or fractional error:
absolute error
Relative error [RE] =
average measurement
or as a percentage error:
absolute error
Percentage error = × 100%
average error
This relative error indicates the importance of the error.

Figure 1.2
Examples of limits
0.2
of measurement 0 0.4
or reading
kg 0.6
a a kilogram scale
and b a metre rule. 2.5 Limit of measurement = 1 kg
0.8 Scale reads = 2.4 kg
Uncertainty = graduation = 0.1 kg
1.0
2.0

Limit of measurement = 1 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Uncertainty = 1 graduation
= 0.1 cm or 1 mm

Length of block = 8.8– 2.3 cm

= 6.5 cm ± 0.1 cm
enlarged view
2.3 cm 8.8 cm

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14
 Introduction

E xample
P roble m
You measure the length of two rods using a metre ruler and find:
length 1 = 2.000 m ± 1 × 10–3 m
length 2 = 0.100 m ± 1 × 10–3 m
What are the relative errors?
S olution
1 × 10–3
RE1 = = 5 × 10–4
2.000
1 × 10–3
RE2 = = 1 × 10–2
0.1

Clearly the error is more significant in measuring length 2 than length 1.

Uncer tainty in derived quantities

There are two simple rules for determining the uncertainty in a derived quantity.

Rule 1
When two quantities are added or subtracted the error or uncertainty of the sum or difference is the
sum of the separate errors.

E xample
If X = 4.66 ± 0.01 cm and Y = 3.84 ± 0.01 cm then
X + Y = 4.66 ± 0.01 cm + 3.84 ± 0.01 cm = 8.50 ± 0.02 cm
X – Y = 4.66 ± 0.01 cm – 3.84 ± 0.01 cm = 0.82 ± 0.02 cm

E x e r ci s e

1.10 Using the same values for X and Y above, determine:

a X + 2Y b 2X – 2Y c 10X d 2X + Y

Rule 2
When quantities are multiplied or divided the percentage error of the sum or quotient is the sum of the
separate percentage errors.

E xample
P roble m
A student determined the circumference of a coin to be 100 ± 1 mm, and the diameter to be
32 ± 1 mm. Use this data to determine π.
S olution
1 mm 100
The percentage error in circumference is × = 1%
100 mm 1

1 mm 100
The percentage error in diameter is × = 3%
32 mm 1
100
The value for π is = 3.13
32
The percentage error in the value is 1% + 3% = 4%
So π = 3.13 ± 4%
It is common practice to express final errors as a number.
So 4% of 3.13 = 0.13
π = 3.13 ± 0.13

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 P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e

E x e r ci s e s

1.11 Calculate the area of a field of dimensions length = 200 ± 2 m and width = 100 ± 1 m
1.12 Calculate the area of a circle of radius 200 ± 1 cm

1.8 Graphical Analysis

Students learn to:
• analyse information to identify trends, patterns and relationships
• justify inferences and conclusions.

A fundamental reason for experimental work is to investigate the relationship between

two (or more) quantities. As one quantity is varied (the independent variable) the other
quantity is measured (the dependent variable). A range of values are chosen for each
variable and the results tabulated and plotted graphically. This should be done as the
experiment proceeds. This allows the immediate detection of errors such as misreading
a scale. Nowadays results can be directly measured by a data logger and plotted
immediately on a computer.
It is conventional to choose the x-axis for the independent variable (the quantity that
is varied) and the y-axis for the dependent variable (the quantity you measure).
Let us go back to what may have been your first high-school experiment—heating
water with a Bunsen burner and recording the temperature. A section of a student’s
result table is shown in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 The temperature of a beaker of water at 1 minute intervals

Time (min) Temperature (°C) Time (min) Temperature (°C)

0 15.4 9 62.4
1 18.8 10 68.7
2 26.6 11 70.2
3 30.4 12 71.6
4 33.9 13 78.0
5 44.6 14 83.4
6 45.4 15 84.0
7 45.8 16 89.3
8 52.7 17 91.6

A typical careful Year 7 student would then plot the data, as shown in Figure 1.3, and
wonder why the graph is not a straight line.
The most appropriate way to treat the graph is to draw a line of best fit, after all we
are looking to see if the temperature is proportional to the time. Recall that the equation
for a straight line is y = mx + b. So that if a plot of y (temperature) versus x (time) is linear
then the temperature of the water is proportional to the time of heating. A spreadsheet
or charting program makes this task easy. The graph shown in Figure 1.4 was obtained
using Microsoft Excel. The graph type was ‘Scatter’; a Trendline (the line of best fit) was
added and the equation displayed on the graph (using the charting options available).
In this case we can ‘see’ a clear trend with points lying on or near the line.
The equation is linear. The temperature rises about 4.6°C a minute. The temperature
is proportional to the time and the equation is displayed on the graph. This simply

16
 Introduction

The temperature of water being heated by a Bunsen burner The temperature of water being heated by a Bunsen burner

100.0 100.0
90.0 90.0
80.0 80.0
70.0 70.0
Temperature (C)

Temperature (C)
60.0 60.0
50.0 50.0
40.0 40.0
Temperature = 4.61 Time + 17.05
30.0 30.0
R2 = 0.99
20.0 20.0
10.0 10.0
0.0 0.0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 1.3 Student plot of data from Table 1.4—the temperature Figure 1.4 Trendline added to the plot of data from Figure 1.3
of water being heated by a Bunsen burner. —the temperature of water being heated by a Bunsen burner.

implies that there was a near constant rate of heat absorbed by the water. R2 is a
statistical term calculated from the data. It varies between 0 and 1 and indicates how
good a fit the data is to a linear relationship.
This example also illustrates the danger of extrapolating a relationship beyond
the range of measurement. What would be the temperature of the water at time
26 minutes?

E x e r ci s e s

1.13 List possible reasons for the individual deviations from the straight line.

1.14 Plot the following data for the distance travelled by a falling object versus time.
First plot distance versus time then plot distance versus time squared. The
distance is the measured quantity. Determine the relationship between
distance and time.
Time (s) Distance (mm) Time2 (s) Distance (mm)
0.00 0 0.0000 0
0.02 2 0.0004 2
0.04 8 0.0016 8
0.06 18 0.0036 18
0.08 31 0.0064 31
0.10 49 0.0100 49
0.12 71 0.0144 71
0.14 96 0.0196 96
0.16 125 0.0256 125
0.18 159 0.0324 159
0.20 196 0.0400 196
0.22 237 0.0484 237
0.24 282 0.0576 282
0.26 331 0.0676 331
0.28 384 0.0784 384
0.30 441 0.0900 441

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1.9 How to be a Scientific Sherlock Holmes

Students learn to:
• appreciate the role of each stage in undertaking an experimental investigation
• identify suitable problems to investigate
• plan the investigation
• research the project using published data
• recognise the need to control the experimental variables
• plan the method of recording measurements.

It is an important scientific skill to be able to conduct your own independent

investigation. It can also be fun. As part of the physics course you will frequently be asked
to plan and perform a first-hand investigation of a set problem, choose the equipment
and resources, analyse and process the results, solve the problem, or formulate cause and
effect relationships, and present the information. You will also be required to plan and
conduct at least one open-ended investigation of your own choosing.

Identifying a problem
The major hurdle for many people is finding a problem to investigate. Students must
operate with various constraints. When deciding on a subject, ask yourself these questions:
1 Is the equipment I require available? If your school does not have an interferometer and
you can not get access to one, it can be useless choosing a project that requires one.
2 Is it safe? Radioactive sources, exposed 240 volt mains supply electricity, and induction
coils, among other things, are very dangerous. Avoid them. Keep state and national
animal welfare and occupational health and safety regulations in mind, specifically the
Animal Research Act (1985), the Animals in Schools Document (1999), Occupational
Health and Safety Act (1983) Dangerous Goods Act (1975) and the Hazardous
Substances Regulation (1996). Your teacher will have access to copies of these. It is
foolish and illegal to breach these guidelines.
3 Is there enough time to complete the experiment? An investigation requiring 2 years to
complete is out of the question as is one that is so time consuming that other work
suffers.
4 Is it complex enough? Senior students should be doing fairly sophisticated research and
any project should enable students to indicate to their teachers that they have achieved
the skills outcomes of the course. Don’t even think about a model torch or doorbell.
5 Is it physics? Leave the effect of fertiliser on plants to the biologists.
6 Is it possible?

Where do you get ideas?

The best source is your observation of the world around you. Is there anything you have
always wondered about or about which you may have an hypothesis? Popular science
journals, radio and television programs provide information about current research.
Perhaps you could come up with a simplified version of an experiment dealing with the
same problem a working scientist may be investigating.
Your work in the physics class can also generate project ideas. In the chapter on
communication you are asked to design an experiment to compare the acoustic properties
of various materials. Possibly, you could investigate different shapes for speaker baffles.
Another inspiration might be your own interests, sports, hobbies, or pastimes.

18
 Introduction

How does the width of bicycle tyres affect stopping distances? Family, friends and
neighbours may be able to help. Your optometrist, electrician, or mechanic may have a
project in mind.
When all else fails, there are books of project ideas in most libraries. See also the
information booklets for various research competitions such as Young Scientist, BHP
Prize, Science Week. Your teacher will have copies of these.
When you have a topic in mind, narrow it down to something workable and express it
as an hypothesis. Get your teacher’s approval before commencing work.

Planning the investigation

Every investigation is different and it is impossible to make hard and fast rules. An experi-
menter has many decisions to make. Science texts contain definite steps in scientific
method, but in real-world research there are many exceptions.
The following represents some useful hints on things which you should do when
planning and undertaking an experiment.
• The first step in any investigation is to find as much background information as
possible and to discover what others have done in your field. Check books,
magazines, CDs and the Internet to learn all you can before you begin. This prevents
much wasted time.
• You must determine what kind of data you need to collect. It is better to find ways to
make numerical measurements rather than use subjective judgments, except in cases
of ‘yes’ or ‘no’ observations.
• In many experiments, there are variables—things that change. Some of these are
independent and you can directly control them. For instance, you can control the
amount of light falling on a film. Others are dependent and change only when you alter
another variable.
• According to your hypothesis, which is your dependent variable and which are your
independent variables? It is advisable to manipulate only one variable at a time and to
keep all other conditions exactly the same. If you are determining the factors that affect
the period of a pendulum, change only the mass and keep the string length and angle
of release the same.
• How accurate should your measurements be? Ensure that your increments will provide
meaningful results. A bit of trial and error is necessary here. Is there a change with
5 mm intervals or do you need 10 cm variations? If the intervals are too large, will you
run out of room or will other factors come into play? You should take readings at
enough different points to produce a recognisable trend. Decide if you need to repeat
trials for accuracy and how many runs are necessary and sufficient.
• Some experiments require a control—a situation used as a comparison—to confirm
that it was actually the scientist’s manipulation of the situation that caused the effect.
• While you are planning your methodology, you should also be making decisions about
the instruments and equipment that you will need. If available, the use of
electronic data loggers and sensors is often the most accurate way to make
measurements, and computers and graphics calculators speed up data collection and
analysis. Choose the equipment that provides the degree of accuracy you need.
• Never forget personal safety. Simple things like projectiles or heavy objects can cause
serious injury. Design your experiment keeping hazards to a minimum. Remember to
dispose of used substances in a safe and environmentally sound manner. If safety is an
issue, once your equipment is assembled have your teacher or other knowledgeable
adult examine it and supervise your work.
• Wastage should also be considered. Do you really need to burn vast amounts of
magnesium or is there a non-destructive way to test it?

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 P h y s i c s i n C o n t e x t : T h e Fo r c e s o f L i f e

• Trial your method. Often first ideas are faulty and adjustments must be made. Exactly
what is the problem? Perhaps you can think of several strategies to solve it. Evaluate
all of them, choose the most appropriate one and justify your choice. Sometimes
initial plans must be scrapped and you may have to start over from the beginning.
Persistence is good up to a point, but there is a time when it is best to try something
else.
• How will you record your results? A table is often an efficient method, and a graph
assists later analysis of data. Remember to record all relevant variables, even
independent ones you do not alter. Is an error analysis necessary? It may be a good
idea to see if relative errors are a factor before you come to a conclusion.
• Assess your data for validity and reliability. If necessary, repeat your experiment on a
different day. Are there any results that deviate wildly from the rest? Why? Look at
your experiment critically for sources of random and systematic errors that you could
not eliminate.
• Process and analyse your information. Look for trends and patterns. The scatter of
points may indicate a curve of best fit. Are your variables directly proportional,
inversely proportional or something more complicated? Perhaps your investigation
yields unexpected results at odds with accepted scientific theory. Try to explain why.
• Now is the time to go over your research, logically and critically examine what you did
and what you observed, and come to a conclusion. Decide if you have proved your
hypothesis and justify your conclusion, explaining how your data supports or refutes
your hypothesis. It may be inconclusive. Your dependent variable may not vary with
your independent variable.
• Lastly, present your investigation in a clear manner using the appropriate text type.
The experimental record text type requires some clear headings:
– title – method
– aim or hypothesis – results
– equipment – conclusion.
Provide an abstract or summary at the beginning of your report. Then introduce
your report with a section in which you summarise your second-hand research and
your thoughts before undertaking the investigation. Use clearly labelled diagrams
to show how the equipment was assembled and the experiment undertaken. At the
end, a discussion of your conclusion and an error analysis may be appropriate.
Additionally, your teacher may have asked you to keep a log book or journal, which
will be collected with your report.

Bibliography
In presenting a research report, you must acknowledge your second-hand sources using
a standard format. This enables the reader to determine whether you are using accurate
and reliable information from believable experts. To check that you have quoted and
interpreted your references correctly, others should also be able to refer to the books,
magazines or websites you consulted. One way to reference your sources is to list the
author and the date of the source in the text next to the information obtained from that
source. (Zealey, 1994)
At the end, there must be a bibliography listing each book, the author, year of
publication, publisher and city of publication. For example:
Zealey, W (1994), Physics—The Forces of Life, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
A magazine article listing includes the author, year, title of article, magazine, issue
and pages the article is on:
Hynoski, M (1992), A Smeltering Experience, Science Education News, 41(3), 11–12.

20
 Introduction

For an encyclopaedia the name of the encyclopaedia, date, volume, publisher and
city are necessary.
All CD ROMs must be acknowledged similarly to a book and website addresses must
be complete so that anyone can use a computer to access them.

1.10 A Case Study

Students learn to:
• review the processes involved in planning and undertaking an experiment.

Mary was curious about the photochromatic lenses in her glasses. Do they darken as
well behind the windscreen of her car as outside? Maybe certain wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation cause the colour to become darker or to deepen faster. She
went to the library and researched the electromagnetic spectrum and photochromatic
lenses. She also visited her oculist who gave her pamphlets, and she surfed the Internet.
After gathering information and making qualitative observations, she formulated a
hypothesis. ‘My photochromatic lenses will darken most quickly and most completely at
wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.5 microns.’ She chose this value because it is the most
intense wavelength of sunlight on the surface of the Earth.
Her dependent variables were the time and degree of darkening of the lenses. She
picked two as her equipment would measure both at the same time. Her independent
variable was the frequency of light. She needed to keep all other variables constant:
brightness of the light, distance from the lens etc. Almost immediately she discovered
that finding sources of monochromatic light was a problem. However, the school drama
department had some pure filters, and the science department could supply infrared
and ultraviolet light sources. She adjusted her hypothesis accordingly.
Because her school had a light probe in its data logging equipment, she could collect
data in an efficient and accurate manner. She set the computer to record and graph the
light intensity over time. To keep out stray light she constructed a box with a stand in the
centre for her lens, the light source at one end and the probe at the other. Using the
probe, she discovered stray light was still getting in so she covered the box in black. She
also had to find out if the probe registered UV and IR radiation. She used the probe to
ensure the brightness of each lamp she used was the same, by adjusting the voltage
supplying the power to the lamp.
After much trial and error and repetition, Mary collected her data in a table and
constructed two graphs: time to darken to a maximum versus colour (arranged by
wavelength) and degree of maximum darkening versus colour. She recognised a trend,
came to a conclusion and justified it in her report. In her log book she had recounted all
her problems and solutions.

E x e r ci s e

1.15 Can you point out any possible sources of error in Mary’s experiment? How
could you rectify or minimise them?

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EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1.1 Measurement

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to practise the use of some measuring instruments and
to investigate the relationship between percentage error and the magnitude of the
reading.
M at e rial s
• Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze, 250 mL beaker, wall clock
• rubber stopper, stopwatch
• burette, retort stand, burette clamp
• metre rule
• beam balance
• 100 mL measuring cylinder, vernier callipers
• 1 cm3 metal cubes of lead, aluminium, copper
M e t hod
Measure the following events and items using the instrument indicated. Use the same
units for the measurement and the error. Work out the percentage error for each.
R e s ult

Event measured Instrument Limit of Measurement Absolute Percentage

used reading error error

Time taken to raise 200 mL

of water from room
temperature to boiling wall clock
Time taken for a rubber
stopper to fall 2 m stopwatch
Time taken for 1 mL of water
to run out of a burette stopwatch
Length of a laboratory bench metre rule
Height of a workbench metre rule
Outside diameter of a 100 mL
measuring cylinder vernier callipers
Inside diameter of a 250 mL beaker vernier callipers
Inside diameter of the top
of a Bunsen burner vernier callipers
Mass of a lead metal cube beam balance
Mass of an aluminium metal cube beam balance
Mass of a copper metal cube beam balance

Experiment 1.2 The thickness of a piece of wire

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the diameter of a length of wire.
M at e rial s
• micrometer
• length of enamelled copper wire or material of similar thickness
M e t hod
Use the micrometer to measure the thickness of the wire at ten different points along its length.
R e s ult s
Determine the mean thickness of the wire.

22
 Introduction

Experiment 1.3 The thickness of a piece of paper

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper.
M at e rial s
• micrometer
• text book
M e t hod
Use the micrometer to measure the thickness of 100 sheets (200 pages) of the book at ten
different locations.
R e s ult s
Determine the mean thickness of 100 sheets. Determine the mean thickness of a single
sheet. Justify the procedure used in this experiment.

Experiment 1.4 The measurement of π

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to measure independently the circumference and
diameter of a circle and to use these measurements to obtain a value for π.
M at e rial s
• 20 cent coin
• ruler marked in millimetres
• vernier callipers
• pencil
M e t hod
a Use a pencil to mark a point on the rim of a 20 cent piece. Use a ruler to draw a vertical
line across ten lines of your exercise book. Place the 20 cent piece at the intersection of
the vertical line with the first horizontal line so that the point on the rim is next to the
page. Carefully roll the coin along the line until the point is again next to the page.
Mark this spot. The distance between points is the circumference of the coin. Repeat
this along the next nine lines. Measure these lengths and determine the mean
circumference.
b Use the verniers to measure the diameter of the 20 cent coin.
R e s ult s
Calculate a value for π using your measurements.

Experiment 1.5 Measuring density

A im
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the density of a substance.
M at e rial s
• metal cubes or small sample of a mineral
• 25 mL measuring cylinder, water balance
M e t hod
a Use a balance to determine the mass of your sample. Record the mass and its
uncertainty.
b Determine the volume of your sample by displacement using the measuring cylinder.
Record the volume and its uncertainty.
R e s ult
Calculate a value for the density using your measurements.

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Review Questions and Problems

1 Use a calculator to perform the following calculations:
a 3.2 × 103 × 5.2 × 105 b 4.3 × 108 × 8.3 × 10–3
c (3.2 × 10 ) ÷ (5.2 × 10 )
3 5 d (4.3 × 108)÷ (8.3 × 10–3)
3.2 × 10 × 5.2 × 10
3 5
e 4.3 × 108 × 8.3 × 10–3

2 Convert the following to exponential notation:

a 2.3 nm b 470 pF c 1032 hPa
d 67 kg e 203 MPa f 187 GW

3 Convert the following to their simplest metric measure, using appropriate

prefixes:
a 4.2 × 1012 g b 7.9 × 10–6 m c 8.3 × 10–3 g d 9.56 × 10–5 m

4 A box has dimensions 300 cm × 150 cm × 100 cm. Determine its volume in cubic
metres (m3).

5 If X = 2.16 ± 0.01 g and Y = 7.83 ± 0.01 g, determine:

a 2X + Y b 10X c 10X – Y d 2(X + Y)
e X2 f XY g Y2 – X

6 Determine how many significant figures there are in each of the following
(assume that all numbers are precise measurements):
a 25.02 b 358.0 c 1.0 d 1.00 e 56 000
f 0.0010 g 10.0100 h 1990 i 3.340 j 20 000.00

7 Rewrite the following figures in scientific notation (assume that all numbers
are precise measurements):
a 6785.52 b 10.000 c 19 000 d 100 234
e 3609 f 50.001 g 0.11010 h 1 900 000
i 0.000 000 007 j 1 000 000

8 a Determine the conversion factor to change kilometres per hour into

metres per second.
b Convert the following speeds to m s–l
i 60 km h–l ii 100 km h–l.

24