2019

Pedagogy notes

Hameed Korai
MSc. (Gold Medallist)
5/5/2019
S. No. Topic Page No.

1. Problems of Discipline 1-2

2. Overcrowded classes 3-4
3. Wastage and Stagnation 5-6
4. Essential infrastructural facilities in secondary and higher 7
secondary schools
5. Leadership: - Concept, Styles and Types 8-10
6. Qualities and functions of Asst. HM and Head Master.(SST) 11-12
7. Qualities and functions of Teacher. 13
8. In-service Training 14-15
9. Pre-service training 16
10. Concept and training of Human Resource Development 17
11. Concept of Quality management and SWOT Analysis. 18
12. Peter Drucker’s Modern Management Theory with its 19-20
Principles (SST Science 2015)
13. Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management Theory with its 21
Principles (SST Science 2015)
14. Classroom Management 22
15. What measures you will take for effective Classroom 23
management?
16. Event Management 24
17. Time Management 25-26
18. Equality of educational opportunity 27
19. NEED/IMPORTANCE OF EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL 28
20. Gender and education 29
21. Role / Functions / Importance of Society 30-31
22. Interactions in school 32
23. School as social institute and state functions and activities. 33-34
24. SOCIAL/COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES OF SCHOOL 35
25. Different ways of access to education 36
26. Role of NGOs 37
27. Differentiate between Peer Group and Reference Group 38-39
28. State and educational functions of state 40
29. Family 41
30. Role of heredity 43-44
31. Difference between growth and development 45
32. Principles of growth & development and their educational 46-49
Implications
33. Meaning and functions of Management 50-51
34. Disadvantages of formal, informal and non-formal 54
education
35. Advantages of formal, informal and non-formal education 55-60
36. Non-Formal Education 61
37. Informal Education 62
38. Formal Education 63
39. Modern aims of education 64
40. Philosophy of Jainism 65-66
41. Islamic education 67-68
42. Buddhist education 69-70
43. CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION 71-72
SYSTEM
44. Vedic education 75-78
45. Universal aims of education 79
46. Relationship between education and philosophy 80
47. Functions of education 81
48. Scope of education 82
49. Activities for all-round development of a child 83-84
50. Impact of Media on childhood and growing up 85-87
51. Functions of Home in Education of Child 88-89
52. Meaning and Concept Of Multicultural Education 90-91
53. SCOPE OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 92
54. Learning styles (SST Science 2015) 93
55. Role of Teacher for Special Child - Physical and Visual 100
Impairment Students
56. Characteristics of Physically challenged Children 102
57. Mentally retarded students 104
58. CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED CHILDREN 106
59. Slow learner students 109
60. Characteristics of a Student with Learning Disabilities 111
61. Inclusive Education 114
62. What is the Teacher's Advantage in Knowing Individual 116
Differences
63. What are the Different Types of Individual Differences? 117
64. Individual Differences? 120
65. Emotional Intelligence 123
66. Educational Implications of Social Development 126
67. Role of Teachers, Parents and School for Adolescents 128
68. The Role of a Teacher / school in Facilitating Development 130
of Children
69. Role of the teacher in solving problems and proper
physical, mental, emotional and social development of the 132
adolescent
70. Characteristics of Adolescent Stage of Growth 134
71. Growth and Development of a Child at different stages 138
72. Describe Micro-Teaching (SST Science 2017) 146
73. Principles of Educational Administration (SST Science 2017) 149
74. What is Pedagogy 153
75. Teaching techniques and strategies (SST General 2015) 156
 Foreword
The notes in your hands have been compiled from various sources: from the Internet, and the
books, keeping in view the current perplexities of the students of Education Department. The idea of
making notes for the Secondary School Teachers came in my mind when the posts for SST were
announced. Information contained in these notes is only for general information purpose. I make no
warranties of any kind, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability of it. Although a great care has
been done in order to make these notes readable for the students of Science and Arts yet there are
possibilities of any mistake. Hence you are advised to read the notes for general understanding and
keep an additional book for further studies.
I am very thankful to Mr. Sami Jan for helping me in the compilation of these notes. In the
end, I would like to dedicate my work to Balochistan Public School and my friends: Tahir Habib,
Saleem Jan, Shahnawaz and all others.

Hameed Korai
MSc (Gold Medallist)
Q 1 . Problems of Discipline

Indiscipline can be broadly stated as a loss of idealism in the society . With no proper leadership or
direction shown by teachers and with flaws and drawbacks in the prevalent education system,
problems of discipline occur due to various reasons such as unsuitable environment, faulty class
structure, overcrowded classes, poor value education, no quality time in family, etc. and their
various forms are
1) Rude behavior, discourtesy and disrespect for rules, staff and school authorities.
2) Being noisy and disturbing others by way of unruly conduct.
3) Not completing assigned tasks.
4) Bullying peers or juniors.
5) Disruptive behavior and Damaging or spoiling school or students’ property.
6) Back-answering and use of abusive language.
7) Indulging in and instigating others in wrongful activities like stealing, going on strikes,
supplying drugs, bunking school, fighting on the streets, eve-teasing, copying in exams, etc.

Thus to eradicate this problem we must train quality teachers who have true love and concern for
the children and who will lead through example.

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Q 2 . What measures would you suggest to maintain discipline in your school?
Good discipline is both a cause and a consequence of the successful functioning of a school and can
be ensured as follows –

1) Effective teamwork – Effective team work is the key to sound disciplinary policies.
Teamwork between the principal and staff, amongst teachers, between teachers and pupils,
pupils and pupils, etc and the proper distribution of responsibilities will help to achieve the
desired end.
2) Good school traditions – The school seniors following good discipline get used to it as a
natural way of life and the juniors automatically imitate and follow their example and thus
such a tradition of the school continues.
3) Suitable programme of activities – “An idle mind is the devil’s workshop.” The vitality and
youthfulness of the students should be directed into fruitful channels of activity so they are
gainfully employed and do not resort to indiscipline.
4) Good and well-planned infrastructure – Airy classrooms, proper lighting, clean surroundings,
good sanitary facilities leave little scope for irritation and create a healthy and invigorating
atmosphere that keeps children away from mischief.
5) Well-conducted school assemblies – Assemblies at the altar of the school promote school
loyalty, a sense of belonging and “esprit de corps” and foster unity and oneness amongst
the students.
6) Well-planned school work – A complete work plan before the session starts will avoid all
forms of delay and confusion in the classrooms.
7) Personal contact – A teacher’s personal touch, tact and wit will divert the attention of any
tantrum-throwing child into a purposeful activity.
8) Unified discipline policy – One discipline policy should apply to all members of the school
plant and all should be well-versed with the disciplinary policies, including parents.
Thus regulating discipline in schools is not a far-fetched theory but a fully implementable practice.

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Q 3. Remedies for overcrowded classes
1) Have more divisions with more staff appointed.
2) There should be a fixed Teacher-Student ratio.
3) Institutions to abide by the rule that every child should be provided with 1sqm of space.
4) Use different innovative and interactive ways of teaching.
5) Encourage maximum participation and involvement.
6) Form small groups and implement cooperative learning.
7) Also conduct co-curricular activities, art, craft, music, dance, drama, debate in batches. This
will develop social skills and spirit of competition.
8) Give students engrossing projects and activities to keep them busy.
9) Set objective type questions to reduce workload and for faster corrections. Objective type
questions also increase validity and reliability of tests as compared to essay type tests.
10) Use monitorial method for checking of answers.
11) Self-discipline methods should be taught to the students.
12) Have point system for the groups to keep discipline in check and select best group.
13) Group students as per their abilities keeping in mind individual differences.
14) Ensure adequate lighting, ventilation, seating arrangement.
15) Grant sick leave to sick students to avoid spreading of infections.
16) Regular inspection should be carried out and government policies/norms should be strictly
followed.

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Q. Problems of overcrowded classes
Problems of overcrowded classes –
1. Class Related –
a. Classroom management becomes difficult.
b. Class becomes noisy/ indisciplined.
c. Health problems and wider spread of infections.
d. Improper division of facilities as demand more than supply.
2. Teacher –
a. Teacher is overloaded, distraught, fatigued, disinterested.
b. Teacher concentrates on finishing the syllabus rather than making improvements.
c. She finds it difficult and time-consuming to prepare exam papers, distributions,
conducting exams and corrections.
3. Students –
a. 3 to 4 students on one bench leads to discomfort and bad backs, poor handwriting,
irritability, fights for space, etc.
b. All students are not given chance to answer. So some may develop inferiority
complex or may simply stop interacting.
c. Tests, exams may not be administered to all students.
4. Teacher-Student relationships –
a. Proper guidance cannot be meted out due to large numbers and less time.
b. Teacher cannot give individual attention to every student.
c. No proper rapport between Teacher and students so hampers quality of education.
d. Being hard-pressed for time, Teacher does not correct homework and students do
not complete it and lag behind.
e. Individual differences are not taken care of and Special Education

1) Needs cannot be handled.

5. Parents –
a. Proper feedback of evaluation cannot be provided to parents.
b. Enough time cannot be given to the parents during Report days or PTA meetings.

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Q. Remedial measures for Wastage and Stagnation
1) We should try to remove the heterogeneity in society where the rich
become richer and the poor, poorer.
2) Sufficient financial aid should be provided for adequate infrastructure such
as school building, electricity, water, blackboards, furniture in classrooms,
etc.
3) Give incentives and special allowances to the teachers.
4) Spread awareness amongst the adults how education is advantageous and
important and how it ensures a bright and secure future.
5) Provide free textbooks and stationary, uniforms, food, subsidized lunch,
etc.
6) Adjust school hours as per local needs. E.g. Implement mobile schools such
as “ShetuShala”
7) Apply new teaching methods and carry out regular comprehensive
evaluation instead of yearly evaluation.
8) Appoint devoted teachers; deal strictly with inconsistent, irregular and
harsh ones. Frame proper contracts to curb their absenteism.
9) Provide transport facility and medical aid.
10) Motivate and praise children on their performance.
11) Along with regular education impart some form of spaced out vocational
training. This will act as a long-term incentive to parents as they know the
skill can later be used to earn money.
12) Implement recommendations by the education commission such as

a. Abolish exams at the end of Class 1 and merge first two classes into one unit.
b. Introduce a year of pre-school education.
c. Organize literacy programs in villages.
d. Provide part-time education so that children can aid parents in their occupations and
still be able to gain education.
CONCLUSION
Thus wastage and stagnation is a major problem in a highly populous country such as ours and
we should work on a war footing towards eradicating this problem so that good education and
values seep into the remotest corner of our country.

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Q. Define Wastage and Stagnation. What are the causes of it. As a Teacher what
measures/remedies would you suggest to the problem of Wastage and Stagnation?

The Govt. of India promotes free and compulsory primary education but it is widely seen that by
the time children reach 9 years, they start to drop out of school or else cannot cope and have to be
detained in the same class. This leads to wastage and stagnation.
DEFINITIONS by Hartog Committee –

1, Wastage – “The premature withdrawal of children at any stage before completion of the primary
education is called Wastage.”
2, Stagnation – “The retention of a child in the same class for a period of more than one year is
called stagnation.”

Causes of Wastage and Stagnation.

1. Socio-economic – Poverty, inequality of sexes, illiteracy, rampant superstitions, conservative
attitudes are some of the main causes for drop-outs. Paucity of funds and their improper
distribution also aggravate the problem as higher classes may not be added to the school.

2. Educational – Poor quality of teaching, inexperienced teachers and single school teachers where
one teacher is overburdened with classes and administration. Lack of vocational courses and faulty
evaluation styles. Gandhiji’s call of “earn and learn” is ignored and pupils are not capable of directly
earning well after Xth and XIIth.

3. Absence of school facilities and infrastructure – Inadequacy or absence of proper buildings,

water, sanitation, transport, laboratories, playground, etc.
4. Unwilling teachers – Teachers are not well-qualified or well-trained. Teachers from urban areas
refuse to move to rural institutes.

5. Mismatch in school timings – In rural areas children are also expected to help in the primary
occupations and earn for the family and there is a clash as schools and agricultural work run at the
same time.
6. Miscellaneous – Under-nourishment and malnutrition of children, health problems, no medical
facilities and mental block sets in when a child has to repeat a class.
7. Lack of funds – Late Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi mentioned that 1 rupee allotted at the top
becomes 10 paise by the time it filters down to the truly needy.

6
Q. Explain any 4 academic needs of a school with their importance. The school is the second
home of the child where he spends a lot of his time.

Four basic academic needs of a good school are-

1) Playground - All children love to play and proper physical development of the child takes place
here. Stamina and physical fitness is built here. Helps a child to take active part in sports and
develop sportsmanship and a love for the outdoors. Helps to de-stress and build a good memory
power that will help him study and cope well.
2) Library - Children can enhance their knowledge and widen their perspectives by reading different
types of books. Vocabulary improves and his ability to assess, assimilate and think increases. His
creative and imaginative powers also develop.
3) Science laboratory - It is a very important need as it is the place of direct learning and first hand
experiencing of various concepts and ideas where the child becomes an active learner. The child
performs various experiments on his own leading to better retention and enjoyment and interest.
4) Computer Lab - This facility is the need of the hour in today's times of technology. It will help the
child to learn all about computers, how to operate them and various software. He also gets
additional information from all over the world thanks to the internet connection.
Poor and deprived children can also thus keep pace with the well provided for children.

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Q 8. Explain the concept of leadership. Explain 3 styles of leadership with advantages and
disadvantages of each.
The term leadership is derived from the word leader, which means to lead. The responsibility of
smooth functioning of any organization rests on the shoulders of the leader.
CONCEPT
Most of the 300 definitions of the term “leadership” include the keywords “influence, “goal” and
“group” So leadership boils down to exerting some influence on a group to work and achieve its
goals.
QUALTITIES
1) Executive
2) Planner
3) Policy Maker
4) Expert
5) Representative of the Group
6) Master
7) Judge
8) Model
9) Symbol of the Group
10) Ideologist
11) Agent of Social Change
12) Surrogator of Responsibility
STYLES
Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-faire
A) Autocracy (Authoritarian)

Power is centralized and the leader is the sole decision-maker and an authoritarian who does not
care about his subordinates’ views for feelings. Eg. Adolf Hitler, Idi Amin.

MERITS
1) The leader continuously keeps a watchful eye on progress of the work so productivity
increases.
2) He has a very clear vision and philosophy as to his goals.
3) Quick decision-making as he is the sole decision-maker.
4) Workers are generally obedient and follow directions.

DEMERITS
1) Feelings of sub-ordinates are not considered.

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 2) They harbor dissent and are de-motivated.
3) The leader can be partial and biased.
4) His personal ambitions come above group welfare.
5) Absence or fall of the leader can result in chaos.

B) Democracy (Participative)
A decentralized and positive system of power, here, the leader allows his sub-ordinates a say in all
matters. They can air their views. So we- feeling and team spirit is developed. Eg. Mahatma Gandhi,
Nelson Mandela

MERITS

1) Sub-ordinates can participate in discussions and air their views and opinions.
2) Work environment is co-operative, healthy and friendly.
3) Goals and objectives are for the benefit of all.
4) Differences are sorted amicably.
5) Welfare of the majority is considered.

DEMERITS
1) Slow decision-making as many opinions are involved.
2) Tasks take longer to complete as all work at their own pace.
3) Differences of opinions may cause issues and delays.
4) Middlemen and corruption can set into this system.
5) All members cannot be kept happy and that may cause turmoil. Eg. Partition of India.
6) Some will always harbor jealousy towards a good leader. Eg. Assassinations

C) Laissez-faire (Delegative)
In this style, the leader is like an Umpire who only watches while all decisions are made by the
subordinates.

MERITS
1) No work for the leader.
2) Sub-ordinates work without interference from the leader.
3) Decisions can be taken on the spot while working as no approval is required.

DEMERITS
1) Procrastination of work.

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 2) All might not work at proper pace as no one is monitoring.
3) Less likelihood of goals being achieved on time.
4) Groupism may result in discord and lack of unity.

CONCLUSION
Thus leadership refers to a group effort and a good leader will give proper direction to his workers
and then give them free rein to work while keeping a watchful eye.

10
Q. Explain the qualities and functions of Asst. HM/ Supervisor. The supervisor is a link or a Liaison
Officer between the principal and the teaching staff.

QUALITIES
1) A supervisor should always set an example with his punctuality and smooth running of all
affairs.
2) He should be an initiator and innovator and similarly motivate and encourage his teachers
and staff.
3) He should be able to effectively and diplomatically put the needs, demands and
apprehensions of the teachers before the principal and management along with viable
suggestions as he is in close contact with both factions and can see both sides of the coin.
4) He should have a constructive attitude, be a learner for life and show eager interest in
implementing new trends and techniques to improve the instructional system.
FUNCTIONS
Administrative functions –
1) He has to circulate notices with various information on activities, exam dates, holidays, etc.
2) He must see to the attendance records of the staff and students.
3) He must supervise the admission process, printing and preparation
1) of the time-table and duty list for teachers.
4) See to other stock records, if stationary, laboratory equipment, etc. is adequate.

Academic functions –
1) Refer textbooks and prepare notes that can be helpful to teachers and students.
2) Must teach a subject
3) Moderate the exam papers prepared by the teachers.
4) Supervise working of teachers and improvise the instructional system.

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Q. Explain qualities and functions of headmaster.
The school is as great as the headmaster under whom it may flourish or perish.

QUALITIES
1) Sound educational philosophy of life and values.
2) An educational visionary with sound judgement and foresight.
3) Well-versed and sufficiently qualified in the subject matter of his field.
4) Proficiently handles human relations, fostering a sense of unity and co-operation amongst
all factions of the school plant.
5) A high power dynamo so that the wheels of the administrative machinery are constantly
moving.
6) A good experimenter and willing to try out new trends and techniques.

FUNCTIONS
Specific Duties:
(i) Supervision and smooth running of all activities and programs
(ii) Prime person responsible for improving instruction.
(iii) Management of the school plant, equipment, staff, students and all resources.
(iv) Ancillary duties of providing school uniforms, textbooks, etc, for students’ maximum
benefit.

General Duties:
(i) Pre-session - preparation for the term ahead, checking of infrastructure, etc.
(ii) Ongoing-session -medical examinations, meetings, etc.
(iii) Post- session - evaluation, result sheets, annual report, etc.
Thus the HM plays a pivotal role in the education system.

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Q. Explain qualities and functions of Teacher.

TEACHER
A teacher is the single-most vital factor and the backbone of any progressive scheme of national
education. Dr. West Keirsey classifies the “Teacher” as a role variant of the personality type
“Idealist”.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER

a. He should have a well-rounded chiseled X-factor personality replete with a calm,
pleasant, friendly, optimistic, enthusiastic, sincere and sympathetic demeanour.
b. Contrary to the popular belief that teaching is a stress-free profession, it can actually
be highly strenuous and demanding. Thus a sound mind in a sound body is required.
c. A teacher is constantly in the public eye. He is being watched and emulated by
students. Hence he must always be frank, sincere and honest in his dealing with
fairness of mind and integrity of character.
d. A dull and listless teacher brings boredom into the classroom whereas a lively
teacher can foster interest amongst his students.
e. Similarly, the voice should modulate in pitch, loudness and speed as a distinct and
clear voice with correct pronunciation brings in clarity of explanation.
f. He should be a master at explaining concepts comfortably and should employ the
right teaching aids and methods.

ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF A TEACHER

1) He should, effectively and well in advance, plan the distribution of units of the syllabus and
other activities and programs and ensure their timely completion.
2) He should observe, guide and motivate students as per their needs and potential to bring
out the best in them.
3) The teacher must maintain and keep all required records up-to-date with all sorts of needed
information about his wards.
4) With proper tools and techniques, he must constantly evaluate the achievements of his
students and diagnose any shortcomings.
5) He should keep the parents well-informed and involved in the progress of their child.
6) He should be courteous and respectful towards all other staff and administrative members.

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Q. In-service training
As per Cane - “All those activities and courses which aim at enhancing and strengthening the
professional knowledge, interests and skills of serving teachers.”
In-service education includes such new courses whose fruitfulness and validity have been tested
and which may enhance the knowledge, interests and attitudes of serving teachers.

NEED
A teacher should always be learning himself as learning is a life-long process. Updating skills.
Variety of teachers who have done different pre-service courses work together in school. So levels
of proficiency will differ. So to bring about the uniformity. New trends and technology

and methods

LONG-TERM COURSES - M.Ed., M.Phil., Phd., Computer Diploma, Language diploma, Educational
Administration, Educational Management etc.

SHORT TERM (up to 3 months) - Orientation, Refresher, Computers, intensive language brushing up

OBJECTIVES/NATURE/MERITS/IMPORTANCE (modifies grammar of answer and writes same points

for all options)

1) To increase professional knowledge

2) To increase professional skills
3) To develop right attitude towards profession.
4) To develop interest towards teaching profession.
5) To familiarize/revise with code of conduct and ethics of education.
6) To update their skills in new technologies.
7) To update professional skills such as administrative skills, leadership skills,
management skills, organizational skills, etc.
8) Activities such as attending seminars, workshops, symposiums.
9) Provide incentives to teachers to function more efficiently.
10) To help teachers know their problems and solve them by pooling resources
and wisdom.
11) To help teachers to employ more effective methods of teaching.
12) To help teachers to get acquainted with modern techniques of teaching in
education.
13) To broaden mental outlook of teachers.
14) To upgrade teacher’s knowledge and understanding of the concept.

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15) To increase professional efficiency of teachers.
16) To eliminate deficiencies in Teacher’s preparation.
17) Assist those who are new in school and those who are undertaking a new
level or field of work.
18) Promote continuous improvement of Teachers and Training.
19) They can learn to manage and control students better.
20) Provides a platform for all to get together and share experiences and ideas.

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Q. Pre-service training
The formal training that a teacher gains before the start of her teaching career before she actually
starts teaching, is called as Pre- service education or pre-service training.

Pre-Service courses – D.T.Ed., B.Ed. 4 years integrated B.Ed. (i.e. B.A.B.Ed., B.Sc.B.Ed.)
Institutions where Pre-service training can be acquired –
1) Schools for pre-primary teachers – Kindergarten, Montessori, Nursery. I year course for
matriculates
2) Institutions for Primary teachers – Some train for Basic schools and some train for
traditional schools. Duration may be 1 to 2 years with matriculation as minimum
qualification.
3) Institutions for Secondary School Teachers - One year course for graduates. Post-graduates
are preferred.
4) Departments of Education with Arts and Science colleges – But their working is often
unsatisfactory as it is overshadowed by the main college.
5) Comprehensive Colleges - They impart training to all categories – pre-primary, primary and
secondary teachers. The Kothari Commission preferred such institutions to break the
isolation of teacher education institutes from one another.
6) Centre Regional Colleges of Education - Located at Ajmer, Bhubaneshwar, Mysore and
Bhopal, these colleges represent a new enterprise in teacher’s education to train competent
teachers in the fields of science, technology, commerce, arts, agriculture, industrial crafts,
etc. Eg. B.A.B.Ed. integrated course of 4 years.
7) Institutions for Specialist teachers - For special subjects like fine arts, music, dance, home
science, physical education, etc.
8) University departments or Colleges of Education - They hold B.Ed. and M.Ed. classes. They
also provide guidance for doctorate in education.

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Q. Concept and training of Human Resource Development

TRAINING

1) Training is a process designed to improve the performance of an employee at his present job.
2) It imparts specific skills, abilities, and know-how to enhance his performance and make him up-
to-date with current trends.
3) The employee thus becomes efficient and is motivated that he can do better at his tasks.

4) This raises the quality of the institution too.

DEVELOPMENT
On the other hand -

1) Development is a wider concept that along with skills, also lays emphasis on overall general
knowledge, inculcation of better attitudes, aptitudes and habits, change in thinking process,
broadening of outlook etc.
2) It helps employees throughout their life in future positions too.
3) It improves the quality of life – professional and personal too.

ROLE/BENEFITS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOL

1) Enhances teaching skills and makes teachers aware about new trends, techniques,
methodologies, models of teaching.
2) Brushes up on old skills which may not be very frequently used.
3) Leads to improvement of instruction.
4) Develops better decision making and problem solving skills
5) Interpersonal relationship between management and staff improves and fosters feelings of
openness, genuineness and harmony.
6) Motivates the personnel to do excel at their job.
7) Profitability and quality standard of the institution and its taskforce is raised.
8) Better organisation and guidelines can be worked upon and setting of higher objectives is
possible.

17
Q. Concept of Quality Management (Total Quality Management) and Excellence in Education.
Achieving quality education is possible only when educational services/products meet needs and
expectations, give value for time and efforts and lead to true all-round development of the child –
physical, mental, social, moral, spiritual, etc.
For this we must follow Total Quality Management wherein the entire institution i.e. management,
principal, supervisor, teachers, non- teaching staff, parents, pupil, all work as a harmonious unit to
achieve results.

PRINCIPLES
1) Child is the centre - Focus should be on the student and his needs, wants, way of life, goals,
etc.
2) School is system-oriented - The school comprises of several inter- dependent factors that all
work together in an integrated manner to achieve success.
3) Team Work - Cooperation and esprit de corps foster the spirit of oneness for harmonious
working and better results.
4) Cooperative Management - The management must understand and empathise with issues
faced by personnel at all levels. This creates a sense of belonging amongst the work force.
5) Human Resources Development - Constant training and extension services are needed to
keep the staff up to date and proficient.
6) Future Planning - Think in terms of goal and objectives both long- term and short-term.
7) Leadership - The leader is the captain of the ship. He gives proper direction and holds all the
threads together.

PROCESS/STEPS

1) Develop Customer Focus (students)

2) Identify Customers
3) Identify Needs
4) Plan process
5) Implement process
6) Evaluate Results

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Q. Explain Peter Drucker’s Modern Management Theory with its principles in detail:
In 1954, Peter Drucker introduced Management By Objectives (MBO) which is a modern
approach/philosophy/idea towards Management wherein effectiveness of institutional and
individual performances are judged in terms of contributions made by them to achieve a goal.
A specific target is set and a time period at the end of which the actual results achieved are
measured against the original goal.

MBO introduced the SMART criteria wherein goals must be

- S - Specific
- M – Measureable
- A – Achievable

- R – Relevant
- T – Time-specific
Later many added –
- E - Extendable
- R – Recorded

STAGES
1) Setting Objectives
2) Action Planning
3) Performance reviews

PROCESS/FUNCTIONS/STEPS
1) Goal Setting – Realistic short-term/long term goals are laid down
2) Programme Planning - Thinking ahead on all fronts is important. Eg. Annual Plan, Unit Plan,
Lesson Plan, etc.
3) Participation - All member should participate and work in harmony as a team
4) Development & Improvement - The only constant in life is change. And changing and
improving for the better prevents stagnation and leads to progress and development.
5) Motivation - Involving people with proper incentives and morale boosting will lead to better
performance.
6) Control - Monitoring processes and people forms an important aspect.
7) Feedback - Feedback from all members will point out lacunae and areas that need greater
attention.

19
 8) Compensation - Rewards, increments, salaries, etc. should be fair and as per quality of
efforts.

CONCLUSION
Thus efficient management is important and necessary to progress and work smoothly and
complete tasks on time.

20
Q. Explain Henri Fayol’s Administrative Management Theory with its principles in detail
Henri Fayol, French Pioneer, considered as founder of Classical Management School, the first to
systematize managerial behaviour in 1916.

He proved that management is a developed skills and not a gift by birth. It is the process of getting
activities completed efficiently and effectively with other people.
All managers perform 5 main functions – POCCC
Planning, Organising, Commanding, Coordinating and Controlling.

He advocated 14 principles as follows –

(Dodo Doggie Ate Under Eric’s Staircase – Sushi Rice, Spicy Undio,
Chilled Spirits, Orange Icecream)
1) Division of Labour - Break down tasks and assign to individuals.
2) Discipline - Following rules and regulations
3) Authority - Delineate authority clearly
4) Unity of Command - Each employee receives instructions from and is accountable to one
superior only.
5) Equity - All should be treated equally and fairly.
6) Scalar Chain - Flow of information should be from higher to lower level
7) Subordination of Individual Interests - Forget individual gains and work for the greater good
of the organisation.
8) Remuneration - Fair and structured payment as per quality work
9) Stability of tenure - Stable job leads to better concentration
10) Unity of direction - Being aware of stated objectives and working towards them.
11) Centralisation - Top level managers make decisions that are implemented at lower level.
12) Esprit – de- corps - Cooperation, harmony and unity should be encouraged.
13) Order - Ensure right object and person in right place
14) Initiative - All should be motivated enough to initiate work to the best of one’s capacity.

21
Q. Classroom Management
Classroom Management is the creation of a conducive classroom environment so that teachers and
students work in more productive ways towards the attainment of educational objectives.

The success or failure of Classroom Instruction and Strategies is largely dependent on Classroom
management. A well managed class motivates the learners and provides an atmosphere of positive
growth. Promoting student learning is the primary goal of effective
Classroom Management.

PRINCIPLES
1) Principle of Clarity and Mastery over content.
2) Principle of Involvement
3) Principle of Democratic behaviour
4) Principle of Teacher Behaviour
5) Principle of Self-control
6) Principle of Flexibility
7) Principle of Personal attributes of teacher

FACTORS INFLUENCING/AFFECTING C.R. (Write same answer for problems of C.R.)

1) School environment
2) Resources available
3) Classroom environment such as size of the class, furniture, seating arrangement, fixtures,
proper light and air (natural and artificial, ventilation, facilities like table, chair for teacher,
chalks, chalkboard, etc.

22
Q. What measures you will take for effective Classroom management?
C.R. leads a lot of practice and patience on the teacher’s part. If handled effectively then students
will remember you lovingly for their entire life and draw inspiration from you.

1) Most important love the profession and the children. Everything else automatically follows.
2) Quickly learn the names of the children and their seating arrangement.
3) Ensure class is neat and tidy, well-lit, well-ventilated and cleaned every day.
4) Take proper roll call
5) Ensure children maintain correct postures.
6) Develop a good personality and lead by example.
7) Keep everything needed to teach ready before hand.
8) Focus on teaching the whole class.
9) Keep individual differences in mind and students can be grouped according to their abilities.
10) Use a variety of teaching aids to hold their interest.
11) Adopt scientific methods and techniques of teaching that will involve and make students
participate actively - like discussion, inquiry training, concept attainment, dramatization,
role plays, debates, projects.
12) Adopt learning by doing.
13) Allow children to occasionally talk about any other matter or their experiences that interests
them.
14) Do not admonish or criticize students in front of the whole class.
15) Never use corporal punishment. Handle disciplinary issues with love, care and patience.
16) Be sympathetic, friendly and understanding with the students.
17) Follow principles of democracy - treat all children equally irrespective of their abilities,
status and backgrounds.
18) Be fair and impartial.
19) Motivate and praise students.
20) Be flexible.
21) Give proper feedback to parents at PTA meetings.

23
Q. Event Management
Event Management is the application of management principles and practices for creation and
development and organisation of a festival or event. Event management helps in brand building.

It involves multiple skill such as organizational skills, technical knowledge, public relation skills,
marketing, advertising, catering logistics, sense of décor and glamour, human relations, risk
management, budgeting, etc.
The event manager is the major person who works behind the scenes with clockwork precision.

STEPS (write with one example)

1) Identify target audience
2) Developing of a concept
3) Planning and coordinating various aspects regarding the event
4) Executing the event

24
Q. Write about the concept of Time Management. Which principles would you keep in mind
while preparing an ideal time table?

INTRODUCTION
Time waits for no one and it is the only resource available in the same quantity to every human
being, be he king or pauper.

CONCEPT OF TIME MANAGEMENT

Time Management is the efficient and optimum utilization of time for achieving maximum benefit.
Time management results in the successful completion of our predetermined and defined tasks
within the allocated time.

NEED/MERITS
1) A school has a large number of resources and activities going simultaneously so time
management is needed to give due importance to every subject and activity and not neglect
anything.
2) To be able to get maximum output in the least possible time.
3) To make effective use of time.
4) To avoid duplication of efforts.
5) To avoid stress.
6) To eliminate wastage of time.
7) To successfully complete our tasks as per the scheduled and allocated time.
8) To plan and use time productively.
9) To avoid the headache of spillovers and delays.
10) Time Management will also help in deciding which activities should start first, which can be
clubbed together and which can be postponed to a later date.

TIME MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS

In schools, time can be categorised as –
1) Available Time – Time available in a school/class/teacher
2) Allotted Time – time actually given for a teaching-learning activity.
3) Engaged time – Includes the time when students are busy in some activity
4) Academic Learning Time – actual time spent on teaching-learning
5) Pacing Curriculum & Lesson – time used to pan, prepare and pace the teaching of the
lesson.

25
 6) Transition Time – shifting period from one activity to another. Will increase as the number
of activities increase.

PREPARING AN IDEAL TIME TABLE

The time-table is a mirror that reflects the entire educational programme of a school. One should
keep in mind certain principles while drafting the same –
1) Principle of Justice – Equally distribute work among the staff to avoid frustration and
dissent. Similarly, every subject and activity should be given the due importance it deserves.
2) Principle of Variety - Change place and posture of classes as often as possible to avoid
weariness and fatigue. Eg. Intersperse language lessons with those of Science and Maths or
social studies, etc.
3) Free Period for Teachers - Will increase their efficiency and provide time for corrections and
preparing for lessons. It will also avoid burnout. On an average teachers should be allowed 2
free periods a day.
4) Principle of Play and Recreation - Physical development is very essential and children should
not be deprived of play. Recess gives them a chance to enjoy fresh air, mix freely, play, eat
and replenish their energy so it should not be less than half an hour.
5) School Building and Equipment - The infrastructure and headcount of students, teachers
and availability of classrooms should be kept in mind. For eg. Single-teacher schools versus
regular schools.
6) Principle of Elasticity - The time-table should be flexible and allow for fluidity and not be
rigid. Eg. If a teacher is allotted 12 periods for English, leave it to her to decide how she will
divide time between Prose, Poetry, Grammar, drama, composition, etc.

CONCLUSION
Thus every resource in the school must manage time efficiently to include maximum curriculum for
steady progress and all-round development.

26
Q. WHAT IS EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY?
One of the stark realities of human society is inequality or what the sociologists call social
stratification. It has been existing in some form or other in all societies. In India inequality of
educational opportunities is a reality that has been existing for generations. .
The Preamble of the Indian Constitution emphasizes equality of status and of opportunity. Article
14 of the Indian Constitution provides for equality before law. Article-15 provides: The State shall
not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, and place of birth
or any of them. It also provides that the State can make special provisions for the advancement of
women, children, SC and ST. In spite of all this inequality still exists

27
Q. NEED/IMPORTANCE OF EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL

OPPORTUNITIES

The Education Commission (1964-66) has observed: "One of the important social objectives of
education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward or underprivileged classes and
individuals to use education as a lever for the improvement of their condition. .
Observations of Kothari Commission indicates the need or importance of equalization of
educational opportunities as follows: .
a. It is needed for the establishment of an egalitarian society
b. It is needed for the success of democracy
c. It is needed to ensure social and economic development of our country
d. It is needed to identify the talents in various fields
e. It is needed to develop human resources and to meet the man power needs of
our country
f. It is needed to promote social justice
g. It is needed to minimize the educational gap between the privileged and the
underprivileged

Causes of Inequality in respect of Educational Opportunities

A large number of factors are responsible for inequality in respect of educational opportunities

Some of the notable causes of inequality are as follows:

h. Absence of a National System of Education: At present our education system has
not been nationalised. Absence of a national system of education is the greatest
obstacle in the way of equality of educational opportunities
i. Regional Imbalance: There are regional imbalances in educational opportunities
in different States, different districts and blocks
j. Poverty of Parents: Poverty of parents is a major cause of inequality of
educational opportunities. Children from poor families fail to attend educational
institutions where education/training is expensive
k. Differential Standard of Educational Institutions: Children from poor families
receive education in substandard institutions which are not properly equipped
with teachers, teaching aids and apparatus.
Differences in the standard of educational institutions ultimately cause inequality in the
standard of students.

28
GENDER
Gender refers to the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a
person’s biological sex. Behavior that is compatible with cultural expectations is referred to as
gender- normative; Culturally and socially constructed difference between men and women that
varies from place to place and time to time Gender is not something we are born with, and not
something we have, but something we do.
The word ‘gender’ refers to the socio-cultural definition of men and women, the way societies
distinguish men and women and assign them social roles. Gender is seen closely related to the roles
and behavior assigned to women and men based on their sexual differences

SEX

Sex refers to a person’s biological status and is typically categorized as male or female. There are a
number of indicators of biological sex, including sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive
organs, and external genitalia. .

GENDER ISSUES IN SCHOOL

Nature of Gender Issues:

Society perceives a female child as different from a male child. As such it assigns stereotyped roles
to the female child. It is seen that some teachers in the school, while teaching, give examples and
use teaching strategies which are biased against girl students. Such teachers opine that girls should
have a different type of education which may be helpful for them to develop as a good housewife
and a mother..
In fact, girls and boys may to some extent differ in terms of certain abilities and both these sets of
individuals excel each other in terms of certain abilities. Therefore we should evolve specific
teaching-learning strategies to develop their inherent abilities to the maximum and also to prove
extra opportunity for development of other competencies in which they are weak..
We must make some bold efforts for replacing the professional value system by a belief in the
equality of sexes..
An attempt should be made to recognize the individual differences between girls and boys and
make use of these during the teaching- learning process..
Another issue to be discussed is the social attitude towards girls which is reflected not only in the
treatment received by girls, but also in the instructional materials meant for them. This becomes
more serious in case of girls coming from weaker sections of society i.e. scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes..

29
Role / Functions / Importance of Society

1. Establishment of good schools:

The society should establish good schools. Efficient and trained teacher should be appointed in
these schools. The schools should help in physical, intellectual, emotional, social, cultural, aesthetic,
moral, spiritual and vocational development of the pupils. .

2. Establishment of good library:

The society should establish good libraries. Good libraries help in broadening the mental horizon of
the pupils as well as in the development of various other aspects of personality. .
3. Provision for adult education:

Provide adult education. If we want to make democracy a success, we shall have to provide social
education. Evening schools can be started for providing adult education. .
4. Providing literary and cultural education:
Another function of society is to establish literary and cultural institutions; various literary and
cultural activities should be organized by these institutions. In our country, there is huge number of
literary and cultural institutions which frequently organize lectures, discussions, debate, music
competitions etc. .
5. Providing Vocational Education:
Society is to provide vocationally efficient citizen. Hence vocational education should be provided
by the society. Technical and scientific training should be given while keeping in view the
considerations and the trends of the society. .
6. Inculcation of moral, spiritual and noble values:
No society can make progress until it inculcates moral and spiritual and noble values in the masses.
Virtues like co-operation, fellow feeling, honesty, true-patriotism and love for humanity should be
developed .
7. Co-ordinating various agencies:
Society interlinks school and home. It helps in making them realize that they can serve many useful
purposes. School exists but society makes them better and better. Home exist but society tries to
improve it. It provides them with guidance and thereby helps them do wonderful job for the
betterment of the individuals. .
8. Maintains standard of the school:
The society helps the school in maintaining good standards. If fixes up standards with the help of
higher controlling authorities and then it verifies with the help of school board or university
whether the students have attained the desired goals or not.

30
9. Sets the aims and objectives of Education:
The society formulates the aims and objectives of education needed at different levels of
education. Then it checks their appropriateness.

It also corrects them, refines them and redefines them if need arises there to. .
10. Plans national system of Education:
The society prepares national scheme of education keeping in view the needs and requirements of
the people. It also tries to find out whether the system is according to the aspiration of the people..

11. Promotion of Universal Education:

It means provision of equal opportunities to all. The society plays a great role in contribution
towards universal education. The values of a society promote all types of students irrespective of
their caste, creed or sex or religion. .

12. Control on Education:

The society directly controls the system of education by defining the objectives, planning the
curriculum and developing the value system which is to be incorporated in the students through
education. .
13. Construction of suitable curriculum:

The society takes the opinions of experts and makes provision of a suitable curriculum where the
learner should be able to grow and develop full so as to achieve the targets fixed-up by the society.
.
14. Financing Education:

No institute can run without the financial backbone. The society contributes towards the financial
stability of an institute by lending a helping hand in the form of donations or charity. These
donations make an institution self-sufficient and help in its further progress. .
15. Supervision:

The society supervises the school and its various components with the purpose of bringing
improvement in the school, teachers, students etc. Through regular supervision, it ensures proper
and smooth functioning of the school. Thus it is also able to root out the ills and drawbacks of the
schools. .

31
Q. Interactions in school
Interaction means a process whereby men interpret the minds of each other. Interactions can
produce positive or negative impacts.. Interactions in school are social interactions and bring about
behavioural changes in students.. There are different types of interactions in school .
1) Student-Teacher interaction.
2) Student-Student interaction.
3) Teacher-Teacher.
4) Teacher-Parent.
5) Student-Parent.

CONCLUSION
Thus a school is one of the most influential social agencies of education that develops a child to fit
him into the social fabric..
Community / Society – An Active Informal Agency of Education

Concept
The word community has been defined differently by different people. Community is a mini form of
society. It is an integral part of society. Both community and society may be taken as synonymous.
The only different between the two is that community is a smaller group of people whereas society
is a much wider group of people. Many communities put together form a society. .
Some of the definitions of society are as under:
MacIver & Page: “Society is the web of social relationships and it is always changing.” . Lapiere:
“The term society refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of the forms of inner-
actions that rise among and between them.” .
Talcott Parsons: “Society may be defined as total complex of human relationships is so far as they
grow out of action in terms of means and relationships, intrinsic or symbolic.”
In the light of above definitions, we can state that a specific society implies a group of human
beings living within the limits of a definite country and which is characterized by a definite culture.
The school is related to this specific society. .

32
Q. Explain school as social institute and state functions and activities.

INTRODUCTION
In ancient times, the family and religious institutions were social agencies of education. As
knowledge advanced and society grew complex, the school was introduced as a formal social
agency of education. .

DEFINITIONS

Socialisation – As per Guskin&Guskin – “Socialisation is the process by which an individual learns

the behaviors, the values, and the expectations of others that enable him to take on particular roles
in society.”
School – As per Dewey – “The school is a special environment where a certain quality of life and
certain types of activities and occupations are provided with the object of securing a child’s
development along desirable lines.”.

SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTE

1) A school is a social institution that conserves and transmits culture to the younger generation..

2) It trains and socializes the individual and thus serves societal needs..
3) Moulds children into well balanced citizens who are physically strong, mentally alert, emotionally
stable, culturally sound and socially efficient..
4) Children acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions that make them able members of society..
5) It is the place where the destiny of the nation is shaped..

FUNCTIONS
Physical Development –Physical activities direct the child’s energy into constructive work. .

Eg. – Swimming, aerobics, yoga, karate, athletics, health club, cricket, etc..
Mental Development – Develops the child’s mental and intellectual faculties by harnessing his
reasoning power, curiosity, creativity and critical outlook. .
Eg. – Debate, elocutions, Quiz, fine arts, essays.

33
Emotional development –Feelings of love co-operation, honesty, loyalty, respect, etc.,
controlling his emotions for balanced behavior. .
Eg. – opportunities to voice opinions, healthy and caring atmosphere in classrooms, sex
education, etc..
4) Social development – Makes the child capable for social progress through interactions and
adjustment..
Eg. – awareness, programmes, blood donations camps, team/group work, leadership activities,
interaction with opposite sex, social service, etc..
Moral development – High moral fibre is weaved into their personality through value education.
.
Eg. Protecting the environment, obeying traffic rules, respect for elders, etc..

Spiritual development – Promotes the importance of prayer and spiritualism..

Eg. – prayers, social service activities etc..
Vocational development – Occupational knowledge and skills..
Eg. – Gardening, Cooking, embroidery, carpentry, etc..
National integration and cultural heritage development – Pride, honour, love and patriotism for
the nation and its people..
Eg. – celebration of various days, festivals, folk tales, biographies of national heroes, etc..

34
SOCIAL/COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES OF SCHOOL

1) Celebrating various festivals and national days..

2) Making the school a recreational, social and cultural centre..

3) Parent Teacher Association and Parents’ Day..
4) Adult education classes..
5) Educational conferences..

6) Fun-fairs, science exhibitions for community..

7) Provide use of school library to community members..
8) Utilising expert advice of eminent member of the community –
leaders, educationists, reformists, social activists, environmentalists,

industrialists, sports personalities, etc..

9) Enlisting cooperation of parents for various community activities..

35
Q. Different ways of access to education

Education is necessary for living a good life and to bridge the gap between our innate nature and
the social standards. As per needs, we can take formal, or non-formal education..
There are different ways of access to education –

1) Ashram schools – Aim to provide stimulus to poor students and those of backward or deprived
classes. Their curriculum focused on simple and practical education..
2) Residential Schools – Teachers from the surrounding vicinity are appointed or provided
residential facilities, especially in rural areas, to prevent attrition and form closer bonds with
children especially in rural areas..
3) Navodaya Schools – Launched as part of the Seventh Year Plan.
Curriculum is based on interest, thinking, and imagination rather than only bookish knowledge.
Children are free to choose their hobbies and crafts and these schools are well-equipped with
laboratories..

4) Military schools – Started by the Military Defence Committee to raise talented and capable
officers who are acquainted with latest skills of modern science and technology. Eg. NDA at
Khadakwasla..
5) Public Schools – Format adopted from England schools. Students are developed for the sake of
the nation. Stress is laid on developing an ideal citizen who is hard-working and has a strong
personality..
6) Hilly Region schools – started for the education of children living in remote hilly areas..
Thus as per our needs we can pick and choose a style of education suitable to us..

36
Q. Role of NGOs
NGOs are Non-Governmental Organisations which aid humanity and work for social welfare and
uplifting. They provide strong support in the field of social service. They also keep informal checks
on the functioning of government and society and raise voice against any form of social injustice.
They unite people and provide selfless, voluntary and non-discriminatory service to the society.
They depend on financial aid from philanthropists, corporate bodies and benefactors to their
projects and very often struggle to survive.

ROLE
1) Their basic responsibility in the field of education is to ensure literacy to the non-literates..

2) To spread public awareness programs about education through the mass media..
3) To provide functional assistance, food, books, stationary, uniforms, mid-day meals and other
needs during natural calamities.
4) To incur expenses on educational scholarships..
5) Look into community education programmes such as – .

a. adult education,
b. women’s education,
c. health education,
d. vocational education,

e. population control education,

f. environmental education,
g. language development,
h. non-formal education,
i. family welfare, etc.
6) Bring educational concerns of the citizens to the government.
7) Take care of human rights, environment and health.
8) Analysis and expertise in monitoring international regulations.

9) NGOs work at Macro, Mezzo or Micro level.

37
Q. Differentiate between Peer Group and Reference Group.

INTRODUCTION
There are several factors and stimulants that play a crucial role in the education, growth and
progress of a child and the choices that he makes. Peer groups and Reference groups are 2 such
influences.

PEER GROUP
As Per Brown – “The peer group exists independently of a specific activity and selects the various
activities in which it will engage itself.”
Peer group consists of all those people of about the same age and status in society who have
aggregated together to form a sociological group with a homogeneous system of values.
Peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development, with
equality, reciprocity, cooperation, and intimacy maturing and enhancing children's reasoning
abilities and concern for others.
The peer group provides emotional or instrumental support, fosters friendships and facilitates
social interaction and development.
It develops the ability to go beyond one’s ego-centric interest into concern for the group activity..

REFERENCE GROUP
“It is a specific group or personality by which/whom the person is so impressed that he tries to
accept their ideals and follow them.”.
Reference groups are those from which an individual receives his attitudes and learns his behaviors.
It is a form of low end hero-worship wherein the individual relates himself to them or has
aspirations to relate to them.
Reference groups influence the person sociologically as well psychologically. The reference group
may be the peer group, or family, or church or youth clubs, recreation centres, drama club, sports
team and others and generally consists of people whom the person looks up to.
The individual may have a number of reference groups at a time..

PEER GROUP VERSUS REFERENCE GROUP

38
Both the groups are motivated for socialization but they have some individual differences..

PEER GROUP:-

1. It is a group of children having same types of hobbies and interests.

2. It is an activity group which operates by social recreational values.
3. All members are generally of the same age.
4. Hobbies and interests are same.

5. Here the objective is only one that is playing and personal interaction .
6. They start developing their group through cooperation and respect towards each other.
7. They spend maximum time with each other.
8. The responsibilities are divided among the members.

9. They are emotionally attached to each other.

10. Friendship is there.

REFERENCE GROUP:-
1. It is a group or a person whose values and ideals are inculcated by the students.

2. It is that group from which a person draws inspirations for the development of his attitudes and
personality.
3. They may or may not be of the same age.
4. Hobbies and interests may differ.

5. There are many ideals and objectives to be followed.

6. The values, ideals, thoughts of reference group are imitated. Eg. Ways of living..
7. They may or may not spend maximum time together.
8. No questions of sharing responsibility is there.

9. They are not so emotionally attached.

10. Friendship may or may not be there.

CONCLUSION

Thus Peerage groups and Reference groups are vital in bringing about socialization of the individual
which is a main aim of education.

39
Q. Define State. Elaborate educational functions of state

Definition 1 – “A state is an organized civil government, national or local, which exercises its
political power in maintaining law and order, in administering justice which preserves public health
(physical as well as mental) and which regulates several activities of public importance.”.
Definition 2 – “A state may be defined as an organized political community with a government
recognized by the people.”
Educational functions of a state are –
1) To protect and promote education among the citizens in the society.
2) To keep a watch over the spread of education and the measures implemented for the
educational and thus the social upliftment of the citizens.
3) To see that schools are established as per the needs of the community that they are located in
and to establish schools, colleges, universities, boards wherever there is a demand and need for the
same.
4) To ensure that the basic right of every citizen to avail the facility of education is met.

5) To achieve schematic progress towards making education free and compulsory till the secondary
stage.
6) To ensure that due attention and incentives are given to encourage the family to send the girl
child to school and to ensure that the backward classes and minority communities are not
neglected and are properly drawn into the educational system.
7) To set up schools in rural areas along with the necessary transport and hostel facilities.
8) To impart proper and qualified training to teachers and give them an attractive salary and
incentives so that they are not tempted to quit and look elsewhere for jobs.

9) To provide financial aids and grants wisely and judiciously.

10) Framing of syllabus and curriculum.
11) To set aims and objectives of education.
12) Formulation of various schemes such as “Earn and learn”, free mid-day meals,
“sarvashikshaabhyan”, shikshansevak”, etc.
13) Pre-service and In-service training for teachers.
14) Appointing committees and commissions for inspections and to think about educational
problems and implementation of educational programmes.
15) Research and development programmes.

40
Q. What is Family? Why is it essential

DEFINITION

As per Mac Iver – “Family is a group defined by a sex relationship, sufficiently precise and enduring
to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”.
As per Nimkoff – “Family is more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without
children or of a man or woman alone with children.”.

ESSENTIAL
1) Satisfaction of sex needs.
2) Production and rearing of offspring.
3) Provision of a home.

NON-ESSENTIAL
1) Economic function – to provide financial security.
2) Religious function – Religion followed is taught to the child.
3) Educational function – Teaching of values, morals, way of life, etc.

4) Health function – proper physical education and nutritious food..

5) Recreation function – entertainment by celebrating festivals, birthday, weddings..
6) Civic function – Taking care of environment, waste management, reducing pollution,
preserving monuments, water saving, etc.

7) Social function – Socialisation of a child – respect for elders, playing with peers, interaction
with society, going to school, etc..
8) Filocentric function – today’s family is more child-centered..

41
Q. EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS/ROLE OF FAMILY IN EDUCATION.
Family is an important, fundamental and informal but very active agency of education that works
on following development areas –.
1) Physical – Provide the child with good food, healthy surroundings and rest. Eg. Timely
vaccination.
2) Moral education – Older members of the family set good examples before the younger ones. Eg.
– speaking the truth.
3) Participation in household activities – Encourage children to participate in household affairs to
make them learn to subordinate any selfish interest for the sake of family. Eg. – dusting their room.
4) Intellectual, practical and aesthetic interests – Keenly observe to draw out his hidden talents. Eg.
– promote reading, music, sports.
5) Child’s nature – Seize every opportunity to gain knowledge of child psychology. Show neither too
much leniency nor too much strictness in dealing with issues. Eg. – use constructive punishment.
6) Importance of play –Provide ample opportunities for play and social recreation as this is also a
very important aspect of educating a child. Eg. –teach them new indoor and outdoor games..

7) Self-expression – The child should be encouraged to participate in various constructive activities.

Eg. –jigsaw puzzles, etc.
8) Realize the limitation of the school –Recognize the importance of the school and also its
limitations and thus cooperate with the authorities in doing their own bit in furthering the progress
of their child. Eg. – monitor daily H.W.

42
Q. of Role of Heredity
1. Influence of physical development:
Karl Pearson is of the view that the height of the child is influenced by the height of his parents.
2. Influence on character:

Dugdale states that children of characterless parents are generally characterless. He proved this
statement by conducting Juke family study.
3. Influence on innate powers:
Thorndike is of the opinion that innate powers of the child are determined by heredity.

4. Influence of Intelligence:
According to Goddard, intelligence is inherited. Children of those parents who posses superior
intelligence are generally bright ad children of feeble-minded parents posses low intelligence.
5. Influence on greatness:
Galton is of the view that greatness is caused due to heredity. Studies of the life histories of
eminent scientists, artists, doctors, politicians and lawyers shows that many members of these
families attained reputation and eminence in the same fields

Importance of Environment

1. Example of hogo fish:

If this fish is incubated in an abnormal temperature it develops one eye instead of two eyes. It is
due to environment.
2. Case of Ramu, the wolf boy:

Ramu’s case is quite recent who remained among the wolves and became wolf in food habits,
speech and other traits. This also proves that an individual is more a product of environment than
of heredity.
3. Nursery education:

It has been found that children who are sent to nursery earlier than other children show an
increase of 4 to 5 points in their intelligence quotient as compared to children who do not receive
education.
4. Case of Amala and Kamala:

43
Amala and Kamala aged two and nine years respectively were found in Bengal in 1920 by J.A.L.
Singh. The used to talk, walk and act like wolves. It also indicates the importance of environment.
5. Akhtar’s experiment:

Akhtar’s experiments to keep children away from the society and under the care of dumb nurses
show that social environment marks the child a human being worth the name. Children under
experiment remained dumb.

Summary of Environment
1. Influence on physical development:
Franz Boaz believe that differences in physique among the different races are caused due to
environment and not due to heredity.

2. Influence on intellectual development:

From the case of Ramu, Amala and Kamala, it is proved that intellectual development suffers in the
absence of suitable social and cultural environment.
3. Influence on different races:
Clark is the view that the cause of superior intelligence of the races is environment and not
heredity. He believes that Negros are less intelligent than whites because they do not get social,
cultural environment like the white people.
4. Influence on total personality:
Cooley and many other thinkers have proved that the individual can become great by developing
his personality while living in good environment.
5. Influence on Orphans:
Woodworth assets that those orphan children who are given suitable environment in the
orphanages prove better on the whole than their parents.

Conclusion
At the end, we can say that Heredity and environment both are significant factors in the
development of personality. If heredity is the base, environment is the structure. If heredity is the
seed, environment is the soil. If heredity is the soul, environment is the body. As we cannot
separate the soul from the body in a living human being, so we cannot separate the heredity from
environment.
Thus heredity and environment are complementary.

44
Q. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

GROWTH:-

1. Part: Growth is a part or an aspect of development.

2. Not continuous: It is not continuous. It is start from conception but end from at some particular
age. Mostly, it stops
3. Changes in particular aspects growth in particular aspect of body and behavior.

4. Improvement in structure e.g. hand, legs:- grow large.

5. Not integrated: growth is not an integrated process. It refers to changes in structure only.
6. Cellular: It may be looked as cellular multiplication. It refers to changes in the particular aspects
of the body.

7. Organism: It is the function of the organism rather than that of environment.

8. Measurable: Growth can be measure, quantified like inches etc.
9. May not bring development: Growth may or may not bring development e.g. A child may grow
(e.g. weight) by becoming fat but this growth may not bring any functional improvement.

DEVELOPMENT:-
1. Wider: Development is a wider and comprehensive all aspects of development.
2. Continuous process: It is a continuous and life long process. It starts with when the person
attains maturity. Covers the whole life span of an individual.

3. Changes as a whole development refers to change in various parts of body and behavior as
whole.
4. Improvement in structure and functioning:- e.g. hand does not grow large but also develop
because they improve in their functions.
5. Integrated: it is a complex process of integrated many structures and functions.
6. Organizational: It is an organization of all the parts which grow. It implies the organism as a
whole.
7. Environment: It is the function of both organism and environment.

8. Assessment: Qualitative changes are assessed not measured.

9. Possible without growth: generally, growth and development go hand in hand. But it is possible
to growth e.g. many persons do not gain in terms, size, height but they do experience function
improvement in various aspects.

45
Q. Explain principles of growth & development and their educational implications

Introduction
An understanding of the nature and principles of growth and development is very essential for the
realization of the aim of education i.e. the maximum growth & development of personality –
physical and motor development, cognitive, emotional, social development etc. the teacher has to
stimulate growth and development of the child. He can do it only if he has a thorough knowledge of
growth and development at various stages.

Meaning of Growth
Growth term is used in purely physical sense. It generally refers to anincrease in size, length, height
and weight. Growth is one of the parts of development process. Growth is not a continuous
process. It starts with conception but ends at some particular age. It refers to changes in structure
or physique only.

Definition
According to Arnold Gessel, “Growth is the function of the organism rather than of the
environment. The environment furnishes the soil and the surroundings for manifestation of
development, but these manifestations come from inherent inner organism and an intrinsic
physiology of development. Growth is a process so intricate and so sensitive that there must be
powerful stabilizing factors, intrinsic balance of the total pattern and direction of the growth
trend”.

Meaning of Development
Development implies overall changes in shape, form or structure.
Development is a continuous and life long process. It starts with the birth of the child and ends with
the death of the individual.

Development describes the changes in the organism as a whole and does not list the changes in
parts.

Definition
According to Harold Stevenson, “Development psychology is concerned with the study to changes
in behavior through the life span”.

46
According to Libert, Poulos, “Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability
over time, as function of both maturation and interaction with the environment”.

Analysis
To sum up, development is a series of orderly progression of change towards maturity. Growth
refers to improvement in structure but development signifies improvement in structure as well as
improvement in functioning of various parts of the body.

Principles of growth and development

1. Principle of continuity:
Development follows continuity. It goes from womb to tomb and never ceases. All individual
starting his life from a tiny cell develops his body, mind.
2. Principle of Individual differences:
Individual differences in the development remain constant. Each child grows as his own unique
rate.
3. Principle of orderly development:

Development proceeds from general to specific. The child first learns general things and it is only
afterwards that he learns specific or particular things.
4. Uniformity of Pattern:
Although development does not proceed at a uniform rate and shows marked individual
differences, yet it follows a definite sequence.
5. Principle of interaction and maturation and learning:
Growth and development occur both as a result of maturation and learning. Maturation refers to
change in a development organism and learning devotes the changes in behavior.
6. Principle of unique development:
Individuals differ individually with regard to their time schedules i.e. all children with first sit up,
crawl and stand etc.
7. Principle of differential development:

There is a principle of differential development of the male and female child. Girls mature earlier in
comparison to boys.
8. Principle of inter-related development:
Development occurs as a whole. His physical, intellectual, emotional, social and other type of
development is inter-related and inter- dependent.

47
9. Principle of cumulative development:
Development is cumulative, it means to add up. In development, a single experience matters and it
does not go waste.

10. Principle of interaction of heredity and environment:

Development is caused by both heredity and environment. Child at any stage of his growth and
development is a joint product of both heredity and environment.
11. Principle of Spiral and not linear:

The child does not proceed straightly on the path of development with a constant. Actually he
makes advancement during a particular period but takes rest in the text following period, to
consolidate his development. In advancing further therefore, he turns back and then moves
forward again like a spiral.

Educational Implications
The knowledge of the principles of growth and development is very important and useful for
parents, teachers and educationist. Some of the uses of the principles of growth and development
are:-

1. Adjusting school programme:

It helps the teacher in adjusting school programmes, procedures and practices according to the
level of development of the child and hence his teaching can become very effective in the class.
2. Sympathetic handling:

It helps parents and teachers in treating their children or pupils sympathetically and solving their
problems in realistic way.
3. Effective guidance:
It helps the teacher in providing the proper guidance programme by having understanding of the
individual differences of children.
4. Importance of childhood period:
It helps the parents and teachers in knowing the importance of childhood period. Hence parents
and teachers should provide a large variety of social and emotional experience.

5. Right expectation:
Its knowledge helps us to know what to expect and when to expect from an individual child with
respect to his physical, mental, social development etc. at different stages of development.
6. Importance of environment:
It helps the parents and the teacher in knowing and creating importance of heredity and good
environment and which helps us to pay sufficient attention over the environmental conditions.

48
Conclusion
At the end, we can say that this stage of developments plays very important role in the
development of the personality of an individual.

In order to establish an ideal society parents, teachers, psychologists will have to build up
competent and able children who should have the qualities like truthfulness, co-operation, self
control, self-dependence, obedience and discipline in them. With such children, we can dream of
having world society and fraternity.

49
Q. Educational Significance Of Principles Of Growth And Development
The knowledge of principles of growth and development is very important and useful for parents,
teacher and educationists. Some of the users are:

1, Adjusting school programmes, procedures and practices:

According to the level of development of child so that teacher’s teaching can become effective.
2. It helps parents and teachers in treating their children sympathetically and solving their problems
in realistic way.

3. Effective guidance by having an insight and understanding of individual differences of children.

4. Importance of childhood period: Teacher and parents should provide a large variety of social and
emotional experience so that healthy patterns of adjustment and behavior are formed.
5. Right Expectations: It helps the parents and teacher is knowing that they should expect from the
children neither what is beyond their stage of growth and development.
6. Importance of heredity and environment.
7. Knowledge of individual difference.
8. Helps to aim for harmonious development.
In this way the knowledge of the principles of growth and development helps much in the well
being of the youngsters.

GROWTH & MATURATION

Growth is the physical process of development, particularly the process of becoming physically
larger.
It is quantifiable, meaning that it can be measured, and it is mostly influenced by genetics.
On the other hand, maturation is the physical, intellectual, or emotional process of development.
Maturation is often not quantifiable, and it too is mostly influenced by genetics.
Notice that, while growth is physical, maturation is physical, intellectual, or emotional.
Often, maturation involves two or even all three.
Individual’s brain physically developing allowed him/her to intellectually understand complex
matters better.

In fact, the emotional component of empathy is sometimes affected by physical and intellectual
maturity.
As a person's brain physically develops, they are able to understand intellectually what others are
going through and how they might feel, and that allows them to emotionally feel empathy for
others.

50
One other key difference in growth and maturity is in the limits of development.
A person can only grow so far, and most people grow roughly the same amount - adult brains all
end up weighing similar amounts, adults end up a range of heights that are relatively narrow, and
so on.
In other words, if a person does not have a disorder that prevents them from growing normally,
they will all end up relatively similar.
A normal, healthy adult does not look like a kid because they have grown up.

51
Q. Explain the Concept, Meaning, characteristics and functions of management.
INTRODUCTION
Management is the efficient utilization and handling of all available resources for achieving an
objective. It is the prerequisite for the successful working, running and development of any
organization.

DEFINITION

Harold Keentz - “Management is the art of getting the work done by formally organized groups.”
Management of Education is the process of planning, organising, directing, controlling the activities
of an institution by utilising human and material resources so as to effectively accomplish the
functions of teaching, extensions and research.

CHARACTERISTICS
AACCDEFGGIILNS
(Anil Eats Chocolate And Chicory Dates From Geeta’s Lip SMacking
Icy Icecream In No Time)
1) Achieving Goals and Objectives – Short term or long-term to work towards definite aim.

2) Efficiency – Using resources optimally

3) Continuous Process – Management is ongoing all the time at work.
4) Appraisal – Regular checks and incentives.
5) Controlling – Regular monitoring for smooth functioning.

6) Decision-making – Done by HOD and Management in consultation with lower staff

7) Flexibility – Room for additions and alterations and modifications.
8) Getting work done - Working together as individuals and as a team
9) Leadership & Guidance – Plays the key role in successful management.

10) Motivation – the workers should be sufficiently motivated to perform tasks efficiently.
11) Science – Based on certain systematic principles an theories
12) Integrated – Tasks are broken down and then combined
13) Invisible Process – Process cannot be tangibly seen but effects felt all along

14) Innovation – Adopting new trends and ideas

15) Necessity – Working as per what is really required
16) Timeline – Keeping tabs on fixed time schedules.
52
FUNCTIONS (ALSO PROCESS)
(Please Sing On Baby Coo De Coo Di Co Like Radio)
1) Planning – Prepare a Work Breakdown Structure of all tasks.

2) Staffing – Appoint Right person for Right job

3) Organising – Arrange tasks and people optimally.
4) Budgeting & Finance – Budget adequately
5) Coordination – Keep an eye of interactions

6) Decision-making – Done by HOD and Management in consultation with lower staff

7) Cooperation – Proper team spirit
8) Directing – Show the proper track to achieve aim
9) Controlling – Supervise and control the entire running process.

10) Leading – Take initiative and responsibility

11) Records – Maintenance of logs for present and future

53
Q. Disadvantages of formal, informal and non-formal education

Disadvantages of formal education :-

1. Good and bad students, gifted and backward are generally made to sit together in the same class
and taught by the same teachers.
This shows down the ongoing rapid, progress of the gifted pupils.

2. Every student has to wait for the expiry of the academic session and then only he/she gets
promotion of the next class.
3. A few students may be keen to cover-up more syllabus obstructed less time. That is constructed
here in Indian system of formal education.

4. There are strains on the minds of the learners.

5. It is more or less unnatural way of teaching-learning. there is artificial situations created when
teaching-learning is conducted.
6. There is need of motivating the students. Sometimes a student may fail to learn anything in spite
of motivation by the teachers.

Disadvantages of in-formal education :-

1. It does not give much confidence to the learner. Inspite of good- knowledge, the learner may feel
inferiority complex in a group of highly educated persons.

2. Here education is received in the absence of so called ‘guru’ the teacher. One may not learn the
right things.
3. Whatever is expected to be learnt in the company of equal age group that is missed here. Class
fellow feelings, discipline, good habits, attitude etc. may not be acquired properly and rightly.
4. Lack of discipline.

Disadvantages of non-formal education:-

1. A student may receive the desired type of degree / certificate diploma but many a time he does
not enjoy full confidence as the regularly studied learner enjoys.
2. A student is not able to study regularly. He/she studies day and night near the examination and
thus change factor and luck play a good deal of role in his career.

54
Q. Advantages of formal, informal and non-formal education
Advantages of Formal Education:-

1. A student is able to sit in the company of other students of the same age group. That increases
peer relationships, fellow feelings for one another.
2. Many students get the opportunity of being together in different classes for a good deal of time.
They have better understanding with each other.

3. It makes the students learn things in a disciplined way.

4. Here education is a continuous process and naturally it develops in the learners the habit of
reading continuously.
5. Here education is imparted in accordance with the growth and development of different faculties
of the learners. Thus it helps having well cared for growth and development of the learners.

Advantages of Informal Education :-

1. There are no strains of any type on the mind of the learner.
2. It is a natural way of teaching learning.

3. The leaner is self-motivated in the process of learning.

4. Most of the learnt things are situational as they are learnt in one situation or the other. So they
are remembered for a long time.
5. In this type of education, there is no dependence on rote learning.

Advantages of Non-Formal Education :-

1. One can earn while learning. One become self-dependent and self confident. .
2. Habit of hard work is developed.

3. There is proper use of leisure time. Usually the student of non- formal education wants to use
the free time in studies. .
4. It helps the learners to achieve their goals of life. Even the fast changing goals are possible to be
achieved.

5. Through non-formal education, one can cover up one’s deficiency in any aspect and thus is able
to improve once’s standard of living. .
Differences between Formal education, Informal education and Non- formal education –
1. Meaning :-

55
Formal education
– Any teaching where there is instruction, supervision, definite aims etc. is called formal education
e.g. schools, colleges, universities etc.

- It is limited to a specified period.

- It is consciously received education for which deliberate efforts are made.

Informal Education –

Education for which no formalities are observed is known as informal type of education. It is a
casual type of education which is received through daily experiences and activities. .
-Here education is received by the company of friends, relatives, community etc.
Non-formal Education –<"Handersons-view:- “Non-formal education is far wider and more inclusive
than schooling, which imparts wider experiences out of school."
McCall’s view: “Non formal education is the entire range of learning experiences outside of the
regular graded school system.” . Harbuism’s view: “Non-formal education is the only means of
filling the gap between the ‘schooled’ and ‘unschooled’ population”. It is midway between both
formal & informal. e.g. open school, open clinic etc.

2. Goal
Formal Education –
In this type of education, specific aims are well fixed in advance. .
Informal Education –

In this type of education, there are no pre-determined aims. .

Non-formal Education –
It has clear cut aims in sight.
3. Age limit
Formal Education –
It is started at a particular age, is continued and thus over the years it is completed. Start is not
possible at all stages of age. .
Informal Education –

There is no age limit for the start or completion of this type of education. It is never going and
never ending process. .
Non-formal Education –
No age limit. A person of any age group can enter in this setup and continue his studies. .

56
4. Result
Formal Education –
Its result is always good education because everything is pre-planned and the process of education
goes on under supervision.
Informal Education –
It may result into negative learning because the leaner may acquire certain bad habits, wrong
attitudes etc.

Non-formal Education –
Its result is sometimes good and sometimes not good, because it is partly formal and partly
informal.
5. Work schedule

Formal Education –
Work-schedule is fixed .
Informal Education –
No work schedule is fixed for it. .
Non-formal Education –

Work-schedule is fixed. .
6. Rules and regulations
Formal Education –
Rules and regulations are there. Obedience of those is mandatory for all the learners of that school.

Informal Education –
There are no rules and regulations. So there is no question of obedience of those rules and
regulations.
Non-formal Education –

Sometimes rules and regulations are observed. It is based upon part time and own time table. .
7. Restrictions
Formal Education –
Restricted type of freedom is given to the learners and the teacher. .

Informal Education –
All freedom is given to the teachers and the learners. .
Non-formal Education –
57
No restrictions are observed. It is self imposed or inner discipline. .
8. Organizing body
Formal Education –

It is always organized type of education, some organized body is behind the establishment of the
school.
Informal Education –
It is unorganized of education. There is no organized body behind or in the background. .

Non-formal Education –
Here, there is an organized body behind or in the background. .
9. Time bond
Formal Education –

Syllabus is completed through the formal type of education. .

Informal Education –
There is no syllabus and so there is no question of completing the syllabus. .
Non-formal Education –
There is a syllabus here and time period is defined to complete the syllabus. .

10. Time table

Formal Education –
There is always a formal type of time table in vogue during the process of teaching-learning. .
Informal Education –

No time table is fixed. Things happen out of chance or by mere luck as they say. .
Non-formal Education –
In this type of education, time-table is fixed, but there not rigid, flexible time-table is there. .
11. Syllabus

Formal Education –
There is prescribed syllabus always. .
Informal Education –
There is no prescribed syllabus here.

Non-formal Education –
There is prescribed syllabus always.
58
12. Place
Formal Education –
The school is at a fixed place.

Informal Education –
Here place is not fixed to impart the education. .
Non-formal Education –
Here place is fixed for some time.

13. Qualification of teacher

Formal Education –
Only a qualified person can act as a teacher and his duty is to impart education. .
Informal Education –

Anybody may act as a teacher in a situation. Even a student may sometimes, play the role of a
teacher in some situation.
Non-formal Education –
Here qualified person is required to impart education. In other hand, electronic medias are used
also, to impart education. .

14. Process of teaching

Formal Education –
It is artificial way of teaching-learning.
Informal Education –

It is natural type of teaching learning. .

Non-formal Education –
It is both natural as well as artificial for sometimes. .
15. Role

Formal Education –
Conscious efforts are made both by the teacher and the learner in the process of teaching-learning.
.
Informal Education –

No conscious efforts are made by the teacher and the learner..

Non-formal Education –

59
Here learner is more active than teacher. Conscious efforts are made by the both but learner is
more active.
16. Means

Formal Education –
Proper means are used to achieve the goals. .
Informal Education –
No proper means are used..

Non-formal Education –
Proper means are used but to some extent. .
17. Mental strain
Formal Education –

It leads to mental strain.

Informal Education –
Informal education being natural does not strain the learner. .
Non-formal Education –
It involves only limited mental strain. .

18. Set-up
Formal Education –
It is a formal type of set-up. Here all type of formalities are observed. .
Informal Education –

Here no formalities are observed. .

Non-formal Education –
It is partly formal and partly informal.
19. Entry

Formal Education –
It has fixed point of entry and exit. .
Informal Education –
There is no question of entry and exit in informal education. .

Non-formal Education –
It has flexible points of entry and exit, re-entry and re-exit throughout the life. .
60
Q. Non-Formal Education

INTRODUCTION
Non-formal education is one of the recent concepts getting into use. Indian involvement in non-
formal education has increased as a result of our interest in making education a life-long affair
rather than a matter of formal schooling..
CHARACTERISTICS
(i) Derived from the expression 'formal education
The expression 'non-formal' in non-formal education has been derive from the expression 'formal'
in formal education by using the pre-fix non-.
(ii) Outside the realm of formal Education
Unlike inform education which is unstructured, spontaneous and without formality non-formal
education would be structured and planned, but outside realm of formal education. "Any
organised, systematic education activity, carried outside the framework of the established formal
system whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broad activity, that is
intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles ai learning objectives.".
(iii) Conscious and deliberate
Non-formal education consciously and deliberately organised and systematically implemented..

(iv) To be organised for a homogeneous group

Non-formal education should be organised for a homogeneous group.
Such a grot has to be identified in terms of the learning needs of the group member.
(v) Serving the need of the identified group.
Non-form, education should be programmed to serve the needs of the identify group. This will
necessitate flexibility in design of the curriculum and the scheme of evaluation.

61
Q. INFORMAL EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION

Informal Educations are those which are not structured, not systematically organized, not regulated
and not deliberately planned.
Informal education does not observe any formalities, rules and regulations and discipline. Teachers,
students, curriculum and methods are not definite and specific. There is no authority to control it
specifically. It is a life-long process. It starts from birth and ends to death. Family, society, state,
playground, field, library, neighbourhood, mass-media etc. come under informal agencies of
education.
CHARACTERISTICS

(i) Incidental and spontaneous.

Informal education is incidents and spontaneous. There is no conscious effort involved in it.
Courtesies gentleness, etc. learnt in a market place or in a hotel or in one's sitting room amount to
informal education.
(ii) Not-pre-planned nor deliberate

Informal education is an educative activity which is neither pre- planned nor deliberate. The child
learns many habits, manners and patterns while living with others or moving in different spheres
like home, society, groups etc.
(iii) Not imparted by any specialized agency

Unlike formal education, informal education is not imparted by any specialized agency such as
school or college.
(iv) No prescribed time-table or curriculum
Informal education is not given according to any fixed time-table or through formal means of
education. There is no set curriculum required. Informal education consists in experiences and
actual living in the family or community..
(v) May be negative education also .
Informal education may take to negative direction also. Instances are not rare when one learns
stealing, or some other forms of misbehaviour from the experiences which the child may casually
have in the street, in the market, in the cinema hall or in some other such place..
In the words of an expert, Informal Education is "the process, by which a person imbibes attitudes,
develops skills, cultivates values and acquires knowledge, without there being any organisation or
system about it. This would include the deliberate attempts of parents and elders in the family and
community to help the young ones grow and adapt themselves to the environment. Informal
Education would also include all incidental learning that takes place while at work or at play and
during travels-as well as spontaneous learning through films, radio and television."

62
Q. Formal education
INTRODUCTION
This is a traditional form of education. This type of education is imparted in a school or college. It is
consciously and deliberately planned to bring about specific and special influence in the students.
So, it is synonymous with educational institutions. School is thus a formal agency of education.

CHARACTERISTICS

(i) Planned with a particular end in view..

(ii) Limited to a specific period..
(iii) Well-defined and systematic curriculum.
(iv) Given by specially qualified teachers..

(v) Includes activities outside the classroom.

(vi) Observes strict discipline.
(i) Planned with a particular end in view
Formal education is planned with a particular end in view. It is given in school, college and similar
other institutions which are established with the purpose. In this way it is direct schooling,
instruction and tuition.
(ii) Limited to a specific period
Formal education is limited to a specific period or stage. It is provided according to certain set rule
and regulations. It is in the form of systematic, planned and guided instruction..

(iii) Well-defined and systematic curriculum

Formal education has a well-defined and systematic curriculum. This curriculum is based on certain
aims and objectives. These aims are in conformity with the needs of the society and the state-..
(iv) Given by specially qualified teachers

Formal education given by specially qualified teachers they are supposed to be efficient in the art of
instruction.
(v) Includes activities outside the class-room
In modern progressive schools, the process of education is not merely restricted the four walls of
the class-room. There are more activities outside the class-room than inside it..
(vi) Observes strict discipline
Formal education observes strict discipline. The pupil and the teacher are both aware of the fact an
engage themselves in the process of education.

63
It may, however, be mentioned that any process of teaching which involves supervision,
instruction, set plan, definite aims and principles amounts to formal education.

Q. Modern aims of education

As citizens of the nation, we are responsible for shaping the future of our country. We need leaders
who will be capable, devoted and who will shoulder the responsibilities of National Development.
And education is the only means to achieve this high ideal of National

Service especially in today’s day and age of universal ills like blatant corruption and self-interest..
Following are the modern aims of education cited by various education commissions .
1) Kothari Commission 1964-66 –
a. To increase productivity.

b. To develop national unity.

c. To consolidate democracy.
d. To modernize the country.
e. To develop social, moral and spiritual values..

2) National Curriculum Framework 2005 –

a. Strengthening a national system of education in a secular pluralistic society.
b. Bring about the concept of learning without burden by reducing the syllabus.
c. Curricular practices should be in keeping with social justice, equality and secularism..

d. Quality education should be made available for all children without any discrimination.

Q: TYPES OF EDUCATION: FORMAL, INFORMAL, NON-FORMAL.

Education in its all-inclusive form goes beyond what takes places within the four walls of the
classroom.
A child gets education from his experiences outside the school as well as from those within on the
basis of these factors. So, there are mainly three types of education, namely, Formal, Informal and
Non- formal. Each of these types is briefly described below.

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Q. Jainism
MAIN TENETS/PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM.
1) Nirvana or Salvation.

2) Five-fold doctrine –.
a. Satya (truth).
b. Ahimsa (non-violence).
c. Aparigraha (non-possession of property).

d. Asteya (not to receive anything that is not freely given).

e. Brahmacharya (celibacy).
3) Three jewels (Ratnatreya) –.
a. Right belief.

b. Right knowledge.
c. Right action.
4) Non-existence of God.
5) No Caste system.
6) No sacrifices.

7) 13 main sins –
a. Violence.
b. Telling a lie.
c. Stealing.

f. Anger.
g. Covetousness.
h. Pride.
i. Rage.

j. Jealousy.
k. Quarrel.
l. Levying false changes.
m. Speaking ill of others.

8) Jainism accords respectable position to women. They are also allowed to join the Sangha.

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9) There are 2 sects – Digambara who remain naked and Svetambara who cover body with simple
dress.
CONTRIBUTION OF JAINISM IN EDUCATION

1) It has provided us with a way of life, a sort of moral code which every household can follow.
2) Religion is a simple and not a costly affair.
3) Popularisation of “Prakrit” gave impetus to languages of common man.
4) Jainism promoted the growth of Kannada and Tamil literature.

5) Several welfare programs for common man were undertaken.

6) There was enrichment of art and architecture. Eg. Jain temples at Mount Abu, Elephanta and
Ellora caves.

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Q. Islamic education –
FEATURES/CHARACTERISITS
1) Religion-centred education – Pupils acquired knowledge as religious obligation. Aims, contents of
study and daily life was all centred around religion.
2) Patronage of rulers – Rulers helped spread of education and richly endowed institutions with
funds.
3) Pursuit of Various disciplines – alongwith religion, curriculum included study of many intellectual
activities such as maths, science, grammar, astronomy, politics, literature, poetry, etc.
4) The countryside would be developed into a centre of education.
5) There were well-defined Norms of behavior, pattern of thought and character of personality.
6) Punishments were corporal and quite severe.

7) There was provision for technical, professional and vocational education.

8) Centres of education were the maktabs (elementary schools) and
Madrasas (for higher education).
9) Medium of instruction was Persian.

CURRICULUM
1) Mainly holy book Qu’ran and prayers.
2) Variety of subjects – maths, astronomy, literature, poetry, grammar, military science, politics,
etc.

3) Also religion oriented.

4) Vocational and technical education was also imparted.

METHODS OF TEACHING

1) Oral teaching.
2) Memorisation of assigned lessons.
3) Persian was the medium of instruction.
ROLE OF TEACHER

1) Teachers were very learned.

2) They took to teaching for the love of teaching.
3) There was respectful and intimate relationship between student and teacher.
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4) Practice of living with the teacher was not so much followed.
5) Pupils were expected to serve the teacher.
6) In return they would get free food and knowledge from them.

MAKTABS AND MADRASAS

MAKTAB
1) Maktab is derived from Arabic “Kutab” which means “writing”.

2) Elementary schools attached to mosques.

3) The 3 R’s of Reading, Writing and Arithmetic were taught.
4) Quran was to be learnt by heart.
5) Languages such as urdu, Arabic and perisan were learnt.

6) Pronunciation, good handwriting, conversation, memorization, good manners, were given

importance.
7) Mullah, Maulvi and Maulana would teach.

MADRASAS

1) Madrasa is derived from Arabis word “Dars” meaning “lecture.

2) These were centres of higher, mainly Islamic, education.
3) It would be located within or close to a large mosque.
4) It was supported by private grants and endowments.

5) Curriculum was both religious and secular and covered a period of 10 to 12 years.
6) Religious education comprised deep and intensive study of the Quran, prayers, Islamic Law and
Sufism.
7) Secular education comprised of literature, logic, history, geography, science, mathematics,
agriculture, medicine, etc.
8) Some madrasas had hostels attached with free boarding and lodging.
9) Non-muslims were also allowed to study.

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Q. Similarities between Vedic System and Buddhist system.

1) Same goal of education. i.e. Salvation.

2) Education was imparted in a natural environment.

3) Hard life of the students.
4) Observance of strict code of morality.
5) Religion dominated education system.

6) Close bond of reverence and respect between Teacher and student.

7) Unwavering obedience for the teacher.

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Q. Contrast/Difference/Dissimilarities between Vedic and Buddhist systems
VEDIC:-
1. Individualistic teaching.

2. Education was imparted in a Gurukul.

3. Poorly funded system.
4. Student was called a Brahmachari.
5. Teacher was more autocratic in nature.

6. Vedic system has survived over centuries.

7. Curriculum was vast.
8. Bond between Teacher and Student was closer.
9. Students were not expected to lead a life of complete celibacy. They had to go back and
fulfillwordly duties before taking sanyasa.
10. Mainly Sanskrit was spoken.
BUDDHIST:-
1. Collected system of education.
2. In a Monastery or Vihara.

3. Richly funded system.

4. Student was called a Bhikshu.
5. Teacher was somewhat democratic in nature.
6. Buddhist system is declining.

7. Curriculem was meagre.

8. Bond between teacher and students was not comparatively that close.
9. Students had to live a complete life of celibacy and renounce the world throughout.
10. There was a gradual shift from Ardhamagadhi to Pali to Sanskrit.

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CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION SYSTEM

1) Sacrifice of material comforts and luxuries was of prime importance under the Buddhist system
of education.
2) Viharas or Buddhist monasteries were the centres of education.
3) Students underwent an ordination ceremony (“pabbajja”) after which they had to lead a
noviciate life for 12 years.

4) Students were expected to follow the 10 commandments – .

a. Not taking life.
b. Taking what is given.
c. Abstaining from impure practices.

d. Not telling a lie.

e. Not drinking.
f. Not eating out of time.
g. Not dancing, singing and seeing shows.
h. Not using garlands, scents, ornaments, etc.

i. Not using high or large couch.

j. Not receiving gold and silver.
5) At the end of this there was the second ceremony called the Upsampada which now qualified
him to be a full-fledged monk or Bhikshu and he was required to –.

a. Beg his food.

b. Wear robes made of rags.
c. Lofge at the foot of a tree.
d. Use cow’s urine as medicine.

e. Avoid sex, theft and taking life.

6) This was a 10 year period at the end of which he became an Acharya and could teach other
pupils.
7) It stressed on salvation (Mukti).

8) Education was imparted in natural surroundings.

9) Students had a hard life.
10) There was a strict code of morality.
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 11) The Buddhist centres of learning were rich and could thus spread the education far and
wide in other countries too.

ROLE OF TEACHER
1) Teacher and student were united together in mutual reverence and affection.
2) The pupil carried the teacher’s seat, robes, water, tooth stick. He cleaned his begging bowl and
utensils.

3) The student accompanied the teacher everywhere as an attendant.

4) The teacher taught him etiquette, discipline, simplicity, and abstinence.
5) He taught him by example and practice.
6) Teachers were lifelong students of their subject.

7) No Acharya could draw the pupils of another Acharya.

CENTRES OF EDUCATION
1) Education was centered around a monastery called Vihara.
2) A Vihara was a federation of individual schools.

3) Monasteries were a counterpart of the gurkuls.

4) Private teachers took 10 to 15 students and taught them in their houses.
5) Organised educational institutions are a product of the Buddhist system of education.
6) The monasteries were richly endowed with donations from kings and aristocratic families and
thus were wealthy and sprawling in nature.
7) Some monasteries further developed into great centres of learning called Universities. Eg.
Nalanda, Jaggadala, Mithila and Nadia, Vikramsila.
8) The University was lead by an eminent Bhikshu who was helped by two councils – academic and
administrative.

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Q. Buddhist Education –
Buddhist period is generally considered as the period between the beginning of the Gupta empire
and the founding of Buddhism.

PHILOSOPHY/MAIN TENETS OF BUDDHISM

1) Nirvana or Salvation.
2) Four Noble Truths –.
a. There is sorrow or suffering in the world.

b. There are reasons behind this sorrow.

c. Sorrow can be removed.
d. There is right path to learn how to remove sorrow.
3) Eight-fold path –.

a. Right Speech.
b. Right Action.
c. Right Living.
Lead to physical control or “sila”.
d. Right Effort.

e. Right Mindfulness.
f. Right Concentration.
Lead to mental control or “Samadhi”.
g. Rights Views.

h. Right Intentions.
Lead to insight or “Prajna” which ultimately leads to Salvation or “nirvana”.
4) Follow Middle path in daily life.
5) Ahimsa.

6) No caste system.
7) Silence over existence of God.
8) Equality and no caste system.
9) Birth and rebirths.

10) Disbelief in Vedas.

11) Disbelief in soul.
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12) No faith in rituals, sacrifices and yajnas.
CURRICULUM
1) It was religious and philosophical.

2) It was meant for monks and nuns.

3) Liberal sciences like literature, poetry and astrology were not taught.
4) Initially Ardhamagadhi was used as medium of instruction but later replaced by Pali and then
Sanskrit.

5) Study of Tripatakas was undertaken.

6) Hindu religion was also studied to take up disputation and discussions with Hindu theologians.
7) Study of Vedas was included but it was not the basis of Buddhist education.

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Methods of teaching/instruction in Vedic education
1) Gurukul style/system was followed where the student (shishya) stayed with the teacher (Guru) in
Residential schools generally situated in the forests (Vanas).

2) Sanskrit was the main medium of instruction.

3) Questioning and discussion methods were followed.
4) Pupils were taught individually and not in groups which made learning a richer and everlasting
experience.

5) The students had to listen to the teacher, reflect on what they had learnt and continuously
revise.
6) Travel was important and considered essential for the completion of education.

WOMEN EDUCATION
1) In the beginning education was free and accessible to all irrespective of status, caste and gender.
2) There was wide-spread education of women.
3) Girls were free to go through the Upanayana ceremony, live a life of celibacy, study Vedas and
other subjects along with their brother pupils.

4) But later it got restricted to higher castes such as Brahmins and that too only to men and not
women.

ROLE OF TEACHER

1) Teacher was given very revered position and treated with respect and honour throughout.
2) He was equaled with Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh the Trinity of hindu worship.
3) Teacher was a parent to the pupils.
4) Teachers and pupils lived together in Residential schools.

5) Pupils completely submitted themselves to the teacher.

6) The teacher was deeply involved with the student and understood all his strengths and
weaknesses.
7) He looked towards all-round development of the student.

8) Students were very obedient to every command and wish of the teacher.
9) Rapport of teacher-student was on a one to one basis.
10) Teachers lived austerely – simple living and high thinking was their motto.

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MERITS OF VEDIC EDUCATION
1) It was well-organised.

2) It was suited to the needs of society.

3) It was considered as the greatest gift in ancient India.
4) There was all-round development of personality.
5) It helped to realize spiritual and moral values.

6) It prepared man for worldly pursuits as well as the afterlife.

7) It was freely accessible.
8) There were no fees.
9) Relations between teacher and student were cordial and intimate.

10) Teacher’s status was very high.

11) Curriculum was comprehensive. It included religious and vocational education.

LIMITATIONS
1) There was rigidity in instructions.

2) Discipline was very strict.

3) It did not encourage self-expression of students.
4) Unquestioning obedience of the teacher was expected.
5) System of instruction was verbal, repetitive and required rote learning.

6) Female education was not very widely prevalent.

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Q. Vedic education –

Concept &Characteristics
1) During the Vedic period it was believed that knowledge is the real power in the world.
2) Vedic educaion catered to both the worldly as well as the afterworld (afterlife). Hence it is often
termed as the “Third Eye of Man”.

3) It was believed that Education or “Vidya” led to salvation and helped to remove difficulties in day
to day life.
4) It aimed a educating men according to the 4 aims of life – Dharma or Duty, Artha or Finance,
Kama or Yearning, Moksha or Liberation and as per the 4 stages of life – Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa.
5) It was for the preservation and promotion of culture.
6) It was develop harmonious and balanced personalities who were true to life and action. 7) It
promoted social efficiency and welfare.
8) It aimed to make each individual self-sufficient through vocational training.

9) It infused piety, spiritualism and religious spirit.

10) It followed strict discipline.
11) In the beginning, education was for free and accessible to all but later it got restricted to higher
castes such as Brahmins and that too only to men and not women.

12) Rigid aste system based on vocation developed in due time as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishnavas,
and shudras.

AIMS
1) Self-realisation aim – Ultimate aim of education was not knowledge as preparation for life in this
world or for life beyond but for complete realization of self and for liberation of the soul i.e. Mukti
or Moksha.
And that education would lead to emancipation – from unreality to reality, darkness to light, death
to immortality.
2) Immedite Aim or Vocational Aim – This was to prepare the different castes for their different
modes of living and earning a livelihood..
3) Moral, Religious and Spiritual Development Aim – Education was for education’s sake and not for
some public exam or service. It was not merely intellectual. But moral, spiritual and Religious too.

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4) Self-ontrol and Self-Discipline – The best discipline was self- discipline. There was no corporal
punishment.

CURRICULUM
1) Currculum was very intensive.
2) Several subjects were taught that covered Spiritual as well as material knowledge. Eg. Arthmetic,
Geometry, Science and other vocational subjects as per the mode of living were taught. Eg.

Brahmins – Vedangas and Vedas, Kshatriyas – Warfare, Vaishnaves – agriculture, trade, commerce,
arts and craft.
3) Geoetry evolved and the oldest mathematical work was done in 400 BC. Zero was discovered by
Aryabhatta.

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Q. Universal aims of education

1. The Individual aim – Only a good individual will become a good citizen. Education must provide
opportunities for the complete development of the individual..
2. The Social aim – Man is a social animal and has affinity to live in groups. Hence education should
develop his social efficiency and make him aware of his civic responsibilities and social obligations..
3. The Vocational aim – Education should be able to prepare man for a profession so that he is able
to earn a livelihood within the desirable work culture of his community..
4. The Knowledge aim – Education should convey the knowledge of all subjects to the individual for
better understanding and acceptance and tolerance of the world around him.
5. The Complete Living aim – It is an all-comprehensive aim that encompasses ways of personal,
social, political and religious living.
6. The Harmonious Development aim – Implies the harmonious cultivation of the physical, mental,
emotional, social, moral, spiritual sides of the personality for all-round development..
7. The Moral aim – Education’s ultimate aim is to cultivate strength and purity of character and this
can only be accomplished through proper moral and value education.

8. The Aesthetic aim – Developing the aesthetic sensibilities of a person for training and self-
control of emotions.
9. The Leisure aim – Man is creative and education should allow him a wide variety of options for
creative pursuits of self-expression..

10. The Happiness aim – Education can help man to increase human happiness through the
satisfaction of his needs and wants but only so long as they are not selfish needs and fall within the
means of social happiness too

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Q. Relationship between education and philosophy

Both, philosophy and education are based on the conceptions of wisdom, ideology and critical
enquiry, the difference being that philosophy is contemplative in nature while education is an
active process.
The philosophy of education is that branch of knowledge which is in constant quest of truth and
those who are lovers of visions of truth are called philosophers. Thus a philosopher naturally
becomes an educationist.
Every man has his own philosophy of life and it is natural that he will seek to influence and convince
or convert others to his way of thinking. And education is nothing but this process of influencing,
convincing and converting. Thus education is a practical means of realizing the philosophical idea of
life and it is fundamentally dependent on philosophy.
Philosophy towards life and values in general determine what we feel towards the role of education
in shaping a child’s character. For eg., earlier, corporal punishment was a preference whereas now
it is an aversion. Thus we can see that the setting and subsequent changing of a curriculum is highly
influenced by the philosophy held by people at a particular point of time.

The inter-dependence of philosophy and education can be found in the lives and teachings of all
great thinkers. Eg. Socrates and Dewey in the West to Yajnavalkya and Mahatma Gandhi in the East.
And Plato’s philosophy in the Republic is universally accepted as a classical treatise on education.
Thus to conclude, James Ross rightly pointed out that education and philosophy are two sides of
the same coin.

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Q. Functions of Education

The primary function of education is the transferring or transmission of knowledge and

reconstruction of the social heritage. But education is broader than just obtaining knowledge.
As per John Dewey – The function of education is to help the growing of a helpless young animal
into a happy, moral and efficient human being.

Education is a dynamic force in the life of an individual and influences his physical, mental, social,
emotional, ethical, creative and spiritual development.
The functions of Education can be classified into 2 types.
1) Functions towards the individual –

a. To provide growth and development – Growth and development is not just biological maturation
but all-round development of the child’s abilities and talents.
b. To direct, to guide, control the innate capacities of the child into the channels approved by the
society. i.e. to provide internal and external direction to him.
c. To prepare the individual for the responsibilities and privileges of adult life – the child should be
able to face the complex challenges that he meets in life.
2) Functions towards the Society –
a. To make continuity of physical and social life – To make physical life continual through
reproduction and to make social life continual by practicing and advancing current customs,
traditions, values, occupations of the community, etc.
b. To conserve social heritage and culture – this is important as it is the transmission of this
treasure of knowledge that shapes man’s way or mode of life.
c. Progress of civilization – To reorganize, reconstruct and improve human experience to improve
society.

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Q. Scope of education
1) Scope means range of outlook, view, application, operation and effectiveness. Scope
encompasses breadth, comprehension, and variety of learning experiences that can be provided in
the education process.
2) Education begins in the womb and ends in the tomb. Its theme is life.
3) Thus education is concerned with the whole man – his whole life comes under the purview of
education.
4) Education is broader than obtaining knowledge..
5) Education influences our physical, mental, social emotional, ethical, creative and spiritual
development.

6) Education fits us into the environment around us so that we enjoy the pleasure and satisfaction
of life in socially approved channels..
7) In short, education “IS” life – it includes manners, morals, tastes, interests, likes, dislikes, loves,
hates, etc.
Scope of Education includes –

a. Education for adaptability

b. Education for problem-solving
c. Education for leisure
d. Education for family-living

e. Education for understanding modern world and modern society.

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Q. Activities for all-round development of a child:
A teacher is the maker of man. A child is like putty in the teacher’s hands. He can easily be moulded
by a teacher into set grooves. Hence imparting proper education to a child is a great onus or
responsibility and it is the duty of the teacher to shape the child’s future with utmost care and
compassion For true all-round development, it is essential to cover and develop all powers of the
child – physical, mental, emotional, social, moral and spiritual

1) Physical Development – The body is the temple or seat of life. Thus like a temple, it needs to be
kept clean, hygienic and healthy. So to make sure that my students are physically fit, I would –
a) Propagate, in principle as well as practice, the benefits of a healthy body.
b) Guide students and their parents on the importance of exercise, the intake of nutritious
nourishment and practice of sound sleep.
c) Monitor their dietary habits.
d) Co-ordinate with the physical education teacher to ensure regular exercise activities are
scheduled and health check-up camps are held.
e) Actively encourage my students to participate in at least one sport of their liking.

2) Mental Development – Just a physically fit body will not help the child to progress. He should
have adequate mental stability as well
a) I would complete the syllabus as per the designated objectives and by using scientifically
approved and appropriate teaching methods
b) I would inculcate a scientific attitude in them and would as far as possible adopt the direct
teaching method wherein the students could learn and retain effectively from their experiences.
c) Along with academic activities, I would ensure adequate time is devoted to participation in co-
curricular and extra- curricular activities such as competitions, fairs, festival celebrations, picnics,
excursions, etc.
d) I would try to draw out their hidden talents in the field of fine arts – drawing, craft, singing,
music, etc.

3) Emotional development – The thoughtful mind is an empty slate without emotions. For the
proper emotional growth of the child I would
a) Create a healthy, harmonious and happy atmosphere in the class conducive to study so that
children enjoy coming to school.

b) Highlight the underlying core elements and values of each lesson as per the national directive.

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c) Build an approachable personality so that students may easily come forward and share their
queries, problems, achievements and grievances.

4) Social development –
a) Foster a sense of unity and brotherhood by holding group activities where children interact with
each other.
b) Teaching them the importance and value of national integration and civic sense.

5) Moral development – I would ensure that value education and moral science classes are
conducted to simulate thought-provoking situations where high moral fibre is weaved into their
personality so that they are able to differentiate between right and wrong and develop the courage
to stand by what is right. Eg. Protecting the environment, following traffic rules, respect for elders,
etc.

6) Spiritual development – Last but not the least I would promote the importance of prayer and
spiritualism not through radical methods but encouraging them to choose wisely and carefully the
spiritual path they wish to tread as this is a highly personal choice.

CONCLUSION
Thus we have seen how education’s prime concern is to draw out and develop a child into a person
who is physically, mentally and emotionally fit, and who is a social being high moral and spiritual
character. And this conversion or process can only be fully accomplished under the able guidance
and watchful eye of a capable teacher who brings out the best in him

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Q. Impact of Media on childhood and growing up:

Meaning of Mass Media A mass medium may be defined as any means, agency or instrument
through which ideas, attitudes, impressions or images are simultaneously communicated to a large
number of people. Such media forms include not only the print and electronic forms such as
newspaper, magazines, radio, television, films etc. but also a wide range of other forms such as
comics, drama, puppet shows, graffiti and music.
Mass Media as Non-formal Agency of Education Mass Media are a popular non-formal agency of
education. Although the mass media have been widely utilised in adult education, development
activities, agriculture and family planning, yet their use for formal education, that is, for primary,
secondary or tertiary education has hardly been systematic or effective.
John Dewey stated that education could not be limited within teacher and taught without social
environment. So mass media is one such potent force in the social environment of education.
Through modern electronic techniques and technologies, mass media prove that education is, really
comprehensive not confined within four walls of the classroom.

PRINT MEDIA
NEWSPAPERS
A newspaper is a complex package of news, comment, information and entertainment, and the
combination of these contents varies from paper to paper. Most people choose their daily paper to
match their specific tastes, and individual newspapers have developed in different ways to provide
for these

THE EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF NEWSPAPER

1. Current Events Study and its analysis:
News-paper describes and analysis current events of national, international and local importance. It
presents socio-political and economic news with details to develop an insight into the matter
among the readers.

2. Vocational Knowledge:
Newspapers bring out information about the job opportunity, discussion about production and
consumption of wealth notices, advertisement of public and private sectors, rate of commodities
and other valuable information.

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3. Development of Socio-Political Consciousness:
The educative role of newspaper is to bring about proper knowledge and the socio-political
awareness among the students. Articles related to education are also published to make the
people/reader's knowledge up to date.
Newspaper is a powerful means to bring socio-political change andensure better understanding of
students about their rights and duties as citizens and act as the public platform to express views.

MAGAZINES:
There was a 'Magazine boom" in India in 1980s. Magazine publication grew in both English and
major Indian languages. The trend started with the launch of India Today in mid- seventies and the
new look of Illustrated Weekly of India under the editorship of Khushwant Singh. Magazines appeal
to an expanding range of reading tastes and interests. They are designed for homogeneous or
special interest groups. Despite their design for special groups, they developed as a mass medium
because they appeal to large numbers in a national market that cut across social, economic and
educational class lines.

ELECTRONIC MEDIA
Electronic media is the kind of media which requires the user to utilize an electric connection to
access it. It is also known as 'Broadcast Media'. It includes television, radio, and new-age media like
Internet, computers, telephones, etc.

Television: Television appeals both the auditory and visual senses, and hence is an important
communication device as it beholds the attention of the audience
Radio: Radio has a significant reach. Radio lost its popularity with the boom of television. But till
day, radio remains one of the favourite means of electronic communication.

Role of Radio in enhancing Education

Radio is a scientific device that functions as an effective auditory instrument for communication. It
also plays an important role in education. It is not only informs, but also inspires human being for
learning more and more. It is not only includes values and virtues, but also creates attitudes,
interests and appreciation of human life.
The Educational Functions of Radio
1. Quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement of education:
Radio is to play a significant part in expansion as well as qualitative improvement of education.
There are some inaccessible areas in our country where expansion of education has faced
difficulties. To a large number of socially disadvantaged children, education is neither meaningful
nor interesting.
2. Fostering the sense of National Integration and International Understanding:

86
Radio is an important instrument to foster the sense of unity and integrity among the students. The
cultural programmes, debates, talks, through broadcasts involve a strong desire among the
students to know each and other's culture and values.

3. Entertainment:
Entertainment is an important aspect of human life. Radio is the most popular mass medium
through which leisure is carefully utilized through song, drama and other cultural, programmes.
4. Vocational Education:

Vocational information about production and consumption practices in industry and agriculture,
use of manures and highbred seed, employment news are broadcast by Radio.
The role of radio in shaping the society and providing information and education is significant.
Educational broadcasting is also useful for improving education and for enrichment purposes.

SOCIAL MEDIA
Blogging: A blog is a space on the Internet where a single person or a group of people record their
information, opinions, photos, videos, etc.
It is an interesting and free platform to talk about any topic.

Interaction happens in the form of comments or feedback.

Facebook: It is the most popular social networking website. Facebook has several applications
which people utilize. It is the best platform to meet old friends, or make new ones. Advertisers also
like this forum for communicating about their products.

Twitter: It is also a famous social networking website. Twitter is a micro blogging site which allows
interaction and feedback of different people. There was a time when it was very popular among
celebrities and individuals. Today, the governments of various nations have understood the
importance of "tweeting" information to the public, and regularly share information through
Twitter.
YouTube: It is a website which uploads content in a video format. It houses a range of interesting
videos that appeal to people of all generations. From films to educational videos, you will find
everything on YouTube.

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Q Functions of Home in Education of Child

1. Place of Affections

2. Makes Social
3. Makes Morally Sound
4. Imparts Education
5. Satisfies Economic Need

6. Recreates
7. Helps in Physical Development
8. Helps in Mental Development
9. Helps in Emotional Development

10. Helps in Religious Development

11. Character Development
12. Cultural Development
13. Civic Functions
14. Helps in the Development of Personality

Role of Home in Education of Child

1. Socialization
2. Provide teaching
3. Modification of behavior

4. Training for leadership

5. Helps in physical development
6. Acquaintance with culture
7. Preservation of traditions & conventions

8. Inculcation of fellow feelings

9. Cultivation of higher values
10. Imparting vocational and industrial training
11. Improving national unity

12. Developing international understanding

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13. Post school adjustability
14. Co-ordinating various agencies of education

SOCIAL VALUES
Social values: Man is a social being. He lives in the society. It is the society which makes him
socialized and cultured. Almost everything that he learns, is acquired from the society.
Social values have been evolved by the society to make life more safe, comfortable, civilized and
worthy living. Different social values are outlined as under:-
(i) Social conformity: It means to act according to social norms, standards, traditions, expectancies
& acceptances. Due to social sanctions & punishments, a person learns to behave in conformity
with social rules, norms and expectations.

(ii) Discipline: Discipline is an essential condition of successful social life. It generates virtues which
give essence to society and strength to nation. Discipline should be internal, self imposed, positive
and constructive.
(iii) Social sensitiveness: Everybody in the society should be socially sensitive. Social sensitiveness
helps the person in leading good social life.

(iv) Altruism: It implies concern for others, social and sacrificing one’s own interest. On the
foundation of altruism are built an individual’s social relationships, his interest in others and his
sense of responsibility.
(v) Toleration: A person should tolerate the views of others.

(vi) Social adjustment: A person should make adjustment to members of various social groups.
(vii) Social loyalty: A person should be loyal to family members, friends, neighbours and other
associates.
(viii) Social justice: A person should be in favour of social justice. He should make effort to ensure
social justice in the social group.
(ix) Panchsheel of values: Social values can also be mentioned by giving the following five values
called Panchsheel of values –
(a) Cleanliness – internal & external

(b) Truthfulness
(c) Co-operation
(d) Equality
(e) Hard work.
(x) Other social values: Some other social values are – courtesy, devotion, friendship, good
manners, helpfulness, kindness, respect of others, team work etc.

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Q. Meaning and Concept Of Multicultural Education
Numerous definitions of multicultural education have been proposed or espoused by scholars,
researchers and organizations over the past 30 years.
1. Multicultural education is a philosophical concept built on the ideals of freedom, justice, equality,
equity, and human dignity as acknowledged in various documents.
2. It affirms our need to prepare student for their responsibilities in an interdependent world.

3. It recognizes the role schools can play in developing the attitudes and values necessary for a
democratic society.
4. It values cultural differences and affirms the pluralism that students, their communities, and
teachers reflect.

5. It challenges all forms of discrimination in schools and society through the promotion of
democratic principles of social justice.
6. Multicultural education is a process that permeates all aspects of school practices, policies and
organization as a means to ensure the highest levels of academic achievement for all students.
7. It helps students develop a positive self-concept by providing knowledge about the histories,
cultures, and contributions of diverse groups.
8. It prepares all students to work actively toward structural equality in organizations and
institutions by providing the knowledge, dispositions, and skills for the redistribution of power and
income among diverse groups.

9. Thus, school curriculum must directly address issues of racism, sexism, classism, linguisism,
ageism, heterosexism, religious intolerance, and xenophobia.
10. Multicultural education advocates the belief that students and their life histories and
experiences should be placed at the center of the teaching and learning process and that pedagogy
should occur in a context that is familiar to students and that addresses multiple ways of thinking.
11. In addition, teachers and students must critically analyze oppression and power relations in
their communities, society and the world.
12. To accomplish these goals, multicultural education demands a school staff that is culturally
competent, and to the greatest extent possible racially, culturally, and linguistically diverse.
13. Staff must be multicultural literate and capable of including and embracing families and
communities to create an environment that is supportive of multiple perspectives, experiences, and
democracy.
Multicultural education requires comprehensive school reform as multicultural education must
pervade all aspects of the school community and organization.

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14. Recognizing that equality and equity are not the same thing, multicultural education attempts
to offer all students an equitable educational opportunity, while at the same time, encouraging
students to critique society in the interest of social justice.

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Q. SCOPE OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
Five approaches to multicultural education:
a. Advocates of the Teaching the Culturally Different approach attempt to raise the academic
achievement of students through culturally relevant instruction.
b. In the Human Relations approach students are taught about commonalties of all people through
understanding their social and cultural differences but not their differences in institutional and
economic power.

c. The Single Group Studies approach is about the histories and contemporary issues of oppression
of different people, women, low socioeconomic groups, and gays and lesbians. d. The Multicultural
Education approach promotes the transformation of the educational process to reflect the ideals of
democracy in a pluralistic society.

Students are taught content using instructional methods that value cultural knowledge and
differences.
e. Educators who use the Social Deconstructionists approach to multicultural education go a step
further to teach students about oppression and discrimination. Students learn about their roles as
social change agents so that they may participate in the generation of a more equitable society.

ROLE OF TEACHER
1) Teacher should provide all students with opportunities to participate in extra- and co-curricular
activities that develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes that increase academic achievement and
foster positive interracial relationships.
2) Teachers should help students acquire the social skills needed to interact effectively with
students from other racial, ethnic, cultural, and language groups.
3) Teacher should provide opportunities for students from different racial, ethnic, cultural, and
language groups to interact socially under conditions designed to reduce fear and anxiety.
4) Teachers should use multiple culturally sensitive techniques to assess complex cognitive and
social skills.

CONCLUSION
Diversity in the nation's schools is both an opportunity and a challenge. The nation is enriched by
the ethnic, cultural, and language diversity among its citizens and within its schools. However,
whenever diverse groups interact, intergroup tension, stereotypes, and institutionalized
discrimination develop. Schools must find ways to respect the diversity of their students as well as
help to create a unified nation-state to which all of the nation's citizens have allegiance.

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Q. Learning styles

Introduction

It is important to remember that every individual learns differently and thus has a unique learning
style.
Every person has one primary learning mode. Once you identify that mode, you can learn to
maximize it and enhance your child's education.

Types of Learning Styles

a) Visual learners
b) Auditory learners

c) Kinaesthetic learners
(a) Visual learners
Tend to:
1) Learn through seeing
2) Think in pictures and need to create vivid mental images to retain information

3) Enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos, and movies

4) Have visual skills which are demonstrated in puzzle building, reading, writing, understanding
charts and graphs, a good sense of direction, sketching, painting, creating visual metaphors and
analogies (perhaps through the visual arts), manipulating images, constructing, fixing, designing
practical objects, and interpreting visual images
(b) Auditory learners
Tend to:
1. Learn through listening

2. Have highly developed auditory skills and are generally good at speaking and presenting
3. Think in words rather than pictures
4. Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what
others have to say

5. Have auditory skills demonstrated in listening, speaking, writing, storytelling, explaining,

teaching, using humour, understanding the syntax and meaning of words, remembering
information, arguing their point of view, and analysing language usage
(c) Kinesthetic learners

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Tend to:
1. Learn through moving, doing and touching
2. Express themselves through movement

3. Have good sense of balance and eye-hand coordination

4. Remember and process information through interacting with the space around them
5. Find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and
exploration

6. Have skills demonstrated in physical coordination, athletic ability, hands on experimentation,

using body language, crafts, acting, miming, using their hands to create or build, dancing, and
expressing emotions through the body.

Conclusion
Once students understand their learning styles, they can better adapt to their learning
environment. When your child identifies his or her unique learning style, you can begin to build
upon it.
Understanding learning styles is only a first step in maximizing potential and overcoming learning
differences Hints for Recognizing and Implementing the Three Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic
Styles
Auditory learners often talk to themselves.
They also may move their lips and read out loud.

They may have difficulty with reading and writing tasks.

They often do better talking to a colleague or a tape recorder and hearing what was said.

Helpful Tips for Visual

(i) Turn notes into pictures, charts, or maps
(ii) Avoid distractions (windows, doorways, etc.)
(iii) Learn the big picture first and then focus on the details
(iv) Make mind and concept maps instead of outlines

(v) Color code parts of new concepts in your notes

(vi) Use flash cards when trying to study vocabulary
Auditory
(i) Record lectures and then listen to them

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(ii) Repeat material out loud and in your own words
(iii) Discuss materials in your study groups
(iv) Read textbooks aloud

(v) Listen to wordless background music while studying Kinesthetic

(i) Take study breaks often
(ii) Learn new material while doing something active (e.g., read a textbook while on a treadmill)
(iii) Work while standing

(iv) Try to take classes with instructors who encourage demonstrations and fieldwork.
Q. Changes in Learning Styles during Childhood
1) A child's brain is continually developing.
2) The strengths and weaknesses a child shows when he's five may be quite different than his
strengths and weaknesses when he's 10 or 15.
3) The way children learn also changes over time.
4) As a child grows and matures his or her brain grows, develops and matures.
5) One result of this growth and development can be that a child will appear to have strength at
one time, but if tested three or four years later that same skill may be judged a weakness.

6) The reasons are complex, but the important thing to know is that a child's strengths and
weaknesses aren't carved in stone.
7) As time passes the way a child learns best may change significantly.

Learning and the Senses

Effective teaching usually combines several approaches, or multi- sensory instruction, so the child
uses more than one sense at a time while learning.
Multi-sensory approaches work well because of the way our brain is organized.

When we learn, information takes one path into our brain when we use our eyes, another when we
use our ears and a yet a third when we use our hands.
By using more than one sense we bombard our brain with the new information in multiple ways. As
a result we learn better.

It is said that
10% of what they read
20% of what they hear

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30% of what they see
50% of what they see and hear
70% of what they say

90% of what they say and do

Q. The Seven Learning Styles

1) Visual (spatial): You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.
2) Aural (auditory-musical): You prefer using sound and music.
3) Verbal (linguistic): You prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
4) Physical (kinesthetic): You prefer using your body, hands and sense of touch.
5) Logical (mathematical): You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.

6) Social (interpersonal): You prefer to learn in groups or with other people.

7) Solitary (intrapersonal): You prefer to work alone and use self-study.

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Q. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING:

1. Learning is a process which is continuous & it never stops at any phase. It is a lifelong process
hence learning starts from birth & ends only with the death of an individual. Hence we can say that
learning proceeds from womb to tomb. E.g. when a child takes birth he first learns to cry for food,
and at each phase of life at every step the child learns to walk, run, talk, write alphabets etc.
2. Learning is the process which leads to mental growth of an individual. The growth takes place
along with the learning.
3. Basically when learning takes place the individual learns to adjust & adopt with the environment.
4. Learning is purposeful. Though learning takes place at every place & at every moment all the
learning are not useful. Hence those learning which are useful & meaningful are learnt.

5. Learning is active process. Learning by doing is the best part of learning e.g. it becomes easy for
the science students to learn the concepts in science when they perform practical.
6. Learning takes place individually & as well as socially e.g. When a seminar or workshop is
conducted, then all the members of the group learn to share their thoughts, each one learns
something new from the other individual.

7. Last but not the least learning brings about the change in the behavior in individual e.g. a child is
always taught values & manners, & due to this teachings, a child learns to respect their elders &
teachers, learns to speak politely etc, which bring about the change in his behavior as the child
grows.

Concept of learning styles:

1) The simplest definition of a learning style is the learning strengths and preferences of a student.
2) “the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as
relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning
environment”.
3) Cognitive style refers to the characteristic way in which an individual organizes his environment
and accordingly acts on it.

4) These are intrinsic information-processing patterns that represent a person’s typical mode of
perceiving, thinking, remembering and problem-solving.
5) Learning style can be defined “as the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective and
physiological factors that serve as a relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts
with and responds to the learning environment.”

6) Some students might focus on facts while others prefer theories or that some students learn
better visually and others verbally.

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7) In other words, a learning style may be defined as a habitual pattern or a preferred way of
acquiring knowledge or doing something

Q. Definitions of Learning:
Crow & Crow: „Learning is acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes. It involves new ways of
doing things in order to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It enables the person to
satisfy interests to attain goals.‟ Henry Smith: „Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the
strengthening or weakening of old behavior as a result of experience.‟ Wood worth defines
learning as- “Any activity can be called learning as far as it develops the individual (in any aspect,
good or bad) & makes his behavior& experiences different from what would otherwise have been”.

Thus,
Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior.
Learning may be defined as the acquisition of knowledge attitudes, skills & ways of thinking.
Above definitions have 3 important elements:
1. Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.

2. It is a change that takes place through practice & experience.

3. Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent i.e. it must last for a
long time. Exactly how long cannot he specified, but we usually think of learning lasting for days,
months, years in contrast to temporary, behavioral effects.

Thus learning is a complex process. It is a process by which all organisms, as a result of its
interaction in a situation acquires a new mode of behavior which tends to persist and affect his
behavior in the future.
Thus learning takes place when an organism reacts to a situation. It consists of certain changes in
behavior or adjustments and this type of behavior is utilized to some degree in other situations.

Definition of Learning Styles

You have probably noticed that when you try to learn something new you prefer to learn by
listening to someone talk to you about the information. Or perhaps you prefer to read about a
concept to learn it, or maybe see a demonstration.
1) Learning styles can be defined, classified, and identified in many different ways.
2) Generally, they are overall patterns that provide direction to learning and teaching.
3) Learning style can also be described as a set of factors, behaviors, and attitudes that facilitate
learning for an individual in a given situation.

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4) Styles influence how students learn, how teachers teach, and how the two interact.
5) Each person is born with certain tendencies toward particular styles, but these biological or
inherited characteristics are influenced by culture, personal experiences, maturity level, and
development.
6) Style can be considered a “contextual” variable or construct because what the learner brings to
the learning experience is as much a part of the context as are the important features of the
experience itself.

7) Each learner has distinct and consistent preferred ways of perception, organization and
retention.
8) These learning styles are characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that
serve as pretty good indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment.
9) Students learn differently from each other and it has been determined that brain structure
influences language structure acquisition.
10) It has also been shown that different hemispheres of the brain contain different perception
avenues.

11) Some researchers claim that several types of cells present in some brains are not present in
others.

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Q. Role of Teacher for Special Child - Physical and Visual Impairment Students

Special child means the students who have special needs. Teacher should try to fulfill their special
needs so that they could not think themselves unfit in the class.
Here we shall discuss role of the teacher to bring these special children at level with normal child
separately according to their needs:
1. Role of teacher for the special child of physical impairment:

Teacher hold make arrangement of suitable seating system in classroom for them, he seating
arrangement should be such that it allows independent movement f the students.
Teacher should ensure that they get adequate opportunities to anticipate in physical and
recreational activities in the class and school. If see type of special child have difficulty in writing.
He/She may be provided tar time for it.

2. Role of teacher for the special child of visual impairment:

First of all, if we see any visual disability in our student then we should refer him/her t the hospital
for check-up. We can allow such students to sit in the front row so that they could read the black
board with ease.
We, as a teacher should write in bold letters which are legible. We should also read aloud when w
write on the blackboard. Books with bold letters should be available in the library to cater to the
needs of these students. Through these efforts we can bring these type of special children
psychologically at level with a Norma child.

3. Role of teacher of the special child of hearing and speech impairment.

Teacher can do a lot of help/work for them. We as a teacher should ask students with hearing
problems to sit near us for improved listening. Teacher should use a reasonable level of pitch
(voice) while speaking.
We should not speak too fast and avoid mumbling. We as a teacher should have our lips visible to
the students while we are reading so that they are able to supplement listening by lip-reading.

We can correct their some hearing problems through speech training using reinforced drill and
practice. We should also send them for medical check-up.

4. Role of teacher for the special child of low mental ability:

Every teacher can find special children of low mental ability in his/her class. To bring them at level
with a normal child we, as a teacher should provide them concrete experience. These special
children require repetition and more practice than the normal students.

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We can present learning tasks in small steps. We should give them a feeling of success by asking
simple questions. We should provide immediate feedback or reward for these kinds of students.
We should give them training also in communication skills.

5. Role of the teacher for special child of learning disability:

To bring them at a level with a normal child, teacher should provide them help in areas of their
disability. We as a teacher should adopt suitable teaching strategies to support their learning.

We should not criticize these kinds of students. Teacher should diagnose their problematic areas
and then organise extra classes to solve their problems.

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Q. Characteristics of Physically challenged Children
There are many children who are born with physical disabilities.
However, the disabilities do not have to limit their life or natural talents if they are supported and
encouraged correctly. Although physically handicapped children do have to endure certain
challenges, they are capable of fulfilling their dreams by learning how to adapt and adjust to certain
situations instead of giving up.

Physical Limitations
Physically handicapped children are all challenged with physical limitations to some degree.
Many physically handicapped children suffer from a lack of coordination, weak muscles, stiff
muscles, or no muscle strength at all.

Rehabilitation and physical therapy can greatly assist physically handicap children in lessening and
even resolving the handicap over time.
All of the necessary equipment and safety measures should be taken in order to allow the child to
be as mobile and independent as possible.

Emotional Challenges
It is important for parents, family members, friends, and teachers to monitor a physically disabled
child's emotional state. At times, physical limitations can lead to frustration, anger and sadness. The
emotional outlook of the child is often directly impacted by the level of support and
encouragement that is received from the people around him. It is important for physically disabled
children to have people that they can talk to openly in order to discuss, understand, and resolve
emotional issues. In some cases, it is beneficial for the child to see a therapist or enroll in a therapy
program with animals or physical activities that increase his confidence.

Learning Abilities
Although some children with physical disabilities also have mental disabilities many children are
mentally strong and just as capable as any other child.
It is important that parents and teachers encourage physically handicapped children to excel in
school and discover their individual talents and strengths.
The Twice Gifted website explains that with the correct support and encouragement physically
handicapped children can succeed in school and even surpass other classmates. Parents and
teachers must recognize the gifts of the child and not limit them mentally because of physical
disabilities.

Difficulty in sitting, standing, walking

Poor motor control

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Shaky movements
Difficulty in picking, holding and putting things.

Characteristics
Physically handicapped students generally have average or above average intelligence. Dykes
(1984-85) suggest 85% of health impaired and 35% of orthopaedically handicapped children are
served in special schools or classes. Often their needs vary. The greater needs of the physically
handicapped children are in the areas of adaptive equipments. Often they require wheel chairs,
crutches, head pointers, arm and leg braces. Technological gap has narrowed down the gap in
providing adequate educational instruction to students who cannot speak move or use hands.
Physically handicapped children are passive, less persistent having shorter attention span, engage
them in less exploration and display less motivation. They are more dependent on adults, and
interact less with peers. Facilitating independence and building self esteem are the two
requirements for the physically handicapped children.
The physically disabled has poor body image, high anxiety, and frustration. They are found to be
quiet, conforming, tender minded and somewhat tense. Social relationships constitute a problem
area for many crippled youngsters. Their capacity for frustration tolerance is lower than normal
children.
Difficulties of orthopaedically handicapped arise out of several factors. Essentially children with
motor disabilities are not very different from normal boys and girls. Their handicap arises out of
three factors:
a. Society‟s attitude towards them.
b. Child‟s interpretation of this reaction to his limitation.
c. Discrepancy between aspiration and achievement.

Because of neurological impairment and experimental impoverishment they do show perceptual

difficulties.
Intelligence of the orthopedically handicapped children does not basically differ from those of
normal except for cerebral palsy. The neuro- muscularly impaired children function 10 to 15 points
between estimated intelligence. Children with cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, and
hydrocephalic are included in the dull normal classification while other children with the orthopedic
disability are within the normal range.

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Q. THE MENTALLY RETARDED CHILD:
The American Association of Mental Deficiency states that mental retardation exists when there is
significant sub average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficit in adaptive
behaviour and is manifested during the developmental period. This means that people classified as
mentally retarded can range from those who can be trained to work and function with little special
attention to those who are virtually unattainable and do not develop speech and the rest of the
motor functions.

There are four levels of mental retardation. They are:

1. Mild Mental Retardation ( IQ 50-70)
This is the largest group of people comprising of 80% retarded population. They are „educable‟ and
do not show the signs of brain pathology or other physical defects. Their retardation, therefore, is
not identified, at times, even after reaching school, although their early development is often
slower than the normal. It can become apparent only when the child starts lagging behind the peers
in school work. With early detection, parental assistance and appropriate training, these students
can reach a third to sixth grade educational level.
Although they cannot carry out complex intellectual tasks, they are able to take up manual jobs and
jobs involving inferior skills and function quite successfully and independently and become self
supporting citizens.

2. Moderate Mental Retardation (IQ 35-49)

This group consists of about 12% of retarded population. These are „trainable‟ and their
retardation is evident early in their lives. They are slow to develop language skills and their motor
development is also affected. Some of these students could be taught to read and write and speak
some broken language. Physically, they are clumsy and suffer from poor motor coordination.

3. Severe Mental Retardation( IQ 20 -34)

This is the group of „dependent retarded‟ consisting of 7% of retarded population. These are the
children with severe problems of speech retardation and sensory defects and motor handicaps are
common.

4. Profound Mental Retardation (IQ under 20)

They belong to the category of „life support mental retardation‟ consisting of 1% of the retarded
population. Most of these are severely deficient in adaptive behaviors and unable to master even
the simplest of tasks. Severe physical deformities along with convulsive seizures, mutism, deafness
and other problems are common. Such a person has a very short life expectancy.

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Causes of Mental Retardation:
Biological Causes
In about 25 % to 35 % of the cases, of mental retardation, there is a known biological cause. The
most frequent being the presence of an extra chromosome causing Down‟s syndrome. The
frequency of this disorder increases with the increasing age of the mother.
A birth complication like inadequate supply of oxygen to the brain is another major cause of
biological mental retardation.

Many cases of mental retardation are classified as „familial retardation‟ where there is no known
biological cause, but there is a family history of retardation.
Cretinism is retardation due to endocrine imbalance like failed thyroid or degeneration of thyroid.

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Q. CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED CHILDREN?
Characteristics:-
1. Physical

(i) They are physically sound and rather better than the normal children.
(ii) Their faces are usually bright.
(iii) They possess vigour and vitality.

2. Intelligence
(i) Their intelligence is high.
(ii) Their 'g' factor of intelligence is very strong.
(iii) Some have a very strong group factor or V factor.

3. Inquisitive Nature
They are extremely inquisitive, and quick in understanding.

4. Varied Interests

(i) Their interests are more varied than those of normal children.
(ii) A gifted child of eight may read novels, write long essays, and study such subjects as history,
geography, astronomy, grammar, physics and music.

5. Superiority in Academic Work

(i) They are characterized by general superiority in academic work.
(ii) Even in the elementary school, they do their best work on tests of reading and language even
they learn to read before entering school.

6. Well Adjusted
As regards character and personality traits they are well-adjusted. Terman states, "Even in
leadership and social adaptability traits in which gifted children are thought to be especially
deficient, most studies show gifted children to be somewhat superior to children of the general
school population."

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED/CREATIVE CHILDREN
1. High sensitivity
2. Excessive amounts of energy.

3. Bores easily and may appear to have a short attention span.

4. Requires emotionally stable and secure adults around him/her.
5. Will resist authority if it not democratically oriented.
6. Have preferred ways of learning; particularly in reading and mathematics.

7. May become easily frustrated because of his/her big ideas and not having the resources or
people to assist him/her in carrying these tasks to fruition.
8. Learns from an exploratory level and resists rote memory and just being a listener.
9. Cannot sit still unless absorbed in something of his/her own interest.

10. Very compassionate and has many fears such as death and loss of loved ones.
11. If they experience failure early, may give up and develop permanent learning blocks.
Gifted children may also withdraw when they feel threatened or alienated and may sacrifice their
creativity in order to "belong". Many children that we test exhibit a high IQ, but they often exhibit
"frozen" creativity as well. Often there is an ability to express their feelings initially. We work to
assist the child to become open, flexible and to be able to accept failure by developing higher
frustration levels.

Some other Characteristics of Creative Children

1. Have active imagination

2. Is emotionally sensitive
3. Generate what if questions
4. Experiments with ideas

5. Is a nonconformist, uninhibited in expression, adventurous

6. Is a risk taker
7. Comfortable not having the correct answer
8. Construct jokes, clever plays on words, ironic observations

Different Approaches to Creativity:-

a) Creativity in terms of process

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b) Creativity in terms of product
c) Creativity in terms of mental abilities
d) Creativity in terms of characteristics of a person Identification of Creative Children:-

Testing techniques:-
1. Guilford and Merrifield test of creativity
2. Torrance Minnesota Test of creative thinking

3. Passi’s battery of creativity tests

4. Baquer Mehdi’s verbal and non-verbal test of creative thinking

Non-testing techniques:-

1. Observation
2. Situational techniques
3. Rating scales
4. Check lists
5. Aptitude tests

6. Interview
7. Personality inventories
8. Projective techniques

Participation in various activities:-

1. Identifying children with academic ability
2. Identifying children with artistic talents
3. Identifying children with mechanical ability

4. Identifying children with scientific ability

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Q. Slow learner students
Definition:
“A slow-learning child is one whose capacity for learning the kind of material which is taught in the
ordinary school is limited by some deficit in intellectual capacity. Limited intelligence, however, this
may be defined, is the chief characteristic of the ‘Slow learner’ ”. “Slow learners are children who
are doing poorly in school, yet are not eligible for special education; their intelligence test scores
are too high for consideration as a child with mental retardation”

Although slow learners may have special educational needs, they do not fit neatly into the special
education system (MacMillan, Gresham, Bocian, &Lambros, 1998).

Who are the slow-learners?

1) Slow-learners are those who fail in school because of their low intellectual abilities.
2) Their IQ ranges from 55 / 60 to 85 / 90.
3) They have a wide range of abilities and a variety of characteristics depending on their
background.
4) A slow learner is one whose performance is very dismal in the examination.

5) He is neither mentally retarded nor is on the lower rungs of intelligence scale.

The reasons for some students learning slowly are innumerable.

1) One of the main reasons is the `no detention system' at the primary and upper primary level.

2) Students are promoted to higher classes on the basis of attendance, even if they score low
marks.
3) The heterogeneous composition (mental age & physical age) of overcrowded classes in all
government run schools and private schools also produces slow learners.
4) So the incapacity of the teacher to pay individual attention to a student over a long period makes
a student a slow learner.
5) A slow learner is thus a product of negligence of school at different stages of learning, in spite of
his innate capacity to learn.

6) There are some problems very specific to the individual.

7) Health, lack of concentration, less exposure to the subject taught and parental background are
some causative factors for slow learning. Talents differ.

Characteristics of slow learner:

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1. Limited intelligence is the main characteristic of the ‘Slow learner’.
2. In physical appearance they are no different from normal children and therefore likely to get
admission into schools for normal children where the curriculum is drawn up to meet the needs of
average children. So they find it extremely difficult to cope with the education imparted in these
schools, unless special provision is made for them and the curriculum is oriented towards practical
and real life activities.
3. They are capable of being educated in ordinary schools and even achieving a moderate degree of
success, if they are allowed to proceed at a slower pace and the syllabus is adapted to suit their
abilities.
4. But, they will not be able to keep pace with the average children and never be able to learn all
the things we expect normal children to master by the time they leave school.
5. They will not be able to go for higher studies despite all the guidance and educational facilities
made available to them.
6. They have poor memories. Their attention span is short and they cannot concentrate on one
topic for long.
7. They do not easily master skills that are academic in nature, such as the times tables or spelling
rules.
8. Perhaps the most frustrating trait is their inability to have long-term goals. They live in the
present, and so have significant problems with time management probably due to a short attention
span and poor concentration skills.

9. Slow learners are frequently immature in their relations with others and do poorly in school.
10. Secondly, they cannot do complex problems and work very slowly.
11. They lose track of time and cannot transfer what they have learned from one task to another
well.

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Q. Characteristics of a Student with Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are associated with problems in listening, reasoning, memory, attention,
selecting and focusing on relevant stimuli, and the perception and processing of visual and/or
auditory information.
These perceptual and cognitive processing difficulties are assumed to be the underlying reason why
students with learning disabilities experience one or more of the following characteristics: reading
problems, deficits in written language, underachievement in math, poor social skills, attention
deficits and hyperactivity, and behavioural problems.

Reading Problems
Difficulty with reading is by far the most common characteristic of students with learning
disabilities. It is estimated that 90% of all children identified as learning disabled are referred for
special education services because of reading problems Evidence suggests that specific reading
disability, also called dyslexia, is a persistent deficit, not simply a developmental lag in linguistic or
basic reading skills. Children who fail to learn to read by the first grade tend to fall farther and
farther behind their peers, not only in reading but in general academic achievement as well. Many
children and adults with dyslexia show a significant deficit in visual naming speed (the ability to
rapidly name visually presented stimuli) compared to a typical reader. The inability to rapidly
identify words impairs comprehension in at least two ways.
First, faster readers encounter more words and idea units, thereby having the opportunity to
comprehend more.
Second, assuming that both word recognition and comprehension consume finite cognitive
processing resources, a struggling reader who devotes more processing resources to identify words
has “fewer cognitive processing resources available for comprehension.
The less efficient word reading of students with reading disabilities overloads working memory and
undermines reading comprehension”

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Q. Characteristics of Visually impaired (challenged) student.

Their characteristics are varied according to different degrees of visual loss, different types of visual
loss and different causes of visual impairment. However, they may exhibit the following behaviors:
1) They like to view objects closely.
2) They like to position themselves near to the light source, e.g. window, lamp, or bright objects.

3) They find it difficult to judge the distances of objects relative to their body accurately. They lack
in depth perception.
4) They tend to rely on tactual senses. They won't use their residual vision spontaneously, and they
won't rely on visual senses alone.

5) Other characteristics: e.g. color vision problems, squint, visual field defect, accommodation
problem, nystagmus and poor visual acuity, depending on the cause and effect of the visual
impairment.

The objectives of the education of visually impaired children are:

(1) To develop the physical, mental and social potentials of these children to the full.
(2) To develop independence, self-reliance and competence in these children.
(3) To develop life adjustment and self-care skills in these children so that they can become well-
adjusted and independent individuals in society.

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Q. Teacher’s role in Teaching of hearing impaired student in class.
1) Pre-teach specific language and concepts required to ensure the student has the required prior
knowledge for the activity.
2) Gain the student's attention before you give instructions.
3) Ensure that you are clearly visible to the student at all times.
4) Keep your hands and other objects away from your face while speaking.

5) Use normal clear speech.

Do not exaggerate your speech.
6) Avoid speaking while facing the blackboard.
7) Avoid moving around the classroom while speaking.

8) Communicate clearly. Repeat and rephrase when necessary.

Emphasise key words.
9) Use a focusing phrase e.g. "listen to this question".
10) Check for understanding by asking the student to tell you what they need to do or repeat what
they heard.

11) Use buddies to help relay and rephrase information.

12) Give students time to look at visual aids before talking to the aid so that the student with a
hearing impairment has time to shift their attention from the visual to the auditory.
13) Use visual aids such as word webs and semantic maps and concrete examples to illustrate the
links between information.
14) Provide an outline of what is to be learnt, focus on key concepts and opportunities to practise
and demonstrate competence in a number of ways.
15) Increase opportunities to practise new skills and concepts - teaching a younger child;
demonstrating to other adults in the school; practising on the computer with a peer.
16) Utilise available human resources - peer tutoring, teacher aides, special educators, therapy
services, interpreters, notetakers.
17) Encourage class members to use sign language with the student if needed.

18) Teach routines, expectations of behavior and consequences explicitly.

19) Display routines visually using timetables or calendars of upcoming events.
20) Explain sudden changes of routine so students know what is going on around them.

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Q. Inclusive Education

Introduction

Inclusive education is concerned with removing all barriers to learning, and with participation of all
learners vulnerable to exclusion and marginalization. It is a strategic approach designed to facilitate
learning success for all children.

The National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE)

(2000), brought out by the NCERT, recommended inclusive schools for all without specific reference
to pupils with Special Education Needs as a way of providing quality education to all learners
According to National Curriculum Framework for School Education NCFSE:

Segregation or isolation is good neither for learners with disabilities nor for general learners
without disabilities. Societal requirement is that learners with special needs should be educated
along with other learners in inclusive schools, which are cost effective and have sound pedagogical
practices (NCERT, 2000)
The National Curriculum Framework for School Education also recommended definitive action at
the level of curriculum makers, teachers, writers of teaching–learning materials, and evaluation
experts for the success of this strategy.

Concept

Inclusive education means all learners, young people—with or without disabilities being able to
learn together in ordinary preschool provisions, schools, and community educational settings with
appropriate network of support services.
Inclusion means the process of educating children with Special

Education Needs alongside their peers in mainstream schools.

Needs
Benefits of Inclusion for Students without Special Needs

The benefits of inclusion for students with Special Education Needs are as follows:
1) Spending the school day alongside classmates who do not have disabilities provides many
opportunities for social interaction that would not be available in segregated settings.
2) Children with Special Education Needs have appropriate models of behavior. They can observe
and imitate the socially acceptable behavior of the students without special education needs.

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3) Teachers often develop higher standards of performance for students with special education
needs.
4) Both general and special educators in inclusive settings expect appropriate conduct from all
students.
5) Students with SPECIAL EDUCATION NEEDS are taught age- appropriate, functional components of
academic content, which may never be part of the curriculum in segregated settings (for
example,the sciences, social studies, etc.).

6) Attending inclusive schools increases the probability that students with special education needs
will continue to participate in a variety of integrated settings throughout their lives (Ryndak and
Alper, 1996).

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Q: - What is the Teacher's Advantage in Knowing Individual Differences

The objective of modern education is the complete development of the child. In this connection,
the teacher has the following advantage to derive from knowledge of individual differences:
1. This can help him to form the proper attitude towards the brilliant and the dull-witted students.
It is only too evident that very good results cannot be expected from dull-witted or mediocre
students.

2. Any effort to bring all or a majority of the students in the class to the same level is futile since
some 50 or odd percentage of them will in variably remain below this level.
3. Improvements in atmosphere, method of teaching, and the apparatus of education cannot lead
to the satisfactory teaching of all students since their individual ability to learn differs widely.

4. Knowing the presence of individual differences the teacher is not perturbed at the failure of
some of his students since such failure is only to be expected from below-average students.
5. The teacher does not come to expect successes that are impossible. Individual difference makes
it clear that all aspects of the personality are mutually related and to develop any one aspect it is
essential that all the aspects be developed.

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Q: - What are the Different Types of Individual Differences?

1. Average Intelligence:
Individuals are seen differing in considerable measure in respect of their general intelligence.
It is not possible to send to schools children with an intelligence quotient of below 50.
Children with intelligence quotients between 50 and 70 can learn only the very simplest tasks.

Even the small schools trouble children whose intelligence quotientvaries between 70 and 80.
Children between 75 and 90 I.Q. are considered morons and they have considerable difficulty in
progressing along with other children in their learning.
Generally, 40 to 60 per cent of the children in schools have I.Q.s.varying between 95 and 105, being
the children with average intelligence who form the basis for the formulation of the syllabus and
curriculum as well as the method of teaching.
Children who are either above or below this level of intelligencesrequire special educational
methods and conditions. Children with intelligence quotients varying between 115 and 120 are
considered brilliant or intelligent.

2. Special Abilities
During the junior high school as well as the college stage, the individual's differences in respect of
special abilities, in addition to the general intelligence, are also important since special professions
and specialized fields of vocation all need certain specific abilities.
Abilities of this kind are concerned with mental, artistic, personality or motor ability.

3. Differences of Background
In school the differences that the children exhibit is the outcome of their different families and their
communities. Attitudes towards education and authority differ in each family, culture and class.
Some of these attitudes are favorable while others are unfavorable to education.
Besides these attitudes, the child's emotional, social, aesthetic and moral development is
influenced by his family and the neighborhood.

4. Alacrity in Learning
Difference in the quickness or eagerness in learning is visible not only in children of different ages
but also among children in the same age group.

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This difference is dependent upon their maturity and educational background.
Differences in the eagerness of learning result in benefits accruing
from formal education.

5. Mental Age
Children of differing ages as well as children of the same age show differences in their respective
mental ages.

Generally speaking, all students studying in the same class differ according to their mental ages.
It has been observed that in the age of 6, differences in mental age range up to 5 years.
Mental age and education are intimately related. The child's level of education is determined
according to his mental age.

6. Motor Ability
The individual's movements of the hand and feet and other physical abilities are seen to be very
individual, as they do not resemble another's to any great extent.
Till the individual attains adulthood, his manual dexterity, rate of muscular movement and
resistance to fatigue develops continually.
In this manner, the same individual in different ages and different individuals in the same age group
manifest considerable differences in manual dexterity.

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Q. Meaning of individual differences
In education, even since the most ancient times, students have been differentiated on the basis of
age as difference in age levels entitles the children to differing levels of education.

As the child's age gradually increases, the subjects of his education can be made more complex and
difficult.
In addition to differences in age, another factor that was partly taken into consideration is the
difference in levels of intelligence.

Besides this, educational attainments were also considered to be important.

In this manner, during the ancient and the medieval periods, individual difference was believed to
be the capacity of attaining skills in a particular subject.
In modern schools, other kinds of skills and abilities, and peculiarities of personality in individuals
are also taken into consideration.
According to Skinner, "Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect
of the total personality." From this definition of individual differences it is evident that it
comprehends every aspect of the human personality, albeit all aspects that is in some manner
measurable.

Aspects of this nature can be many such as variability, conformity, difference in the rate of learning
and development of mutual relationship between the various characteristics of personality, etc. In
this manner, various individual differences of physical and mental development, nature, rate of
learning ability, specific abilities, interest and personality, etc.

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Q. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Each person reacts in his own way to social pressures. Personal differences in behavior may result
from biological differences-differences in physical strength, sensitivity, and endurance. They may
result from the rewards and punishments imposed by the parents and the type of behaviormodeled
by them. Even though he may not resemble them, a child shows the influences of his parents.
Each child is a unique individual and differs from every other and presents individual problems.
Individual differences among children are related to their developmental state at any time. The
developmental state refers on the one hand to the level of maturation and on the other to the
resultant of the process of growth and effects of experiences.
Beyond a unique biological inheritance and the specific ways in which the culture is transmitted,
the individual is shaped by particular experiences.
An illness with a long convalescence may provide satisfactions in being cared for and waited upon
that profoundly affect the personality structure.
Death of a parent may disrupt the usual identifications. Accidents, opportunities for heroism,
winning a contest, moving to another part of the country-countless such experiences are relevant
to development but are not predictable from the culture, although, of course, their effects are
partly determined by the culture.

Q. What are the Causes of Individual Differences?

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No two pupils are alike. They differ from each other in hundred and one respects.
They differ in:-
Age,

Sex,
Hereditary potential,
Multiple Intelligence
Achievement,

Interests,
Introvert and extrovert
Aptitudes,
Needs

Physical,
Social,
Emotional Intelligence
And developmental

If there are forty pupils in a class there are forty problems to solve, if the teacher wants to be
effective.
For example, one child may listen to the teacher's words of advice, the other may not be at all
hearing them: one may foe a hard worker, the other may be lazy and lethargic one may do the
home work quickly, the other may not submit it even after repeated warnings one may be
intelligent, the other may be mentally retarded.
The causes of individual differences are:

1. Difference in Growth Rate

Some children grow rapidly and some grow slowly. Some grow mentally at a faster rate, some at a
very slow rate. Some grow physically and mature early; some grow late. The different parts of the
organism grow at different rates. Each child has his own growth rate.

The result is the variety of ages that a child possesses. The different ages that a child as at one time
may be a chronological age, a mental age, an educational age, a social age, a dental age, a grip age,
an organism age and so on.
2. Difference in Socio-Economic Backgrounds

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Some of the differences are caused by differences in socio-economic backgrounds.
These differences are seen in pupils' reaction patterns.
Differences in socio-economic backgrounds may lead to differences in diet, cultural opportunities,
ideals, attitudes and adjective actions or in family behavior habits.

3. Interaction of Heredity and Environment

A large number of individual differences are caused by the interactive process of heredity and
environment.
To each child heredity provides a potential and the dynamic forces of environment act upon that a
potential in a different way.

4. Physiological Differences
The layman and the scientist both realize and recognize that differences exist among individuals in
the innate ability to learn.
Certain, a mongoloid or a micro cephalic do not learn with the facility of a normal individual.
It is a fact though it may not be obvious that among the pupils who appear to be normal, there are
also enormous differences in degrees of ability.
These differences are attributed to basic physiological differences.
A child who appears to be normal may be having any or some of these difficulties with the
consequent impairment of learning.

For example, visual difficulty, hearing difficulty, and other sensory difficulties like speech defects,
inattention and listlessness cause individual differences in learning.
Teachers must recognize that some of the individual differences arise because of basic physiological
differences. They must recognize that these differences exist and demand that teachers should not
force all children to learn at uniform rate.
When children begin to show indifference, failure, boredom inattention, tantrums, they indicate
through these symptoms that teachers are expecting too much or too little from them.
Pupils with sensory difficulties should be given differential treatment.

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Meaning

Emotional Intelligence, like General Intelligence is the product of one’s Heredity and its interaction
with his environmental forces. Emotional Intelligence has, in recent years, been popularized and
the research into its many components has multiplied. It is the latest development in
understanding the relation between reason and emotion. Emotional Intelligence is the single most
important factor in predicting success and other important factors like technical skills, specific
knowledge, mental abilities, physical fitness, physical appearance and interest in a particular type of
work, aspirations and career goals and life circumstances that either support or hinder performance

Definitions of Emotional Intelligence

Salovey and Mayor, “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”
It may be said that emotional intelligence is a unitary ability which is related to but independent of
standard, intelligence and helpful in knowing, feeling and judging emotions in close co-operation
with thinking process to behave in a proper way, for the ultimate realize of the happiness and
welfare of the self in true with others.

Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence

1. The ability to identify and understand emotions in oneself and others.

2. A fair degree of control over the expressions of emotions, so that one’s behavior builds and
supports good relationships and does not damage them.
3. The ability to be frank, honest and assertive while respecting and catering for the emotional
needs of those with whom one is communicating.
4. The choice of activities that are emotionally fulfilling.
5. The maintenance of a balance between all areas of one’s life (e.g. Home, work, friends, leisure
etc.)

6. It is the single most important factor for personal adjustments success in relationships and in job
performance.
7. It is different from general intelligence that usually measures cognitive functions such as
vocabulary, information for facts, short term memory, verbal reasoning and the ability to learn new
relationships.

8. It helps to predict academic performance, job performance and general adjustment in life.
9. It measures thirteen major facts of character which relate to success in life.

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10. It refers to the areas of emotional health, relational success and job performance.
A person will be termed emotionally intelligent in proportion if he is able to:
i) Identify and perceive various types of emotions in others (through face-reading, body language
and voice tone)
ii) Sense his own feelings and emotions
iii) Incorporate the perceived emotions in his thought (such as using his emotion, feelings in
analyzing, problem solving, decision making).

iv) Have proper understanding of the nature, intensity and outcomes of his emotions.
v) Exercise proper control and regulation over the expression and use of emotions in dealing with
self and others so as to promote harmony, prosperity and peace.

Role of the Teacher

For developing emotional intelligence among children, the teacher
should ask the following questions to himself.
i) Are children of your class allowed to make mistakes?
ii) Are they allowed to problem solving or they just forced to follow orders and memorize?

iii) Does the adult in charge help the child to identify and talk about his/her feelings?
iv) Are children encouraged to understand other people’s feelings?
v) Are they taught positive ways to manage stress?
vi) Are children held accountable for their actions? Are they educated about the possible
consequences of decisions they make?
vii) Are children allowed to freely state their concerns?
viii) Does the environment provide experiences that stretch the child” limits? Does class room
provide a comfortable, supportive atmosphere?

ix) Is the child’s performance evaluated without comparison to other children?

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Q: List out the method for helping in maintaining emotional balance

Educational implications of emotional development:

Usually children express many emotions link anger, fear, jealousy, affection, joy, pleasure, etc.
Positive emotions help the child to develop a positive outlook about life.

The allowing methods are offered to help children in maintaining emotional balance.

I) Fatigue:
Tired children are difficult to handle. Therefore, efforts may be made not to cause undue fatigue to
them.
Poor health:
Children in poor health are irritable. Hence the health of children should be properly looked after.
Association with emotional people:
Children imitate the behavior of year elder’s parents, teachers and other adults and peer groups.
Suitable examples should be presented by the elders.

Thwarted desires:
The more restrictions are imposed on the child, the lore revolting he becomes. This means that a
suitable disciplinary mechanism bold be evolved.

Unpreparedness:
A child shows emotional outbursts when he is faced it a strange situation or for which he is not
prepared. Proper training to ice such situations needs to be given gradually.

Expression of feelings:
Children should be helped to express their emotions la natural way.

They should be helped to develop a realistic understanding of tuitions that arouse unpleasantness.

Itself-control:

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Children should be helped to learn how to control their Feelings which may offend others. They
should be gradually directed to exercise more of self-control.

Counseling:
Counseling may be useful in cases of a highly disturb emotional state of the mind.
Q: Educational Implications of Social Development

(a) Social growth:

The social growth of children is a significant process.
This growth is too important to be ignored by the teacher and the parents Children's social
development affects their whole life, including their scholastic achievement. Hence the school
should try to provide adequate opportunities that are deemed to be favorable to the social growth
of the children.
It should create a healthy atmosphere in and outside the classroom.
The children will feel it convenient and desirable to develop satisfying social relations with others.

(b) Feeling of security:

A class teacher should aim at promoting a feeling o security in the minds of children. Each student
should be helped to develop healthy and desirable relations with classmates. He should be inspired
to participate in group activities in and out of the classroom.

(c) Knowledge full of utility:

Education should develop in the student useful knowledge, skills, and habits for successful and
effective social living. It is desirable for the teacher to import knowledge in an interesting and
stimulating manner

(d) Form of knowledge:

Merely bookish stuff is not enough. Instead of it, the teacher should bring out the social and
cultural implications of the various subjects taught in the classroom.

(e) Training:
In the same way the training of a student in a particular field is also socially essential. Students must
be motivated to take interest in a practical scientific mechanical as technical subject. Consequently
they will develop a taste for mastering useful skills in a particular practical subject.

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Such mastery and the allied technical skills are economically paying and socially very helpful. It
helps a student in making and maintaining desirable social relations throughout adult life. A teacher
should keep in mind this fact.

(f) Inculcation of Habits:

In a school, a student is able to acquire socially desirable habits and attitudes. It is observed that
different children react differently to the same classroom situation. Individual attention should be
paid to guide children effectively.
(i) The aggressive children must be taught the art of submission.
(ii) The sky children be given opportunities for self-assertion.
(iii) The delinquent child should be introduced to the desirability of respecting the law.

If the above said opportunities are forthcoming the child will have chance to develop into a socially
healthy adult.

(g) Activities:
There should be adequate provision of wider socio-cu/traffic activities.

Teachers should stimulate children to develop a keen interest in hobbies and in indoor and outdoor
recreation. In this connection it is found that group play and other organized recreational activities
play a vital role in the child's development.
Through these recreational activities the child's makes contacts with other children, student learns
to abide by the rules of the game, i.e. is trained in the art getting along with others cheerfully. The
students should be given the kinds of cultural and recreational programme which are est. suited to
their development level.
h) Organizations:

The clubs, camps, group and societies should be organized for maintaining the social health of
children. There should be provision of mall literary and social groups, screening of educational
films, drama, clubs, of scout groups, Girl Guide groups, camp fires, etc. These things gave
wholesome social diet for school children.

i) Guidance:
However activities of these organizations should not be entirely it he hands of children themselves.
Instead there should be judicious guidance, advice and direction of the programme by the teacher.
However sufficient liberty and freedom should be given to children to manage these group
organizations. It will give them great pleasure and satisfy their desire to direct their own affairs.

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Q. Role of Teachers, Parents and School for Adolescents

1, To have the proper knowledge of adolescent's psychology:

A teacher should have knowledge about adolescent's psychology.

I, What are the specific needs of adolescents?

II. What type of changes does taken place during this period? III. What are the problems faced by
the adolescent? How should they be treated?

2. Provide suitable environment for proper growth: Adolescence is the stage where maximum
growth takes place. They must be provided with balanced diet. They must be given knowledge of
health, personal hygiene, cleanliness, various diseases and their privation etc.

3. Rendering proper sex education: The rapid physiological changes the secretion of sex hormones,
the sudden of sex instincts – all necessitate the provision of adequate sex information and
education for adolescents.

4. Proper dealing with the adolescents:

They should not be under estimated.

5. Training of emotions and satisfaction of emotion needs: The age of adolescence is marked by
too much intensity, force, instability and immaturity of emotions. Their emotions should be
properly trained and diverted towards the constructive sides.

6. To take care of special interests of the students: The curriculum should provide the open choice
of various subjects and activities according to tasks and temperament of the adolescents.
7. Providing religious and moral education.
8. Provision for vocational education: The strong need of today is to provide job-oriented and
vocation based practical education for the adolescents.

128
9. Arranging guidance services.

129
Q: The Role of a Teacher / school in Facilitating Development of Children

The teacher or the school has a major role in facilitating the overall development of children once
they are enrolled in the school.
Educational Implications of Physical Development:
The bodily or physical health of children is indispensable for their success and efficiency in all fields
of life. The psychologists have reiterated that this aspect of development should be paid the
attention by all those persons who deal with the education and welfare of the children.
For this purpose, the school must have a regular programme of health education. Adequate
facilities for liberal
Participation in sport and games and other physical exercises appropriate to the level of growth
should be provided to the students.
We should give them practical information concerning physical growth, personal hygiene, food
habits, etc. It is hoped that a brief, interesting and easily understandable task, introducing them to
various development stages, would certainly help them to form a correct picture in their own minds
regarding their own changing selves and their roles in life.

This may also serve as safeguard against the possibility of their developing irrational worries
regarding abrupt development taking place in their bodies. A teacher can successfully accomplish
this task if he has a sound knowledge of the physical development of children.
With the increased rate of physical change consequent to the transition from one phase of
development to another, their behaviour and attitudes are also bound to change. We realize the
varying treatment, suitable to the physical growth level, is needed by children.
It is found that the upper primary, secondary and senior secondary students are very tender
physically. This is the reason why they need affection and tender treatment in the classroom.
Developing children must not be rashly stuffed with bookish learning.
Instead of it, their educational programme should include a combination of varied activities in and
out of the classroom.
Adolescents are in need of sympathetic understanding and friendliness. They are often found
clumsy, awkward, aggressive and often violent.
Jet must be remembered that physical health is the basis of all development. The all-round and
healthy development of children is exceedingly dependent upon healthy physical growth. Children
who have a feeling that they are physically fit are favorably affected by this internal picturing of
themselves.

They are most likely to develop confidence and a will to improve further. On the other hand,
children suffering from a feeling that there is something wrong somewhere in their bodies have less
chance to approach life confidently and to make any substantial achievement.

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A teacher should therefore make efforts to promote a sense of well- being in the children by
developing an interest among them in the physical culture programmers of the school. He should
promote the development of positive and healthy feelings in children regarding the present state of
their physical health.
Taking care of physical health of the children at the school leave is the first and foremost function
of the physical health instructor and the gymnastics and sports teacher.

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Q. Role of the teacher in solving problems and proper physical, mental, emotional and social
development of the adolescent:

1. Proper Physical Development

The teacher should plan for this aspect in the following manner:
(a) By organizing various types of physical exercises, sports and games,

(b) By imparting a proper knowledge about physical and health education.

(c) By organizing various types of extracurricular activities.

2. Proper Mental Development

The mental development of the adolescent should be according to the following lines:
(a) It should be according to the ability and aptitude of the pupils.
(b) They should study both arts and science subjects.
(c) Excursions to various places may be organized.
(d) Modern methods of teaching should be used to teach various subjects.

(e) All the school teachers should try to impart him necessary guidance as and when required.
(f) They should be entrusted with responsibility so as to develop a feeling of responsibility in them.
(g) The teacher should keep in view that there are individual differences among students. Every
child should be able to find out subjects of his choice.

3. Proper Emotional Development

The emotional development of the adolescent should be as follows:
(a) The teacher should try to sublimate the lower emotions of the child.
(b) A healthy emotional atmosphere should be maintained in the school.

(c) The teacher should try to avoid frustration among the adolescents.
(d) The teacher should pay due regard to the personality of every child.
(e) The adolescent should be imparted proper knowledge about sex. If this aspect is properly
attended to it would lead to a better emotional development.

4. Proper Social Development

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The social development of the adolescent may be as follows:
(a) He should have knowledge about social relations and he should know the art of group-living.
Various group activities may be organized.

(b) A right and rational attitude towards democracy should be developed in the school atmosphere.
This would enable the child to develop his own philosophy of life.
(c) The Kothari Commission has emphasized the instruction of moral and spiritual values. We should
try to impart a right and rational knowledge of various religions to the adolescent.

Q. Characteristics of Adolescent Stage of Growth

The term adolescence is derived from the Latin word Adolescence, which means to grow to
maturity. It is a critical stage of development which lies between later childhood and maturity,
emerging from childhood and merging into adulthood.
During this period of development great physical and mental changes occur. Therefore, the stage of
development is a period of uncertainly when everything is in ferment.
Stanley Hall defined adolescence as "a period of great strain, stress and storm and strife".
Adolescence in not a sudden spurt of growth the new traits and tendencies do not appear
suddenly.
No individual sleeps at night as a child to get up as an adolescent in the morning.
Growth comes in continuity.
There is a continuity of development from infancy to early childhood, from early childhood to later
childhood and then to adolescence.

No two stages in the development are clearly marked off.

Even the adolescent himself does not feel any sudden change.
Endocrine glands were already working but they are more active now.

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However, sex glands now are active. This is a significant change in this stage and it affects the whole
organism.
Time at the Advent of Adolescence and Duration

The physical signs of adolescence occur between the ages of 12 and 18 in India.
But there are differences due to sex, climate, race and individual constitution. Generally boys grow
to be adolescent in their thirteenth year while the girls in their twelfth year.
The individual differences are always there. The duration of adolescence ranges between five and
eight years.
Physical Characteristics of the Stage
1. Rapid growth.
2. Growth not uniform and proportionate.

3. Different rate of growth of boys and girls.

4. Increase in modern activities.
5. Sense of clumsiness.
6. More significant growth of reproductive organs.

Mental, Moral and Emotional Characteristics

1. Sex-consciousness.
2. Self-consciousness.
3. Imaginative Activity.

4. Development of Special Intellectual Interests.

5. Contrasting Mental Moods.
6. Revolt to Authority.
7. Moral Awakening-No Acceptance of Sermons without critical evaluation.

Problems of the stage of adolescent

The adolescent is a problem-individual.
There are many problems around him and he needs help and guidance for their solution at every
step.
The following problems are the most significant in this stage.

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1. Excessive Energy:
Adolescence is the stage of excessive energy.
In-take of food is increased in this stage and general health is also improved. The result is excessive
energy.
The adolescent needs more activity for catharsis of excessive energy.
Consequently, the adolescent is restless.
Various activities act as sublimation for the adolescents and they feel relieved.

2. Misunderstandings Concerning Sex

With the advent of adolescence the gonads come into activity for the first time.
The appearance of secondary sexual characteristics is due to the same.

They produce emotional upheaval in the adolescent.

The first appearance of menstrual course or nocturnal emission bewilders and shocks the
adolescent who is quite ignorant about it.
The school should supply right kind of information regarding sex at this stage.
Due to ignorance about sex, many promising personalities are doomed.

3. Aggressiveness or Withdrawal
When an adolescent cannot adjust himself with the world, he grows to be aggressive or withdraws
from the field and his personality is arrested.

If the conflict is too serious, he regresses.

The school should provide ample opportunities to the children to express themselves properly.
Co curricular activities, scouting student self-government and changed methods of instruction can
go a long way in enabling the adolescent to adjust him with the world.

4. Rebellious Attitude
The adolescents are no more children. They should be recognized as young men and women in the
school as well as in the home.

Their craving for independence should be satisfied to some extent.

They should be given some responsibility.
They turn to be very obedient if they are trusted.

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Their sense of independence and responsibility is seldom recognized.
The result is rebellion against authority.

5. Physical Awkwardness
Most of the adolescents have the feeling of physical clumsiness.
Consequently their movements stand to be awkward and unbalanced.
They may be corrected in the playground and on the stage. Games and dancing will give them
harmonious and balanced movements.
Social service at the occasion of festivals etc. and practical work can help the children in this
respect.

6. Excessive Day-Dreaming
Day-dreaming is normal at this stage but when it grows too excessive it may be injurious as far as
development of personality is concerned.
The teacher should note that the adolescents are active and busy in their studies and other aspects
of school life.

The children indulging in excessive day dreaming should been couraged to be constructive and
creative.

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Q. Growth and Development of a Child at different stages?
Physical development means growing in height, weight and body proportions. Parents and teachers
are aware that children grow taller and heavier and stronger every day.
The growth in body is very rapid in early years, particularly from the birth to the age of two.

Then the growth slows down till it again becomes rapid with the coming of puberty, the stage of
maturity both in boys and girls.
Educationists and psychologists have studied that physical growth and development come under
four distinct periods. Two are characterized by slow growth, while two other by rapid growth.

These periods can be differentiated as follows:

1. The pre-natal period,
2. The Stage of Infancy and Babyhood, (0-2 years)
3. The Childhood-Early and Late Childhood, (2-6, 6-12 years)

4. The period of Adolescence, this leads to adulthood. (12-18 years)

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The Prenatal period
This is the first developmental period in the life span of any individual.
This period is nine calendar months or ten lunar months.

This period of growth and development takes place in the body of the mother before the birth of
the child.
The word-"natal" is an adjective connected with birth.
Since the period of growth and development occurs before the child- birth, it is called prenatal
development.
During this pre-natal period the human organism passes through three general stages:

Germinal, embryonic and fetal

The term germinal is applied to egg-like organization. This exists in the mother's womb for about
two weeks after the union of female ovum with the male spermatozoon. This union, in the
language of physiology, is called conception. In this union, the ovum is fertilized by millions or
billions of cell divisions.
After a continuous process of 270 or 280 days the new born baby comes out.

By the 8th week of development it is known as embryonic stage.

Now the structure displayed human characteristics.
From the 8th week to birth, the development is known as fetal stage.
Now it is called human fetus. This has grown after the conception and now, continues to develop
human structure and organs.
After birth, the new born sees the light of the world and grows and develops into a human being.
They start the post-natal period of the child.
It is really, a wonder, as to how this microscopic single cell ovum becomes a seven or eight pound
baby with arms and legs, a large number of bones and all other internal complex organs.
A one-celled fertilized ovum has a supply of nourishment and proceeds to grow and divide into two
cells, four, and eight and so on, up to an enormous number of cells.
All this descend from the same union of the male and female cells.

Stage of Infancy and Babyhood:

Infancy is the beginning or the early period of existence of the newborn.
It is now a separate individual and not a parasitic- in the mother's body.

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Infancy is the shortest of all developmental periods.
It begins with birth and continues till the infant is two-week old.
During this period the infant makes adjustments to the new environment outside the mother's
body.
The rapid growth and development which took place during the prenatal period suddenly came to a
stop with birth.
There comes a halt in growth and development till it adjusts to the post-natal environment.

It continues for a period of two weeks.

Once these adjustments have been made, infants again resume their growth and development.
It is a fact that some infants are born prematurely.
This means some children take birth before the scheduled period of time, while some others take
birth post-maturely.
So it is obvious that not all infants will show the same level of physical and mental development.
Malnutrition of the mother during pregnancy has been found to be responsible for premature
births and still births.
At birth, the average weight of an infant regardless of sex and race is 7 or 8 pounds.

Babyhood is the true foundation period of life of human beings.

Also babyhood is a period rapid growth and change.
Babies grow rapidly both physically and psychologically.
Babyhood is an age of decreasing dependency. In other words, rapid development of baby leads to
decrease in dependency on others.
Babyhood is one of the two periods of rapid growth during the life span of human beings.
The other period comes at puberty. The general pattern of growth and development is similar for
all babies.
There are variations in height, weight, sensory capacities and other areas of physical growth.
Some babies start life smaller in size and less developed than the normal.
This may be due to prematurely or to a poor physical condition resulting from maternal
malnutrition, stress and strain or some other unfavorable condition during the prenatal period.

As a result, such babies tend to fall behind their age-mates during the baby-hood years.
The Childhood Stage
Most people think of childhood as a fairly long period in the life span of a human being.

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To children, childhood often seems endless they wait for the prestige time which the grownups
enjoy in society.
Childhood begins when the relative dependency of babyhood is over.

Approximately, this period extends from the age of two years to

12years.
However the time when children become sexually mature, at the age of 13 years for the average
girl and 14 years for the average boy.

By the time the children become sexually mature, they are known as adolescents.
During long period of time-roughly 11 years for girls and 12 years for boys, marked changes take
place in the child, both physically and psychologically.
To-day it is widely recognized that childhood should be subdivided into two periods.—early and late
childhood.
Early Childhood
Growth during early childhood proceeds at a slow rate as compared with the rapid rate of growth in
babyhood stage.
Early childhood is a time of relatively even growth. Height, weight, body proportions, body build,
bones and muscles grow to make the child ready for adulthood.
Early childhood extends from 2 to 6 years of age and late childhood extends from 6 to 13 or 14
years of age.
Thus the early childhood begins at the conclusion of babyhood. It is the school-entrance age.

There is relatively little difference in the physical growth and development of children before and
after they are six years old.
Radically it makes little difference between five-year-old and seven- year old children.
Late childhood is also called stage of pre-adolescence.
The development of the child at this stage depends on his motor development. By motor
development, it is meant the development of strength, speed and precision in the use of one's
arms, legs and other body muscles. It is important because it has great bearing on child's emotional,
intellectual and social development.

Motor development takes place at a rapid pace during childhood.

Motor skills develop in the child from more generalized to more specialized form of activities. At
this stage, some left-handed could be made right-handed.
The Period of Adolescence
It cannot be said with accuracy as a when adolescence sets in.

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This is the period of maturity.
Generally, it is described that the teen-agers are the adolescents.
It is the most critical stage in the life span of human beings.

The boy of fourteen is characterized as "neither useful nor ornamental."

This is the period of maturity.
It is told that maturity marks the end of growth.
Growth of any organism from an immature to a mature state is called maturation.

In this period, child's legs and other muscles grow to size and strength sufficient for standing,
talking and running to the maximum.
His hands grow into excellent instruments for manipulating objects.
His teeth already present in rudimentary form grow for harder work.

His mouth and larynx grow into flexible speech organs.

His brain grows not only in size, but also in fineness to capably do its share in all human activities.

Q What is Microteaching?
The art of teaching is a complex process, which is not limited to transferring of knowledge from one
to another.

It requires good verbal and non-verbal skills. It includes various techniques in order to transfer
knowledge effectively. Not everyone can master it. With the vast growth in all sectors, effective
teaching skills are in great demand. It is a new innovative program for teachers, which enhances
their classroom attitude and behavior. Many pre-primary education institutes have taken up micro
teaching practices in order to equip teachers with effective method of teaching.

Underlying Principles of Micro teaching:

Micro teaching revolves around certain principles to improve its reach in all round development of
the teachers.
1. One skill at one time:

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In skills in microteaching are targeted one at a time. Training on particular skills are given until it is
mastered. Once mastered another skill is targeted next. Thus, micro teaching aims for one skill at a
time.

2. Small scale content:

Limiting the content gives more freedom and ease to the trainees. Thus, micro teaching is based
upon the principle of limited content. Teachers are to prepare their lessons within the given
content therefore it becomes easier for them to conduct their lessons.

3. Practice makes a man perfect:

Mastering skills require practice. While focusing on one skill at a time, micro teaching program also
gives an opportunity to practice those skills. Lots of practice can boost the self-confidence and
promote in development of teaching skills.

4. Experiments:
Experiments are the key factors in any concept. In micro teaching, many experiments are
conducted in order to test the skills of the teachers.
For example, the supervisors conduct experiments where the length of the lessons, time duration,
strength of students in the class etc is changed. These skills are tested under controlled condition.

5. Instantaneous feedbacks:
Micro teaching consists of teacher-pupil and supervisor as students. Once a session ends, teacher-
pupil and supervisors come up with their feedback. This feedback is given instantly after the lesson
plan ends. Thus, it helps in rectifying the drawbacks.

6. Self-evaluation opportunities:
Evaluation plays an important role in any task. In micro teaching, supervisors conduct various test
and thus there are several chances to analyze mistakes.

Evaluation gives an opportunity to understand the mistake and overcome it. This program includes
a session where drawbacks are pointed out along with their solution. Thus, overall improvement
becomes an easier target.

7. Continuous efforts:

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Acquiring and mastering skills is a slow and ongoing process. Even after mastering a previous skill,
one should continually strive for betterment. Continuous efforts makes it easier to attain overall
development.

Concept of Micro teaching:

Micro-Teaching is a special teaching practice model or teaching training method. In this teaching
context, there contains many actions like use of methods, usage of media, learning guide,
motivation, classroom management, assessment, analyzing and so on.

The concept of microteaching is mainly based on the following points:

• Teaching in its real form but with a minimum concept

• The exercise which is designed focuses mosly on the basic teaching skills with the help of
feedback based on the knowledge and information of student learning level.
• The teaching is conducted for students who are from different backgrounds and their
intellectual abilities.
• Monitoring the micro teaching exercises conducted in classrooms Enabling the prospective
teachers to learn effective teaching skills.
• Helping the students to actively participate in teaching by providing low risk situation.
• It also offers opportunities for retaraianing at regular time intervals

Three Phases of Micro teaching:

1. Knowledge acquisition:
This is the first phase of micro teaching. It includes collection of data. In this phase, the trainee
teacher gathers knowledge about the required skills by reading different literature as well as going
through certain demonstrating videos.
Further, this phase includes the understanding of required skill in a rational manner, as a classroom
component.

2. Skill acquisition:
This is the working phase of micro teaching program. Under this phase the trainee teacher is asked
to prepare lessons and practice, skills based on the model presented at the start.

Here two factors are of major importance of micro teaching i.e. the feedback and the setting.
Setting includes the length of the lesson, the duration of the class, the skill to be obtained,
supervisor and the students.

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3. Transferring phase:
This is the last and major phase of micro-teaching. Here the trainee comes out in a real situation,
which is not controlled.

Here the teachers as well as the students get the platform to learn and grow. This takes place in a
real classroom, unlike the previous stages of micro teaching.

Principles of Educational Administration

Brief outlines of the six principles of educational administration are discussed in this article. The
principles are:
(1) Structural Democracy, (2) Operational Democracy (3) Justice
(4) Equality of Opportunity (5) Prudence (6) Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability.
1. Structural Democracy:

Being the first principle of educational administration in the modern era it puts stress on democracy
in structural perspective. It implies “the exercise of control” in democracy. The meaning of exercise
of control in this light should be such that, it helps the students as future citizens in fulfilling their
needs and requirements tending to their self-realization, safeguard the

This exercise of control refers to the meaning of democracy by treating each human being as, “a
living, growing and potentially flowering organism.” Hence in this principle of educational

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administration the educational administration has to practise the principles of democracy both in
structural and functional form.
In this regard and educational administrator will be a fittest one who can manage autocracy as and
when necessary to achieve the goals of an educational programme. For actualizing it he has to
perform his duty as democratically as possible.

2. Operational Democracy:

This principle of educational administration gives priority on the practical aspect of democracy as a
way of life and form of governance. To this, the essence of democracy is to give importance on the
dignity of every individual and assisting him to understand his self in this context this principle
considers democracy as a matter of spirit, way of life and a mode of behaviour. Keeping this in view
it is the task and responsibility of an educational administrator to focus on day to day happenings in
relation to democratic society in educational perspective that are relevant in wider extent.
Because this sort of democracy seeks to make democracy more practical rather than formal. For
example a school or an educational institution is regarded as the society in miniature or a small
society. It means the entire picture of the society has been reflected in the school. The same
situation lies in case of a democratic society like ours where people expect the school or
educational institution will do a lot for actualizing democracy as a matter of spirit, way of life and a
mode of behaviour practically.
In this light, it should be the function of the educational administrator to achieve it for which he
may take the view of the students, consult with the staffs, specialists, expects and community
members before taking any decision. This result in the emergence of a good and effective social
order by the school or educational institution as an agency of education. Overall speaking this type
of democracy as a principle of educational administration gives importance on practicability and
relevance of day to day happenings of democracy in relation to educational perspective so far its
administrative aspect is concerned.

3. Justice:

Generally speaking justice refers to provide every individual his due in the society by honoring his
individuality. This meaning of justice is the essence of democracy. As justice is one of the basic
hallmarks of democratic administration, it is regarded as an essential principle of educational
administrating which is democratic in form and practice. For practicing justice in educational
administration there is the need and essentiality of giving due reward and share to every individual
to his efforts and achievements.
Besides, every individual is to be given task or assignment in accordance with his needs,
requirements, abilities, aptitudes etc. Hence the educational administrators for practicing justice as
one of the principles of educational administration must be judicious while dealing with
employees, students and public. But in Practice it is not happening as the educational

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administrators very often arbitrarily exercise discretionary powers and too narrowly apply uniform
rules in one point.
And uniformity of rules in educational administration does not provide equality which is necessary
to safeguard the individuals in another point. This nature of the educational administrator goes
against the very essence of justice as it is to be free from such bias nature of them. Hence the
educational administrators have to reduce this tendency to minimum for making justice beneficial,
healthy and impartial in nature and approach as a principle of modern educational administration.

4. Equality of Opportunity:
One of the important social objective of education is to equalize opportunity or facility for enabling
the backward or under privileged classes and individuals to use education as a means for
improvement of their condition. In order to keep equality of opportunity in concrete shape in the
field of education, educational administration plays a vital role. For this greater emphasis should be
given on equality of educational opportunity for the sake of accelerating the process for building up
of on egalitarian human society in which the age old social exploitation will be reduced to
minimum.

The principle of uniformity is not to be practiced and maintained in the field of educational
administration as equality does not refer to uniformity. The cause is that opportunity means to
provide adequate facility or scope to every individual for his development.
In this context, the reasons for existence of inequalities of educational opportunities cited by the
Education Commission (1964-66) can be highlighted which must be stressed in the field of
educational administration.
These are:
(а) In equal distribution of educational institutions through out the country.

(b) Poverty of a large Section of the population and relative affluence of a small minority.
(c) Disparity between the education of boys and girls at all stages and in all sectors of education.
(d) Disparity of educational development between the advanced classes and the backward classes.
Every society that values social justice and anxious to improve a lot of common man and cultivate
all available talents, must ensure progressive equality of educational opportunity to all sections of
the population. In this context it should be the task of educational administration to make special
efforts for equalizing educational opportunities by reducing the above cited problems of it. As a
result, equality of opportunity in educational process will be practiced by educational
administration as one of its principles.

5. Prudence:

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Overall speaking prudence refers to thinking or planning or showing thought for future. Being
contextual in approach it can be said that the futuristic outlook, vision and forward looking must be
incorporated it the field of administration. Like general administration educational administration
has to practice the exercise of foresight skill and vision with respect to matters concerning practical
living and utility of the system of administration in future by the educational administrator.
This principle “Prudence” is closely related to intelligent economy which implies quality control. In
order to ensure quality control in the field of education, educational administration has to make
expenditure on education by accepting it as an investment on human resource. Because without
necessary expenditure on education there will be no question of quality in it and then what about
the matter of quality control?
It is evident from several studies that now in educational administration there lies a lot of wasteful
expenditure for which the system of check and balance is essential. The system of check and
balance is prudential in nature which seeks to protect an educational institution or organisation, an
enterprise from mis-behaviours and mis-appropriation by an official or authority as misuse of
power and funds that creates mischief.
It is known to one and all that misuse of power and money leads to the loss of public in general.
Hence like general administration in educational administration there is the necessity of the system
of “check and balance” to prevent such misuse. This will be done if educational administration
accepts it as its principle in real situation.
Those who are good sociable, democratic competent and welfare oriented educational
administrators liberty is granted for them.
Liberty is granted to them with not making the system of “check and balance” rigid. Because it is
essential to give freedom to the competent and delicate persons as educational administrators who
are in the interest of good administration.

They give a differential treatment to different students, staffs, officials and community members as
per their need remaining within the jurisdiction of educational administration. Besides an
educational administrator in order to prudential in nature and work must have simplicity,
understanding capacity democratic spirit and effective communication ability with him as
attributes.

6. Adaptability, Flexibility and Stability:

An institution must be able to adjust with changing situations by fulfilling the developing needs and
by improving its day-to-day dealings with persons or agencies involved. This characteristic of an
institution is called adaptability. In the process of achieving its educational objectives, it has to deal
differently with different human beings like teachers, parents and the public at large, who are
affected in one way or other by the process or its products. This tendency is called flexibility.
The educational institution however must be able to achieve adaptability without creating any
dislocation or disruption in its process and achievements. This property is named as stability. An

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institution must have these three characteristics in order to be able to achieve its objectives
adequately and to give due regard to all persons concerned in some way or other.
These three characteristics are dynamic, adaptability and flexibility are especially so. Stability,
however, is called as prudential check on the change which retains good in the old and gives up bad
in the new. Hence, careful evaluation of the old as well as the new is an essential feature of
stability.
Adaptability is concerned with acts of change and flexibility to a great extent to counteract with
uniformity and stability is mainly the counterweight to adaptability. Thus on the whole, adaptability
is the capacity of an enterprise to change, to develop and to improve. Flexibility is the capacity of an
institution to react in variance with persons and situations affected and to warn against the dangers
of uniformity.

Stability on the other hand is the capacity of an organisation to safeguard the merits of the old
while it is in the process of change.
Hence, all these three qualities of adaptability, flexibility and stability are complementary to each
other.

What is Pedagogy?
Pedagogy is defined simply as the method, and practice, of teaching. It encompasses teaching
styles, feedback and assessment, and teacher theory.

When people talk about the pedagogy of teaching, they will be referring to the way teachers deliver
the content of the curriculum to a class.

When a teacher plans a lesson, they will consider different ways to deliver the content. That
decision will be made based on their own teaching preferences, their experience, and the context
that they teach in.

What are the pedagogical approaches?

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The different pedagogical approaches could be broken down into four categories: behaviourism,
constructivism, social constructivism, and liberationist.

1. Behaviourism

A behaviourist pedagogy uses the theory of behaviourism to inform its approach. A behaviourist
pedagogical approach would say learning is teacher centred. It would advocate the use of direct
instruction, and lecture based lessons.

What does a behaviourism pedagogical approach look like in a classroom?

The theory of Behaviourism in a classroom setting came from pedagogical research by Thorndike
(1911), Pavlov (1927) and Skinner (1957). Behaviourist pedagogy is the theory that the teacher
should be the sole authority figure, and leads the lesson. Knowledge should be delivered in a
curriculum where each subject is taught discretely (as opposed to topic based learning, for
example).

In a lesson using a behaviourist pedagogical approach, you could expect to see a mixture of
lecturing, modelling and demonstration, rote learning, and choral repetition. All of these activities
are ‘visible’ and structured, as well as being led by the teacher. However, during the course of the
lesson, the shift may come where the student is the centre of the activity, and demonstrates their
learning.

2. Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory that people learn through experiences and reflection. A

Constructivist pedagogy puts the child at the centre of the learning, and is sometimes called
‘invisible pedagogy’. A constructivist approach would incorporate project work, inquiry based
learning, and might adopt a Montessori or Steiner method.

What does a constructivism pedagogical approach look like in a classroom?

Constructivism is based on the pedagogical research of Piaget (1896-1890). Piaget wrote
extensively about ‘schemas’, an idea that learners come ready to learn, and the teacher must build
activities to facilitate their learning. Younger children work things through physically, whereas older
children tackle symbolic and abstract ideas.

A lesson might include individualization, a slower pace, hidden outcomes, the mantle of the expert,
and less teacher talk. Some adopters of this pedagogy would also place emphasis on being
outdoors, and engaging with nature.

3. Social constructivism

A Social constructivism pedagogy could be considered to be a blend of two priorities: teacher

guided, and student centred. Cognitive psychologist, Lev Vygotsky developed social constructivism,

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building on the work of Piaget, but argued against the ideas of Piaget that learning could only
happen in its social context, and believed that learning was a collaborative process between
student and teacher.

What would a social constructivism approach look like in a lesson?

The teacher would use group work elements, but would use smaller group sizes, and limit the
choice in topics. The teacher might also use teacher modelling, questioning, and a mixture of
individual, pair, and whole class instruction.

4. Liberationism

Liberationism is a critical pedagogy developed by the Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire. Freire was
the Director of the Department of Education, and developed an approach of teaching where he was
able to teach illiterate adults to read in just 45 days. Freire focussed on removing the two barriers
to learning: poverty and hunger. Freire was then imprisoned following a military coup. Once he was
released, he wrote a book called 'Pedagogy of the Oppressed' where Freire wrote about the
dehumanisation of students in schools, and argued for cooperation and unity. A liberationist
approach is one where the student voice is placed at the centre, and a democracy is put into the
classroom. Value is placed on having the teacher as a learner, and the class discovering subjects
together.

What would a social constructivism approach look like in a lesson?

The teacher might use examples of literature that contain non-standard constructions, such as hip-
hop, or graffiti. Students may take on the role of the teacher, and decide upon the topic of the
lesson. The teacher should provide space and opportunity for the students to showcase their
learning, and this can take the form of a performance, speech, or dance.

What is the history of pedagogy?

The role of ‘teacher’ can be traced back to Ancient Greece, with Socrates in the 5th Century BC as
the keystone of what we now consider to be modern education.

The role of the teacher has developed from the days in Ancient Greece when the slaves would
accompany the children to school whilst their masters worked, and the profession of educator grew
from there.

Schools appeared in England as early as 597 AD, and it is generally believed that the first school in
England was King’s School in Canterbury, Kent. Like many of the first schools, King’s School had links
to the church, and today operates as a public school.

The content of the curriculum could be split into two sections: Trivium and Quadrivium. Trivium:
grammar, rhetoric, logic. Quadrivium: arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, music.

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Lessons took the form of a lecture, with a teacher leading the students whilst they read, explaining
the texts. Then the students were given questions that they argued through the answers amongst
themselves, then with opponents a little senior, before they finally engaged with the masters who
had taught them.

How did the first schools approach pedagogy?

By 1780, the church responded to the need to educate the illiterate, and Ragged Schools, Parish
Schools and Church schools educated those who didn’t have the money to send their children to
the fee paying schools.

Ragged schools started with large classes of 30-40 students, and were taught to read from the
Bible, often orally, as they couldn’t be trusted with books. The church schools tended to use the
‘Lancaster Method’ where the brightest student taught what they had learnt to his fellow students,
each of whom then passed it on, and continued until everyone had been taught.

In 1846, the church and the government started the first teacher training colleges, and graduates
were given a certificate of teaching. There was a Committee of Council of Education, and they
issued grants to day schools.

Teaching techniques and strategies

The classroom is a dynamic environment, bringing together students from different backgrounds
with various abilities and personalities. Being an effective teacher therefore requires the
implementation of creative and innovative teaching strategies in order to meet students’ individual
needs.

Whether you’ve been teaching two months or twenty years, it can be difficult to know which
teaching strategies will work best with your students. As a teacher there is no ‘one size fits all’
solution, so here is a range of effective teaching strategies you can use to inspire your classroom
practice.

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1. Visualization

Bring dull academic concepts to life with visual and practical learning experiences, helping your
students to understand how their schooling applies in the real-world.
Examples include using the interactive whiteboard to display photos, audio clips and videos, as well
as encouraging your students to get out of their seats with classroom experiments and local field
trips.

2. Cooperative learning

Encourage students of mixed abilities to work together by promoting small group or whole class
activities.

Through verbally expressing their ideas and responding to others your students will develop their
self-confidence, as well as enhance their communication and critical thinking skills which are vital
throughout life.

Solving mathematical puzzles, conducting scientific experiments and acting out short drama
sketches are just a few examples of how cooperative learning can be incorporated into classroom
lessons.

3. Inquiry-based instruction

Pose thought-provoking questions which inspire your students to think for themselves and become
more independent learners.
Encouraging students to ask questions and investigate their own ideas helps improve their
problem-solving skills as well as gain a deeper understanding of academic concepts. Both of which
are important life skills.

Inquiries can be science or math-based such as ‘why does my shadow change size?’ or ‘is the sum
of two odd numbers always an even number?’. However, they can also be subjective and
encourage students to express their unique views, e.g. ‘do poems have to rhyme?’ or ‘should all
students wear uniform?’.

4. Differentiation

Differentiate your teaching by allocating tasks based on students’ abilities, to ensure no one gets
left behind.
Assigning classroom activities according to students’ unique learning needs means individuals with
higher academic capabilities are stretched and those who are struggling get the appropriate
support.

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This can involve handing out worksheets that vary in complexity to different groups of students,
or setting up a range of work stations around the classroom which contain an assortment of tasks
for students to choose from.
Moreover, using an educational tool such as Quizalize can save you hours of time because it
automatically groups your students for you, so you can easily identify individual and whole class
learning gaps (click here to find out more).

5. Technology in the classroom

Incorporating technology into your teaching is a great way to actively engage your students,
especially as digital media surrounds young people in the 21st century.
Interactive whiteboards or mobile devices can be used to display images and videos, which helps
students visualize new academic concepts. Learning can become more interactive when technology
is used as students can physically engage during lessons as well as instantly research their ideas,
which develops autonomy.

Mobile devices, such as iPads and/or tablets, can be used in the classroom for students to record
results, take photos/videos or simply as a behaviour management technique. Plus,
incorporating educational programmes such as Quizalize into your lesson plans is also a great way
to make formative assessments fun and engaging.

6. Behaviour management

Implementing an effective behaviour management strategy is crucial to gain your students respect
and ensure students have an equal chance of reaching their full potential.
Noisy, disruptive classrooms do no encourage a productive learning environment, therefore
developing an atmosphere of mutual respect through a combination of discipline and reward can
be beneficial for both you and your students.

Examples include fun and interactive reward charts for younger students, where individuals move
up or down based on behaviour with the top student receiving a prize at the end of the
week. ‘Golden time’ can also work for students of all ages, with a choice of various activities such as
games or no homework in reward for their hard work.

7. Professional development

Engaging in regular professional development programmes is a great way to enhance teaching and
learning in your classroom.
With educational policies constantly changing it is extremely useful to attend events where you can
gain inspiration from other teachers and academics. It’s also a great excuse to get out of the
classroom and work alongside other teachers just like you!

Sessions can include learning about new educational technologies, online safety training, advice
on how to use your teaching assistant(s) and much more.

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Being an effective teacher is a challenge because every student is unique, however, by using a
combination of teaching strategies you can address students’ varying learning styles and academic
capabilities as well as make your classroom a dynamic and motivational environment for students.

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