Tropical Animal Health and Production, 37 (2005) 635–652

DOI: 10.1007/s11250-005-4253-8

C Springer 2005

Production Objectives and Management Strategies of

Livestock Keepers in South-East Kenya: Implications
for a Breeding Programme
J.M. Mwacharo1∗ and A.G. Drucker2
1
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Kiboko Research Centre, P.O. Box 12, Makindu
90138, Kenya; 2 International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
∗
Correspondence: E-mail: mwacharojoram@hotmail.com

Mwacharo, J.M. and Drucker, A.G., 2005. Production objectives and management strategies of livestock keepers
in south-east Kenya: implications for a breeding programme. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 37(8),
635–652

ABSTRACT

A survey of pastoralist and agropastoralist households in south-east Kenya was conducted to determine their
production objectives and management strategies in order to optimize and extend a breeding programme
for indigenous small East African Shorthorn Zebu cattle. The reasons for keeping cattle and the breed/trait
preferences identified reflect the multiple objectives of the livestock keepers, with both adaptive traits and
productive/reproductive traits rated as important. Although the Maasai and Kamba zebu (M&KZ) breeds were
ranked highly with regard to adaptive traits, the population is considered to have been in decline over recent
years. In order to promote the conservation and sustainable use of the M&KZ cattle, the formation of an
open nucleus breeding scheme is recommended. In particular, such a scheme would be able to address several
existing constraints (e.g. individual herds are very small and communal use of pastures/water makes controlled
mating difficult). Such interventions would require the full participation of the livestock keepers, as well as
ensuring that a holistic approach to species and breed attributes is taken into account in setting breeding goals,
such that the full array of contributions that livestock make to livelihoods and the genetic characteristics related
to these contributions are fully incorporated into the programme.

Keywords: breeding, livestock keeper preference, livestock management, zebu, Kenya

Abbreviations: CBPP, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia; DRSK, Dairy Recording Services of Kenya; ECF,
East coast fever; FMD, foot and mouth disease; KARI, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute; KES, Kenya
shilling(s); KSB, Kenya Stud Book; M&KS, Maasai and Kamba Zubu breeds; ONBS, open nucleus breeding
scheme; SEAZ, small East African Shorthorn Zebu

INTRODUCTION

Livestock form key components of the livelihood strategies of many of the world’s poorest
people. Livestock of different species fulfil different functions in the household economy and
poor families often keep a diversity of species for this reason (Anderson, 2003). Facilitating
increases in the productivity and production of such livestock is one of the major means
of improving the livelihoods of poor livestock keepers, reducing poverty, and attaining
sustainable agriculture and universal food security.
Genetic selection programmes, which are a part of the process of combining desirable
merits of breeds through crossing, are an important means of achieving such productivity
increases. Although crossbreeding with exotics has been the preferred form of genetic

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‘improvement’ by donor and extension agencies to date, significant potential also exists
to improve poor farmers’ livelihoods through indigenous breed-based breeding/selection
programmes.
Indigenous livestock breeds whose adaptive traits permit survival and reproduction un-
der the harsh climatic, nutritional and management conditions typically associated with
resource-poor livestock keepers have been shown to outperform crossbreeds under such
circumstances (for example, see Ayalew et al., 2003). Despite such potential, few examples
of breeding/selection programmes for indigenous breeds exist. One such example is the
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute’s (KARI) breeding unit for the small East African
shorthorn Zebu. This unit was established in 2001 to facilitate detailed breed characteriza-
tion, including performance evaluation. It also provides a basis for a breeding nucleus with
which to study the extent to which genetic improvement can be achieved in the herd and con-
sequently to support the improvement of livestock keepers’ herds through an open nucleus
breeding scheme (ONBS) approach (Rege et al., 2001). The importance of the success of this
programme can be understood not only in terms of the potential impact on the livelihoods of
resource-poor livestock keepers in Kenya, but also in terms of its implications for breeding
programmes based on indigenous breeds elsewhere in the world. Given the importance of
these breeds to sustaining poor farmers’ livelihoods and their degree of endangerment (ac-
cording to the FAO (2000), globally, one-third of indigenous livestock breeds are at risk), it is
crucial that the elements likely to affect the success of such a programme be well understood.
Knowledge of the characteristics, adaptability and management needs of different species
and breeds of domestic animals, and livestock keepers’ preferences concerning these traits,
are important in this context (Jabbar et al., 1999). This is because the success of any
conservation or improvement programme depends upon the actions of livestock keepers
who own, utilize and adopt breeds and adapt them to their needs. This study therefore
evaluated livestock ownership patterns, breed uses and preferences, and the breeding and
management practices of poor livestock keepers in south-east Kenya in order to understand
the rationale underlying their breeding decisions and the potential implications for an ONBS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

The study was conducted in south-east Kenya, which comprises areas located at an altitude
≤1000 m above sea level with poor soils having low potential for biomass production.
Temperatures range from a minimum of 18◦ C to a maximum of 32◦ C. The rainfall pattern
is bimodal, erratic and poorly distributed with peaks occurring during the long (March to
May) and short (October to December) rainy seasons. The mean annual precipitation is ≤
800 mm, with a rainfall reliability index of 40% (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983). Thus the
natural conditions presently favour livestock or game ranching.
The south-east Kenya rangelands comprise five main districts: Kajiado, Makueni, Kitui,
Mwingi and Taita-Taveta. Pastoralists inhabit Kajiado district while Kitui, Makueni, Mwingi
and Taita Taveta are inhabited by agropastoralists. These areas constitute one of the principal
‘beef sheds’ in Kenya, supplying the Nairobi and Mombasa urban markets. The beef breeds
 637

comprise Sahiwal, Boran, Maasai zebu, Kamba zebu and their crosses, the Maasai zebu and
Kamba zebus being proportionately the most important. A few exotic dairy cattle breeds
have also been introduced into the area and these include Friesian and Ayrshire.

Survey methodology

A two-phase cross-sectional survey of 125 livestock keepers (50 pastoralists and 75 agropas-
toralists) was conducted in Kajiado and Kitui districts, two districts that represent distinct
production systems (i.e. pastoral and agropastoral, respectively). In Kajiado district the
dominant indigenous breed is the Maasai zebu breed, while in Kitui it is the Kamba zebu
breed as defined by Rege and colleagues (2001). The first phase was conducted in October
and November 2002 and the second phase in January and February 2003. Two divisions in
Kajiado and three in Kitui district were selected for the study on the basis that they have the
highest populations of the indigenous SEAZ type of cattle (the Maasai and Kamba Zebu
breeds) and are representative of the potential target divisions for the breeding programme.
Major landmarks (shopping centres, schools, churches, etc.) in each division were identi-
fied at random and transect lines were drawn between each pair following a major road.
Sampling was then done following the marked transects. A trained enumerator for each
division interviewed each household after every 10 km. In total, 125 households (50 from
Kajiado and 75 from Kitui) were interviewed.

Data collection

Data collection was through single-subject interviews conducted by trained enumerators

(five, each interviewing 25 farmers) using a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire either
in English or in the local language, depending on the literacy level of the farmer. In each
division, a single enumerator carried out the interviews. Information was obtained on herd
structures (per species, breed (and their sources) and class), and demography (births, deaths,
sales and purchases) over the previous 12 months. Also obtained was information on rea-
sons for keeping cattle, breed preferences and breeding practices, perceived importance of
diseases affecting livestock and livestock keepers’ animal husbandry experience, as well as
socioeconomic data about the household itself.

Data analysis

The frequency counts and means were calculated for particular data sets to obtain the number
of individuals in each of the defined classes. The relative importance for each trait, disease
incidence, class of animal supplemented, provision of veterinary services and reasons for
culling animals was calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no
ranking) of a particular trait.

RESULTS

Fifty farm-level interviews were completed in Kajiado District and 75 in Kitui. Ninety per
cent of the sample households were headed by males, with a mean age of household head
638

between 43 and 50 years. The majority of the interviews carried out were with the household
head. On average, these households had between 7 and 10 dependents; the majority had
lived in the region/area since birth, and had 3–4 houses on their compound, the main house
being ‘large’ (i.e. having more than two rooms), with a roof made of iron sheeting. In
Kajiado 78% of the houses were made of mud or timber, while in Kitui 92% were made
from brick.

Herd size and composition, livestock ownership and gender roles

All livestock keepers interviewed kept cattle in multispecies enterprises (Table I). However,
the average herd sizes differed significantly between the pastoralists (45.9) and agropas-
toralists (5.4). Adult male cattle made up 12% and 40%, while mature females comprised
56% and 40%, of the herd in the pastoral and agropastoral systems, respectively. Herd own-
ers were mostly men, although women played an important role in livestock husbandry,
particularly with regard to production, processing and selling of milk and milk products
(Table II). Men were involved in the purchase and sale of cattle. The use of cattle for draught
purposes was a major activity in the agropastoral systems, being undertaken predominantly
by men and young boys/girls. Herding and caring for young stock was an activity for young
boys/girls, although among the agropastoralists a larger proportion of men and women
undertook herding as compared to the pastoralists.
Both family labour and hired labour was utilized for herding. Herdsmen received re-
muneration in cash and kind (food and accommodation) for working on average 9.1 h per
day and 11.2 months in a year at an average monthly wage of KES 1161.00 (∼ =US$15).
Hired labourers worked for longer hours (10.3 h) per day among the pastoralists than their
counterparts among the agropastoralists (7.9 h). Generally, the number of months worked
per year and the mean monthly wage earned by hired labourers did not differ significantly
between the two production systems.
While the survey shows that women and children play an important role in livestock
husbandry, particularly with regard to milking, preparing and selling dairy products, caring
for young stock and herding, it is the men who are principally involved in making cattle
purchase and sale decisions. As such, the preferences of the household heads (almost all
of whom were male) are likely to be of particular relevance to issues of participating in a
breed improvement programme.

Utilization of pastures and water resources

Livestock keepers herded their animals on natural pastures under communal or private
(own, rented or on loan) lands. Own land was the most important category in both systems,
accounting for 51% of grazing lands in pastoral areas and 73% in agropastoral areas.
Communal lands accounted for a further 46% of grazing lands in the former, while rented
lands accounted for a further 23% in the latter. While tethering of animals was practised
by agropastoralists, it was rare amongst the pastoralists (Table III). Feed supplementation
was done throughout the year, but the type of supplements used and the class of animals
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TABLE I
Average herd size/composition and ownership patterns

Pastoral (Maasai zebu) Agropastoral (Kamba zebu)

Category Mean Min Max Mean Min Max

Livestock (head)
Cattle 46 6 161 5.4 1 20
Donkeys 5 2 12 1.2 1 3
Goats 51 7 130 11.8 1 40
Sheep 29 3 100 5.9 1 19
Poultry 11 1 25 17.0 1 140
Cattle herd structure (% composition and number of head)
Adult males 12.3% (5.6) 0 40 40.0% (2.04) 0 8
Non-milking cows 26.0% (11.7) 0 41 26.0% (1.27) 0 8
Milking cows 30.0% (14.02) 2 45 15.0% (0.85) 0 5
Calves 32.0% (14.32) 2 73 19.0% (1.07) 0 5
Mean total cattle 45.9 (100%) 6 161 5.4 (100%) 1 20
holdings
Average age of owner
(years) 42.5 17 74 49.8 26.0 74.0
Livestock ownership
Women owners 2% (1) 10.8% (8)
Male owners 98% (49) 89.2% (66)
Age range of owners (years)
20–30 6% (3) 8.1% (6)
31–40 22% (11) 16.22% (12)
41–50 36% (18) 22.97% (17)
51–60 22% (11) 25.68% (19)
61–70 2% (1) 21.62% (16)
> 71 12% (6) 5.41% (4)

supplemented differed significantly. While most pastoralists supplemented their animals

using mineral salts, the agropastoralists utilized crop residues from their own farms and/or
purchased from their neighbours’ farms owing to the relatively low cost of these supplements
(Table IV). Pastoralists preferred to supplement cows first (indicating the importance of milk
in their production system) followed by calves, other young stock (1–3 years old), bulls
and finally oxen, while agropastoralists preferred to supplement oxen first (revealing the
importance of traction in their production systems) followed by cows, calves, bulls and
finally other young stock.
Water sources for the animals during the dry or wet season were the same for both
the pastoralists and agropastoralists. These included rivers, springs, boreholes/wells, dams/
ponds and rainwater, all under communal use. The distance to the watering points varied
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TABLE II
Gender roles and responsibilities (percentage participation and number of responses)

Pastoralists (Maasai zebu) Agropastoralists (Kamba zebu)

Adult Adult Adult Adult
Activity men women Boys/girls men women Boys/girls

Purchasing cattle 100% (50) 2.0% (1) – 90.67% (68) 20% (15) 1.3% (1)
Selling cattle 98% (49) 2.0% (1) – 92% (69) 26.7% (20) 2.7% (2)
Minor treatment/ 62% (31) 2.0% (1) – 13.3% (10) 2.7% (2) 2.7% (2)
spraying
Draft 28% (14) 14% (7) 6% (3) 65.3% (49) 33.3% (25) 72.0% (54)
Herding 22% (11) 44% (22) 100% (50) 49.3 (37) 44.0% (33) 77.3% (58)
Making dairy products 2.0% (1) 98% (49) – 4% (3) 73.3% (55) 14.7% (11)
Selling dairy products 2.0% (1) 96% (48) – 10.7% (8) 85.3% (64) 1.3% (1)
Milking 2.0% (1) 94% (47) – 8% (6) 93.3% (70) 17.3% (13)
Caring for young stock 2.0% (1) 34% (17) 100% (67) 30.7% (23) 64.0% (48) 58.7% (44)

N.B. More than one reply per respondent was possible

considerably, but these were located at distances of 1–5 km from the homesteads. Calves
were watered separately from adult animals. All animals were watered at least once a day
throughout the year. Water quality declined from ‘clean’ to ‘muddy’ in the wet season for
many pastoralists but not for the agropastoralists.

Housing and herd health

Housing for livestock was provided in the form of a kraal/yard surrounded by tree branches
without roofing. The floor was made of mud or earth. Calves were housed separately from
adult animals, in their own pen, in the goat pen or in the kitchen to prevent suckling, while
mature male and female animals were housed together. Most livestock keepers housed
their calves under a roof. The most important diseases indicated by pastoralists, in order
of priority, were East coast fever (ECF), foot and mouth disease (FMD), internal para-
sites, black quarter and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), while among the
agropastoralists these were internal parasites, ECF, anaplasmosis, CBPP and paratuber-
culosis (Table IV). Among the pastoralists, most gave first priority to treating their own
animals themselves, followed by treatment by a government veterinarian, a private veteri-
narian and lastly a friend or relative. However, the agropastoralists gave first priority to a
government veterinarian treating their animals, followed by the farmer himself, a private
veterinarian and a friend or relative. Apart from cases where livestock keepers treated their
own animals, the cost of treatment ranged between KES 20 and 1500 per animal and disease
treated.
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TABLE III
Management systems practised by livestock keepers with respect to grazing and supplementation

Pastoralists Agropastoralists
(Maasai zebu) (Kamba zebu)
Management Dry season Wet season Dry season Wet season

Grazing management
Herding 92.0% (46) 90.0% (45) 65.3% (49) 73.3% (55)
Tethering – – 57.3% (43) 68.0% (51)
Zero grazing 4.0% (2) 4.0% (2) 6.7% (5) 9.3% (7)
Unherded/free roaming 8.0% (4) 8.0% (4) 18.7% (14) 1.3% (1)
Paddocking – – – 1.3% (1)
Type of pastures used
Natural 94.0% (47) 72.0% (54)
Cultivated 2.0% (1) 25.3% (19)
Both 2.0% (1) 1.3% (1)
Type of supplements used
Commercial concentrates 24.0% (12) 6.0% (3) 2.7% (2) 1.3% (1)
Crop residues 48.0% (24) 10.0% (5) 85.3% (64) 78.7% (59)
Mineral salts 90.0% (45) 94.0% (47) 14.7% (11) 14.7% (11)
Harvested hay 14.0% (7) 2.0% (1) 18.7% (14) 9.4% (7)
Cost of feed supplements (KES)
Concentrates 525.00 2000.00 1200.00 2200.00
Crop residues 268.80 520.00 143.10 137.37
Minerals 126.00 127.40 164.36 155.27
Roughage (harvested hay) 361.40 1000.00 166.79 245.71
Overall ranking for class of animals that are supplementeda
Cows 1.74 Oxen 1.76
Calves 1.74 Cows 2.55
Other young stock 3.10 Calves 4.41
Bulls 3.84 Bulls 4.61
Oxen 5.84 Young stock 5.43

N.B. Numbers in parentheses represent the number of responses (more than one reply per respondent was possible)
a The importance rating is calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no ranking) of a particular
animal class. Lower numbers (minimum = 1) indicate higher importance

Reasons for keeping cattle and preferences for specific breeds

In pastoral areas, 66% of the total sample of animals were classified as Maasai zebu breed
by the livestock keepers, 15% were Boran–Maasai zebu crosses, 7% Boran and 5% Sahiwal.
The remainder were Ayrshire, Friesian, Charolais, Simmental and their Maasai zebu breed
crosses. By contrast, in the agropastoral areas, over 86% of cattle were Kamba zebu breed
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TABLE IV
Importance of cattle diseases and source of veterinary services as stated by livestock keepers

Pastoralists Agropastoralists
(Maasai zebu breed) (Kamba zebu breed)
Item Importancea Item Importancea

Major disease
ECF 1.46 Internal parasites 2.80
FMD 3.04 ECF 4.00
Internal parasites 4.52 Anaplasmosis 4.28
Black quarter 4.94 CBPP 5.04
CBPP 5.28 Paratuberculosis 5.35
LSD 6.22 Pneumonia 5.47
Pneumonia 6.52 FMD 5.50
Provision of veterinary services
The livestock keeper him/herself 1.00 Government veterinarian 1.63
Government veterinarian 2.09 Private veterinarian 1.68
Friend/relative 2.25 The livestock keeper him/herself 1.72
Private veterinarian 2.63 Friend/relative 1.85
NGO/AI technicianb 2.50

a The importance rating is calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no ranking) of a particular
disease/service. Lower numbers (minimum = 1) indicate higher importance
b NGO/AI, non-governmental organization/artificial insemination

and only very low numbers of other breeds and their crosses were found. This livestock
keeper-based classification was verified by enumerator observation.
From the ranking of reasons for keeping male cattle (Table V), it can be seen that pas-
toralists keep these animals (in descending order of importance) for breeding, as a source
of cash income, for meat production, as a repository of wealth and for settling dowry pay-
ments. Agropastoralists used male cattle for draught, as a source of cash income, as a source
of manure, for breeding, and as a repository of wealth. The three most important uses of
female cattle were as a source of milk, for calves and for cash income.
Out of 16 traits mentioned by livestock keepers as a reason for preferring a specific breed
(see Table VI), the Maasai zebu breed was ranked highest by pastoralists with regard to nine
of these traits, with most importance being given to five adaptive traits (disease resistance,
drought tolerance, feed requirement, heat tolerance and water requirement). Sahiwal ranked
highest with regard to six productive traits (growth rate, milk yield, fertility, ease of sale,
meat quality and body condition). Boran cattle and all crosses were also rated in the top
four for 15 out of the 16 traits. Exotic breeds were consistently ranked below these breeds.
In agropastoral areas, out of 15 traits mentioned, the Kamba zebu breed was ranked highest
with regard to nine of these, with most importance being given to a mixture of five productive
and adaptive traits (disease resistance, traction suitability, drought tolerance, good/cool
temperament and heat tolerance). Friesians ranked highest with regard to a mixture of five
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TABLE V
Importance of reasons for keeping indigenous cattle

Pastoral system Agropastoral system

(Maasai zebu breed) (Kamba zebu breed)
Sex/function or reason or use Importancea Sex/function or reason or use Importancea

Male animals
Breeding 1.32 Source of draught power 1.07
Source of cash 2.52 Source of cash income 2.97
Source of meat 4.28 Source of manure 3.36
Sign of wealth 4.58 For breeding 6.00
Dowry payment 5.76 Sign of wealth 6.43
Female animals
Source of calves 1.68 Source of milk 1.54
Source of milk 1.72 Source of calves 2.27
Source of cash income 3.74 Source of cash income 4.00
Source of meat 5.50 Source of manure 4.16
Sign of wealth 5.72 Sign of wealth 6.66

a The importance rating is calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no ranking) of a particular
reason. Lower numbers (minimum = 1) indicate higher importance

productive and adaptive traits (milk yield, growth rate, feed requirement, water requirement
and fertility). Boran cattle were ranked in second place for 11 out of the 15 traits and were
also ranked first in terms of coat colour.
In both areas, Sahiwal, Friesian, Boran and Ayrshire were the main breeds known to
the livestock keepers even if they did not currently own them. Reasons for not owning
them included their lack of drought tolerance, perceived high cost, lack of disease resis-
tance/tolerance and poor availability. The exotic breeds were also viewed negatively because
of their high feed requirement and high level of management required.

Indigenous breed population trends

Despite preferences, the Maasai and Kamba zebu (M& KZ) breed numbers are considered
to have been in decline. When asked about breed number trends, over 60% of pastoralist
livestock keepers considered that the Maasai zebu breed numbers had decreased over the
previous 5 years. However, over 75% thought that the Maasai zebu breed numbers had
increased or remained stable over the previous 12 months. Opinions were largely split over
how Maasai zebu breed numbers would evolve over the following 5 years. Other breeds
were considered to show evidence of increase over all time periods.
Just under 70% of agropastoralists considered that the Kamba zebu breed had decreased
in number over the previous 5 years and 65% over the previous 12 months. A similar number
considered that this trend would continue over the following 5 years. Meanwhile, all other
breeds were considered to have increased in number across all the time periods.
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TABLE VI
Ranking and relative importance of reasons for preferring specific cattle breeds given by livestock
keepers

Pastoralist
Trait Maasai zebu Sahiwal Boran

1. Disease resistance 2.20 (1) 4.98 (4) 4.72 (2)

2. Drought tolerance 2.56 (1) 4.76 (4) 4.54 (2)
3. Feed requirement 2.64 (1) 5.12 (4) 4.82 (3)
4. Heat tolerance 3.16 (1) 4.98 (4) 4.80 (2)
5. Milk yield 4.30 (2) 3.66 (1) 4.66 (4)
6. Water requirement 4.00 (1) 5.44 (3) 5.48 (4)
7. Growth rate 5.04 (4) 4.08 (1) 4.64 (2)
8. Fertility 4.88 (4) 4.46 (1) 4.76 (2)
9. Ease of sale 4.96 (3) 4.68 (1) 4.92 (2)
10. Meat quality 5.58 (2) 5.44 (1) 5.62 (3)
11. Traction capability 5.50 (1) 5.78 (4) 5.72 (2)
12. Milk/butter taste 5.90 (1) 6.90 (2) 6.98 (3)
13. Teat/udder size/condition and tail length
(milk indicators) 6.02 (1) 6.04 (2) 6.26 (4)
14. Colour 6.10 (1) 6.66 (4) 6.58 (3)
15. Body condition 6.16 (2) 6.12 (1) 6.44 (3)
16. Shape and size of body and horns 7.16 (3) 6.94 (2) 7.46 (5)

Agropastoralist
Trait Kamba zebu Fresian Boran

1. Disease resistance 1.30 (1) 4.18 (4) 3.57 (2)

2. Traction capability 1.74 (1) 4.41 (4) 3.64 (2)
3. Drought tolerance 2.23 (1) 4.49 (4) 3.99 (2)
4. Milk yield 3.74 (2) 2.55 (1) 4.09 (4)
5. Temperament 2.76 (1) 4.23 (3) 3.86 (2)
6. Growth rate 3.86 (3) 2.80 (1) 3.76 (2)
7. Heat tolerance 2.84 (1) 4.82 (4) 4.03 (2)
8. Feed requirement 3.42 (2) 3.11 (1) 4.08 (4)
9. Ease of sale 3.61 (1) 4.22 (3) 4.01 (2)
10. Water requirement 4.61 (4) 3.64 (1) 4.53 (3)
11. Milk/butter taste; teat/udder size/condition and
tail length (milk indicators) 3.69 (1) 4.81 (4) 4.3 (2)
12. Meat quality 4.00 (1) 5.15 (4) 4.19 (2)
13. Fertility 4.64 (4) 4.07 (1) 4.41 (2)
14. Shape and size of horns 4.08 (1) 4.92 (3) 4.19 (2)
15. Colour 4.76 (3) 4.70 (2) 4.61 (1)

N.B. The importance rating is calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no ranking) of a
particular trait. Lower numbers (minimum = 1) indicate higher importance
 645

The decrease in the M&KZ breed numbers was attributed mainly to competition against
other breeds, reduction in farm sizes and the increase in human population. Drought was
additionally mentioned as a factor resulting in the decrease of SEAZ in pastoralist areas
over the previous 5 years.

Sources of indigenous breeds of cattle and breeding practices

It is interesting to note that the Maasai zebu breed cattle in pastoralist areas tend to be
largely ‘own bred’ (46%) or inherited (26%), in addition to those purchased at the local
market (18%). They are also the only breed to be used as a gift or for dowry purposes
(6.6%). Boran–Maasai zebu crosses are also mostly own bred (78.3%), with market sources
continuing to be important (22%). The trend towards market and commercial sources is even
more pronounced for Boran cattle, with market purchases forming 61% and commercial
ranches 17.4%. Sahiwal are purchased mostly at the local market (64%). In agropastoralist
areas, the Kamba zebu tends to be purchased more frequently at the market (40%), while
own breeding is also an important source (31%) (see Table VII).
The most important traits considered by livestock keepers when selecting/purchasing an
animal were animal health/body condition, growth rate, traction ability, milk production,
age and adaptation (disease resistance and drought tolerance). However, both the overall
ranking and relative strength of the preferences for these traits differed significantly by
animal class and production system (Table VIII).
Natural uncontrolled mating was practised more frequently than any other mating system,
while performance recording was very rare (Table IX). All the herd owners had at least one
breeding bull; most of these were born in the respective herds and only a few were acquired
from local markets. The dam of the breeding bull was usually known for bulls born within
their respective herds, but rarely for the others. Sires of bulls were not known. Breeding
males and female animals were culled (that is either slaughtered or sold out at the market)
after being used on average for 7.5 and 12 years, respectively. Reasons for culling were old
age, poor health, poor production, poor reproduction, poor body condition, poor traction
ability and bad temperament (Table IX).

Estimated demand and potential dissemination mechanisms for

improved indigenous breeds

Between 88% and 94% of respondents in the pastoral and agropastoral production systems
stated that they would be interested in obtaining improved Maasai or Kamba zebu breeds
from a nucleus herd, with the main reasons being the likely good quality of the animals and
their potential for higher milk yield and faster growth rate. Adaptability (including disease
resistance/tolerance) and relatively low management requirements were also mentioned as
important factors.
Agropastoralists stated that, on average, they would be interested in obtaining from the
nucleus herd one adult male per year and approximately 1.5 of each of calves, milking
cows and non-milking cows. Pastoralists stated that, on average, they would obtain two
adult males per year. An additional 3.9 milking cows and 3.3 non-milking cows would be
646

TABLE VII
Origin/source of the different breeds owned by livestock keepers in south-east Kenya

Maasai
Origin/source zebu Boran Sahiwal Crossesa Exoticsb Total

Pastoralists
Own-bred 46% (35) 4.3% (1) 14.2% (2) 69.2% (27) 12.5% (1) 41.2% (66)
Inherited 26.3% (20) – – – – 12.5% (20)
Local market 18.4% (14) 60.9% (14) 64.2% (9) 17.9% (7) 12.5% (1) 28.1% (45)
Neighbour 2.6% (2) 13.0% (3) 14.2% (2) 10.2% (4) 37.5% (3) 8.8% (14)
Gift/bride price 6.6% (5) – – – – 3.1% (5)
Commercial – 17.3% (4) – 2.6% (1) 25.0% (2) 4.4% (7)
ranch
NGO/projectc – 4.3% (1) 7.1% (1) – 12.5% (1) 1.9% (3)
Total 47.5% (76) 14.4% (23) 8.8% (14) 24.3% (39) 5% (8) 100% (160)

Kamba
zebu Boran Sahiwal Crossesa Exoticsb Total

Agropastoralists
Local market 39.8% (39) 100.0% (3) – 25.0% (4) – 38% (46)
Own-bred 30.6% (30) – 66.7% (2) 37.5% (6) – 31.4% (38)
Inherited 12.2% (12) – – 6.25% (1) – 10.7% (13)
Neighbour 10.2% (10) – 33.3% (1) 25.0% (4) – 12.4% (15)
Gift/bride price 5.1% (5) – – – – 4.1% (5)
State farm 1.0% (1) – – – – 0.8% (1)
NGO/projectc 1.0% (1) – – – 100.0% (1) 1.7% (2)
Commercial – – – 6.25% (1) – 0.8% (1)
ranch
Total 81% (98) 2.4% (3) 2.4% (3) 13.2% (16) 0.8% (1) 100% (121)

Numbers in parentheses represent the absolute numbers of animals

a Crosses: various
b Exotics: Ayrshire, Friesian, Charolais, Simmental
c NGO/project: World Vision, ASAL programme

obtained in year one, declining to 1.7–2.0 of each in year 2. No animals would be required
in subsequent years. A small number of respondents (4%) would be interested in obtaining
10 calves per year. This relatively high stated demand for improved Kamba zebu from a
nucleus herd is largely consistent with the number of animals that these livestock keepers
currently purchase at the market.
For pastoralists, the preferred methods of obtaining the Maasai zebu breed would be
through an animal loan (to be repaid with the resulting offspring), in exchange for the live-
stock keeper loaning his/her bull to the nucleus herd, and through a cash loan (covering the
market price of the animal) that would be repaid over a one-year period. For agropastoralists,
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TABLE VIII
Importance of principal traits considered by livestock keepers when selecting/purchasing cattle

Pastoral system Agropastoral system

(Maasai zebu breed) (Kamba zebu breed)
Sex/trait Importancea Sex/trait Importancea

Male animals
Body condition/health 2.44 Body condition/health 2.58
Young age 5.48 Growth rate 4.54
Drought tolerance 7.16 Traction ability/capacity 5.18
Breed 7.92 Young age 5.36
Disease resistance 8.24 Disease resistance 6.05
Coat colour 8.30 Drought tolerance 7.55
Female animals
Milk yield and taste 3.04 Body condition and health 4.36
Body condition and health 3.86 Milk yield and taste 4.81
Teat/udder size and condition 4.54 Teat/udder size and condition 5.77
Young age 6.52 Young age 6.51
Pregnancy 6.58 Growth rate 6.59
Breed 7.52 Disease resistance 7.91

a The importance rating is calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no ranking) of a particular
trait. Lower numbers (minimum = 1) indicate higher importance

cash loans and animal loans were preferred, followed by paying a fee for a centralized natu-
ral service (which requires bringing the livestock keeper’s cow to the nucleus herd), and by
the livestock keeper loaning his or her bull to the nucleus herd. Purchasing at market price,
lending animals to other participating livestock keepers, paying for artificial insemination,
and bull exchange were much less popular options.

DISCUSSION

The lack of participation of livestock keepers and other stakeholders in the planning, ex-
ecution and decision-making process of livestock improvement programmes is one of the
major causes of failure of such programmes, particularly where subsistence smallholder
farming communities face major disease challenges and feed and land scarcity and lack
systematic performance data (Solkner et al., 1998). Given these constraints, pure-breeding
programmes in developing countries are frequently designed as open nucleus schemes,
with the nucleus located on-station to guarantee adequate performance testing, pedigree
recording and selection.
With particular respect to the optimization and extension of a breeding programme in
south-east Kenya, the following considerations are important. Firstly, individual herds in
the study area are quite small and, for breeding, almost all breeding males are sourced
648

TABLE IX
Breeding practices

Pastoralists Agropastoralists
(Maasai zebu) (Kamba zebu)

Type of mating systema

Natural uncontrolled 69.4% (43) 58.8% (77)
Natural controlled 21.0% (13) 23.7% (31)
Hand mating 9.7% (6) 16.0% (23)
Artificial insemination – 1.5% (2)
Performance recording
Yes 0% 2%
No 100% 98%
Reasons for purchasing cattle
Breeding 88.9% 30.8%
Draught/traction – 69.2%
Resale 7.4% –
Settling dowry payments 3.7% –
Importance of reasons for culling male animalsb
Old age 2 1.25
Poor production 1 2.00
Poor health 2 1
Poor body condition 2.5 2.00
Poor fertility 3
Poor temperament/character – 1.33
Small body size – 2.00
Poor traction ability – 1
Importance of reasons for culling female animalsb
Poor health 1.67 1
Old age 1.67 1.67
Poor production 1 1
Poor fertility 3 1
Poor temperament/character – 1
Poor body condition – 2.00
Age at culling of breeding animals (years)
Males 8.0 ± 0.46 6.9 ± 0.49
Females 10.9 ± 0.44 12.6 ± 0.45

a Numbers in parentheses represent the number of responses (more than one reply per respondent was possible)
b The importance rating is calculated using a weighted average of all rankings (including no ranking) of a particular
reason. Lower numbers (minimum = 1) indicate higher importance

locally (either from their respective herds or from nearby markets). Secondly, pasture and
water resources are used communally and breeding animals stay in the herds for prolonged
periods, implying that the relationship of animals within a herd and even within a village is
potentially narrow and inbreeding may be widespread and increasing. Thirdly, most of the
 649

bulls used are of unknown pedigree, although generally of known genotype, implying that
systematic selective breeding is lacking. Increased inbreeding and the use of unproven bulls
are likely to have unfavourable long-term effects on productivity through the degradation
of the herd genotype.
With regard to specific breeding objectives, a holistic approach to species and breed
attributes needs to be taken into account so that the full array of contributions that livestock
makes to livelihoods and the genetic characteristics related to these contributions can be
recognized. The breeding decisions identified in this study of livestock keepers in south-east
Kenya reflect their multiple objectives and are consistent with the findings of other similar
studies (among others, see Bebe et al. (2003) and Jaitner et al. (2003)).
Both pastoralists and agropastoralists rated adaptive traits (disease resistance, drought
tolerance, heat tolerance, lower feed requirement and lower water requirement) and pro-
ductive traits (milk yield, growth rate, traction capability and fertility) as very important.
Accordingly, possible production-oriented breeding goal traits should be lactation milk
yield and lactation length (for milk production); pre/post-weaning daily gain and mature
live weight (for growth); traction output, strong feet/legs and docility (for draught); and
age at first calving/service, calving interval and calving ease/rate (for fertility). Pre/post-
weaning survival rate and productive herd life, as well as tolerance to specific diseases and
plant toxins, could be used as the possible breeding goal traits for adaptation. However with
the preference for lower feed and water requirements (for maintenance and growth) logical
trade-offs between adaptability and production need to be assessed carefully with farmers’
participation. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that traits related to growth and milk
production are relatively easy to improve through a breeding programme and usually have
moderate heritability. The constraint is that selection is less effective on traits of low heri-
tability and on traits that are difficult to measure (such as adaptive fitness), and there is the
underlying antagonistic biological relationship between productive performance and fitness
that results in low selection responses for fitness-related traits. The specific level at which
appropriate breeding goals are established must therefore avoid being overly ambitious and
unreachable under the prevailing environmental conditions.
With regard to the organization of the breeding scheme per se, as the average herd sizes are
small, achievement of measurable genetic gains is likely to require the formation of group
breeding schemes, which in turn will require the full participation and long-term commit-
ment of the livestock keepers. The basic steps would include the clear definition of terms
of membership, an agreement on the objectives of the breeding scheme, the formulation of
appropriate breeding goals, the formation of a breeding or foundation stock/screening of the
candidate animals and the contribution of animals to the nucleus herd (Wollny, 2003). An
attractive option would be the organization of livestock keepers into cooperative societies
or village bull schemes using bulls of proven genetic merit obtained from the nucleus herd
through either a cash loan or an animal loan, given that natural service will continue to
predominate in the study area owing to the failure of the AI service and its associated high
costs. The bull schemes would be most likely to succeed if bull centres were established
within a reasonable distance for livestock keepers to walk their cows to them for service.
Veterinary services could also be provided at cost at the bull centres.
For the bull schemes to be successful, breeding bulls of proven genetic merit would
be provided only from the KARI nucleus. All other bulls present in the village would
650

ideally be castrated or sold-off and the possibility of females mixing with bulls from non-
participating herds would have to be minimized. Given the considerable number of cows
in the village herds, this scheme would produce a large number of male calves from which
potential bull replacements could be selected, thus offering the potential of opening up the
nucleus herd. To ensure the continued interest of the livestock keepers with regard to the
ONBS, the KARI nucleus should also be involved in other activities of direct interest to the
livestock keepers, such as the provision of extension advice and the promotion of open/field
days and demonstrations. The strengthening of local capacity through relevant training and
integration of traditional knowledge and practices would also positively contribute to the
success of the ONBS.
One such aspect of training could involve promoting increased awareness by livestock
keepers of the importance of performance recording and the benefits that can arise from this.
At present, animal performance recording in Kenya is undertaken by the Dairy Recording
Services of Kenya (DRSK), while the registration of breeds is the sole responsibility of
the Kenya Stud Book (KSB). None of the livestock keepers in the survey area kept per-
formance records or registered their breeds with the KSB. To encourage participation of
livestock keepers in performance recording, DRSK/KARI needs to provide information that
enables livestock keepers to compare the performance of their animals with those of their
community in order to stimulate competition and provide incentives to improve production.
KSB has initiated a pool register for the registration of indigenous breeds having no defined
breed standards but with breeders’ societies. Livestock keepers who are custodians of the
indigenous SEAZ type of cattle should be encouraged to take advantage of the pool register
and form breeders’ societies, which can take the lead in the improvement and conservation
of the SEAZ type of cattle. Village cooperatives and community-based organizations may
be suitable starting points for such basic recording and breed-registration initiatives.
Funding for breeding programmes is not very popular among funding agencies, as they
have to be set up as long-term projects. Therefore, for any livestock-breeding project,
long-term self-sustaining measures must be put in place for the nucleus herd located on-
station. One approach would be to develop business plans during the initial phase that give
direction on the generation of income in the long run through the marketing of breeding
stock and/or culled animals. This ensures continuity of the ONBS beyond the donor support
phase.
The reasons for keeping cattle and the breed/trait preferences identified reflect the multi-
ple objectives of the livestock keepers in south-east Kenya. Both pastoralists and agropas-
toralists rated adaptive traits (disease resistance, drought tolerance, heat tolerance, feed
requirement and water requirement) and productive traits (milk yield, growth rate, traction
capability and fertility) as very important, and the SEAZ was ranked particularly highly
with regard to its adaptive traits. Despite such preferences, SEAZ population numbers are
considered to have been in decline.
While some degree of breed substitution may be economically rational given processes
of intensification, it is important to appreciate that, given the important traits and functions
identified above, SEAZ cattle will continue to play an important role in contributing to
livestock keepers’ livelihoods. Furthermore, the potential to improve SEAZ performance
through breeding and improved management suggests that livelihoods can be enhanced
through sustainable use while pursuing conservation objectives.
 651

Widespread interest in obtaining improved SEAZ animals from a nucleus herd was also
observed, with the main reasons being the likely quality of the animals and their potential
for higher milk yield and faster growth rate. Adaptability (including disease resistance) and
relatively low management requirements were also mentioned as important factors.
With regard to the organization of a breeding scheme per se, the formation of group
breeding schemes in the context of an ONBS is recommended. In particular, such groups
would be able to address a number of the constraints identified in the present survey. These
include the facts that individual herds are very small (therefore, the scope of selection
and the potential of opening up the nucleus for replacements within farms is limited), that
mature male and female animals are rarely kept separate and that the management system
with respect to grazing and watering makes controlled mating difficult.
For the dissemination of genetic progress from the ONBS to be effective, a very high
chance of the superior breeding bulls mating with the breeding females must be ensured.
Doing this is likely to require that all other bulls from participating herds should ideally be
castrated or sold-off, while the chances of females mixing with bulls from non-participating
herds is minimized. Such interventions will require the full participation and long-term
commitment of the livestock keepers, as well as ensuring that a holistic approach to species
and breed attributes is taken into account in setting breeding goals, so that the full array
of contributions that livestock make to livelihoods and the genetic characteristics related to
these contributions are fully incorporated into the programme.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank the EU/KARI ARSP II programme for its financial support, members of
staff from the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development for their assistance in data
collection, and all the livestock keepers interviewed. In addition, the authors are grateful to
Dr Workneh Ayalew, ILRI, for his comments on a previous draft.

REFERENCES

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339
Ayalew, W., King, J., Bruns, E. and Rischkowsky, B., 2003. Economic evaluation of smallholder subsistence
livestock production: lessons from an Ethiopian goat development program. Ecological Economics, 45(3),
473–485
Bebe, B.O., Udo, H.M.J., Rowlands, G.J. and Thorpe, W., 2003. Smallholder dairy systems in the Kenya highlands:
breed preferences and breeding practices. Livestock Production Science, 82, 117–127
FAO, 2000. World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity, 3rd edn, B. Scherf (ed.), (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome)
Jabbar, M.A., Swallow, B.M. and Rege, J.E.O., 1999. Incorporation of farmer knowledge and preferences in
designing breeding policy and conservation strategy for domestic animals. Outlook on Agriculture, 28(4),
239–243
Jaetzold, R. and Schmidt, H., 1983. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya: vol. IIC, East Kenya, vol. IIB, Central
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Rege, J.E.O., Kahi, A.K., Okomo-Adhiambo, M., Mwacharo, J. and Hanotte, O., 2001. Zebu Cattle of Kenya:
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(Accepted: 20 January 2005)

Objectifs de production et stratégies de gestion de gardiens de bétail dans le Sud-Est du Kenya: Implications
pour un programme d’élevage

Résumé – Une enquête a été conduite sur des foyers de pastoralistes et d’agropastoralistes dans le Sud-Est du
Kenya pour déterminer leurs objectifs de production et leurs stratégies de gestion afin d’optimiser et d’étendre
un programme d’élevage pour un bétail indigène de petite taille composé de Shorthorn Zébu est-africains. Les
raisons pour garder le bétail et les préférences de races/traits identifiées reflètent les objectifs multiples des gardiens
de bétail, avec à la fois les traits adaptatifs et les traits productifs/reproductifs évalués comme étant importants.
Bien que les races Maasai et Kambu zébu (M&KZ) aient été classées à un niveau élevé pour ce qui concerne les
traits adaptatifs, la population est considérée comme ayant fait l’objet d’un déclin ces dernières années. En vue
de promouvoir la conservation et un usage durable du bétail M&KZ, l’élaboration d’un plan d’élevage à noyau
ouvert est recommandée. Un tel plan, pourrait, en particulier, répondre à plusieurs contraintes existantes (par ex.
les troupeaux individuels sont très petits et l’usage en commun de prairies/d’eau rend un accouplement contrôlé
difficile). De telles interventions nécessiteraient la participation complète des gardiens de troupeaux, ainsi que
l’assurance qu’une approche holistique aux attributs de l’espèce et de la race soit prise en ligne de compte pour la
détermination des objectifs d’élevage de manière à ce que la gamme compléte des contributions faites par le bétail
aux moyens d’existence et les caractéristiques génétiques de ces contributions soient pleinement incorporées dans
le programme.

Objetivos de producción y estrategias de gobierno de cuidadores de ganado en el sudeste de Kenia: impli-

caciones para un programa de reproducción y crianza

Resumen – Se llevó a cabo un estudio de granjas ganaderas y agro-ganaderas en el sudeste de Kenia para determinar
sus objetivos de producción y estrategias de gobierno para optimizar y ampliar un programa de reproducción y
crianza del pequeño ganado indı́gena de Africa del Este Shorthorn Zebú. Las razones para mantener al ganado y
las preferencias de razas/caracterı́sticas identificadas reflejan los múltiples objetivos de los cuidadores de ganado,
con las caracterı́sticas adaptativas y las caracterı́sticas productivas/reproductivas calificadas como importantes.
Aunque las razas Maasai y Kamba zebú (M&KZ) aparecı́an valoradas altamente en cuanto a sus caracterı́sticas
adaptativas, estas poblaciones han estado en declive durante los últimos años. Para promover la conservación y
el uso sostenible del ganado M&KZ, se recomienda la formación de un programa de reproducción y crianza de
núcleo abierto. En concreto, el susodicho programa afrontarı́a varias limitaciones existentes (por ejemplo, los
rebaños individuales son muy pequeños y el uso comunal de los pastos y el agua hace difı́cil el apareamiento
controlado). Tales intervenciones requerirı́an de la participación completa de los cuidadores de ganado, ası́ como
de asegurar que se tenga en cuenta un planteamiento holı́stico con respecto a las especies y a los atributos de las
razas al fijar los objetivos de la reproducción y crianza, de forma que el abanico total de contribuciones que el
ganado hace a la subsistencia y las caracterı́sticas genéticas relacionadas con estas contribuciones sean totalmente
incorporadas al programa.