INTRODUCTION

Cement is the basic ingredient of construction and the most widely used
construction material. It is a very critical ingredient, because only cement has the ability
of enhancing viscosity of concrete which in returns provides the better locking of sand
and gravels together in a concrete mix.

A cement is a binder, a substance

used for construction that sets, hardens,
and adheres to other materials to bind
them together. Cement is seldom used on
its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel
(aggregate) together. Cement mixed with
fine aggregate produces mortar for
masonry, or with sand and gravel,
produces concrete. Cement is the most widely used material in existence and is only
behind water as the planet's most-consumed resource.

The word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium,
used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock
with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were
added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to
as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are
sometimes used as cements in concrete.

Cement is counted among the key building materials both in

the residential and nonresidential sector. It was estimated that the global market was
sized at around 395 billion U.S. dollars in 2016. Dublin-based cement producer CRH plc
(Cement Roadstone Holdings) topped the list of leading cement
manufacturers worldwide, reporting 2016 revenue of around 27 billion euros.
 Cement is mostly used for the production of concrete: in the United States, some
71 percent of cement sales went to producers of ready-mixed concrete and around 12
percent of sales went to concrete product manufacturers. In 2016, the U.S. production
volume of cement came to around 86 million metric tons. That year, about 85.4 million
metric tons of Portland and masonry cement was produced here.
 A well-known cement plant in San Fernando, Cebu is the Taiheiyo Cement
Philippines Inc. Taiheiyo Cement Philippines, Inc. (TCPI) is one of several subsidiaries
and wholly owned by Japan’s biggest cement manufacturer, Taiheiyo Cement
Corporation (TCC). TCC is the core company of huge international corporate groups and
operates 17 cement plants in 6 countries.

“Taiheiyo” is a Japanese word meaning “Pacific Ocean”. Along with TCC’s policy
of active worldwide development, it envisions to be the leading cement manufacturer in
the pacific rim.

TCC acquired the 100% share-holdings of the former Grand Cement

Manufacturing Corporation (GCMC) in November 2000. GCMC started construction of
the plant in August 1991, leading to the start of commercial operation in the last quarter
of 1993.

TCPI is engaged in the manufacture and sale of cement products certified to be of

consistent superior quality, in accordance with the international and Philippine standards.
These are:
New Grand Portland is an Ordinary Portland Cement and it offers the advantage of high
early strength. It is used for general concrete structures such as buildings, bridges, roads,
runways, and precast products.

Grand Premium is a Blended Cement compose of Portland Cement and Philippine Tuff.
It is specially designed to be used as an alternative to Portland Cement that is applicable
for general construction use. It provides special characteristics in concrete such as high
workability, high strength and increased durability.

New Grand Pozzolan is a Blended Cement composed of finely ground natural strength
enhancing minerals and Portland Cement. It is for general use not requiring early
strength. It provides special characteristics in concrete such as high workability, better
surface finish, reduced thermal cracks and improved durability. Over the years, Grand
Masonry was added to the line of cement products of the Taiheiyo Cement Philippines,
Inc.

Definition of Terms

A few useful basic definitions follow, since the meanings of the words 'cement' and
'concrete' are rather blurred in general use.

Portland Cement: Material made by heating a mixture of limestone and clay in a kiln at
about 1450 C, then grinding to a fine powder with a small addition of gypsum. Portland
Cement, the main subject of this site, is the most common type of cement - 'basic cement',
if you like. In particular, ordinary Portland cement is the normal, grey, cement with which
most people are familiar. Other types of Portland cement include White Portland Cement
and Sulfate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC).

Clinker: Portland cement is made by grinding clinker and a little added gypsum. Clinker
is a nodular material before it is ground up. The nodules can be anything from 1mm to
25mm or more in diameter.
Cement: Usually taken to mean Portland Cement, but could mean any other type of
cement, depending on the context.

Aggregate: Cobbles, pebbles, gravel, sand and silt - the 'rock' component of all particle
sizes in concrete.

Concrete: Synthetic rock made using cement (usually, but not necessarily, Portland
cement) mixed with aggregate and water.

Mortar: Mixture of cement and fine aggregate, mainly sand. Used typically to bond bricks
and building stone.

Grout: Mixture of cement (possibly of various types) and other fine material such as fine
sand. Used in a wide range of applications from filling the gaps between bathroom tiles
to oil wells.

Composite cements: Some types of cement are mixtures of Portland cement with other
material, such as blast furnace slag from iron production and pulverised fuel ash from
coal-fired electricity power stations. These widely-used mixtures are called 'composite'
cements.
HISTORY

Throughout history, cementing materials have played a vital role and were used
widely in the ancient world. The Egyptians used calcined gypsum as a cement and the
Greeks and Romans used lime made by heating limestone and added sand to make
mortar, with coarser stones for concrete.

The Romans found that a cement could be made which set under water and this
was used for the construction of harbours. This cement was made by adding crushed
volcanic ash to lime and was later called a "pozzolanic" cement, named after the village
of Pozzuoli near Vesuvius.

In places where volcanic ash was scarce, such as Britain, crushed brick or tile was
used instead. The Romans were therefore probably the first to manipulate systematically
the properties of cementitious materials for specific applications and situations.

Hadrian’s Wall, a few miles East of Housesteads, England

Roman Contribution to Cement Technology

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect and

engineer in the 1st century BCE wrote his "Ten books of
Architecture" - a revealing historical insight into ancient
technology. Writing about concrete floors, for example:

"First I shall begin with the concrete flooring, which

is the most important of the polished finishings, observing
that great pains and the utmost precaution must be taken
to ensure its durability".
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio

"On this, lay the nucleus, consisting of pounded tile mixed with lime in the
proportions of three parts to one, and forming a layer not less than six digits thick."

And on pozzolana:

"There is also a kind of powder from which natural causes produces astonishing
results. This substance, when mixed with lime and rubble, not only lends strength to
buildings of other kinds, but even when piers are constructed of it in the sea, they set hard
under water."

(Vitruvius, "The Ten Books of Architecture," Dover Publications, 1960.)

His "Ten books of Architecture" are a real historical gem bringing together history
and technology. Anyone wishing to follow his instructions might first need to find a
thousand or so slaves to dig, saw, pound and polish.
 After the Romans, there was a general loss in building skills in Europe, particularly
with regard to cement. Mortars hardened mainly by carbonation of lime, a slow process.
The use of pozzolana was rediscovered in the late Middle Ages.

The great medieval cathedrals, such as Durham, Lincoln and Rochester in

England and Chartres and Rheims in France, were clearly built by highly skilled masons.
Despite this, it would probably be fair to say they did not have the technology to
manipulate the properties of cementitious materials in the way the Romans had done a
thousand years earlier.

Industrial Revolution

The Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment brought new ways of thinking which
led to the industrial revolution. In eighteenth century Britain, the interests of industry and
empire coincided, with the need to build lighthouses on exposed rocks to prevent shipping
losses. The constant loss of merchant ships and warships drove cement technology
forward.

Smeaton, building the third Eddystone lighthouse (1759) off the coast of Cornwall
in Southwestern England, found that a mix of lime, clay and crushed slag from iron-
making produced a mortar which hardened under water.

Joseph Aspdin took out a patent in 1824 for "Portland

Cement," a material he produced by firing finely-ground clay
and limestone until the limestone was calcined. He called it
Portland Cement because the concrete made from it looked
like Portland stone, a widely-used building stone in England.

Joseph Aspdin
 While history usually regards Aspdin as the inventor of Portland cement, Aspdin's
cement was not produced at a high-enough temperature to be the real forerunner of
modern Portland cement. Nevertheless, his was a major innovation and subsequent
progress could be viewed as mere development.

A ship carrying barrels of Aspdin's cement sank off the Isle of Sheppey in Kent,
England, and the barrels of set cement, minus the wooden staves, were later incorporated
into a pub in Sheerness and are still there now.

A few years later, in 1845, Isaac Johnson made the first modern Portland Cement
by firing a mixture of chalk and clay at much higher temperatures, similar to those used
today. At these temperatures (1400C-1500C), clinkering occurs and minerals form which
are very reactive and more strongly cementitious.

While Johnson used the same materials to make Portland cement as we use now,
three important developments in the manufacturing process lead to modern Portland
cement:

 Development of rotary kilns

 Addition of gypsum to control setting

 Use of ball mills to grind clinker and raw materials

 From the turn of the 20th century, rotary cement kilns gradually replaced the
original vertical shaft kilns, used originally for making lime. Rotary kilns heat the clinker
mainly by radiative heat transfer and this is more efficient at higher temperatures,
enabling higher burning temperatures to be achieved. Also, because the clinker is
constantly moving within the kiln, a fairly uniform clinkering temperature is achieved in the
hottest part of the kiln, the burning zone.

The two other principal technical developments, gypsum addition to control setting
and the use of ball mills to grind the clinker, were also introduced at around the start of
the 20th century.
RAW MATERIALS

Raw materials used for manufacturing of cement are found naturally in the earth
crust. It is made primarily from calcareous materials, argillaceous materials and gypsum.
Calcareous materials containing limestone or chalk and argillaceous materials containing
an oxide of silica-alumina and iron are found as clay or shale.
Functions of the Constituents

Lime:
It is the main constituent for manufacturing of cement which imparts cementing property
to cement. An excess quantity of lime causes expansion and disintegration of cement.
Deficiency in lime causes decrease in strength and the cement set quickly. If it is in right
proportion, it makes the cement sound and strong.

Silica:
This play a major role in imparting strength to concrete. Silica undergoes the chemical
reaction with calcium to form dicalcium silicate (C2S) and tricalcium silicates (C3S).
Excess silica adds strength to cement but it prolongs the setting time.

Alumina:
This forms complex compounds with silica and calcium to impart setting property of
cement. It acts as a flux and lowers the clinkering temperature. Use of an excess amount
of alumina quickens setting time but reduces the strength of cement.
Iron Oxide:
This is mainly responsible for imparting colour to cement. The hardness and strength is
also improved to a certain extent. It helps in the fusion of raw materials during the
manufacture of cement.

Magnesium Oxide:
It imparts strength when mixed in small quantity but excess amount makes the cement
unsound.

Sulphur Trioxide: This makes the cement sound if present in small quantity but excess
amount makes the cement unsound. This makes the cement sound if present in small
quantity but excess amount makes the cement unsound.

Cement is sometimes blended with other cementitious and/or special material.

These cements are called blended cement which is produced by intimately blending two
or more types of cementitious materials. Generally, the primary blending materials are fly
ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume, natural pozzolana etc.
PROCESS

Production of cement completes after passing of raw materials from the following six
phases. These are:
1. Raw material extraction/ Quarry
2. Grinding, Proportioning and Blending
3. Pre-heater Phase
4. Kiln Phase
5. Cooling and Final Grinding
6. Packing & Shipping

RAW MATERIAL EXTRACTION

Cement uses raw materials that cover calcium, silicon, iron and aluminum. Such
raw materials are limestone, clay and sand. Limestone is for calcium. It is combined with
much smaller proportions of sand and clay. Sand & clay fulfill the need of silicon, iron and
aluminum.

Extraction of raw material and crushing of material

Generally, cement plants are fixed where the quarry of limestone is nearby. This
saves the extra fuel cost and makes cement somehow economical. Raw materials are
extracted from the quarry and by means of conveyor belt material is transported to the
cement plant.
 There are also various other raw materials used for cement manufacturing. For
example shale, fly ash, mill scale and bauxite. These raw materials are directly brought
from other sources because of small requirements.

Before transportation of raw materials to the cement plant, large size rocks are
crushed into smaller size rocks with the help of crusher at quarry. Crusher reduces the
size of large rocks to the size of gravels.

PROPORTIONING, BLENDING & GRINDING

The raw materials from quarry are now routed in plant laboratory where, they are
analyzed and proper proportioning of limestone and clay are making possible before the
beginning of grinding. Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay.

Proportioning of raw material at cement plant laboratory

Now cement plant grind the raw mix with the help of heavy wheel type rollers and
rotating table. Rotating table rotates continuously under the roller and brought the raw
mix in contact with the roller. Roller crushes the material to a fine powder and finishes the
job. Raw mix is stored in a pre-homogenization pile after grinding raw mix to fine powder.
PRE-HEATING RAW MATERIAL

After final grinding, the material is ready to face the pre-heating chamber. Pre-
heater chamber consists of series of vertical cyclone from where the raw material passes
before facing the kiln. Pre-heating chamber utilizes the emitting hot gases from kiln. Pre-
heating of the material saves the energy and make plant environmental friendly.

Preheating of raw material | Vertical cyclone

KILN PHASE

Kiln is a huge rotating furnace also called as the heart of cement making process.
Here, raw material is heated up to 1450 ⁰C. This temperature begins a chemical reaction
so called decarbonation. In this reaction material (like limestone) releases the carbon
dioxide. High temperature of kiln makes slurry of the material.
 Rotary kiln

The series of chemical reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide compounds
form the primary constituents of cement i.e., calcium silicate. Kiln is heating up from the
exit side by the use of natural gas and coal. When material reaches the lower part of the
kiln, it forms the shape of clinker.

COOLING AND FINAL GRINDING

After passing out from the kiln, clinkers are cooled by mean of forced air. Clinker
released the absorb heat and cool down to lower temperature. Released heat by clinker
is reused by recirculating it back to the kiln. This too saves energy.

Clinker cooling | Cement making process

 Final process of 5th phase is the final grinding. There is a
horizontal filled with steel balls. Clinker reach in this rotating drum
after cooling. Here, steel balls tumble and crush the clinker into a
very fine powder. This fine powder is considered as cement.
During grinding gypsum is also added to the mix in small
percentage that controls the setting of cement.
Rotating ball mill

PACKING AND SHIPPING

Transportation of cement from silos

Material is directly conveyed to the silos (silos are the large storage tanks of
cement) from the grinding mills. Further, it is packed to about 20-40 kg bags. Only a small
percent of cement is packed in the bags only for those customers whom need is very
small. The remaining cement is shipped in bulk quantities by mean of trucks, rails or ships.
EQUIPMENT (INSERTTTTTT)

REFERENCES
 https://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-applications/how-cement-is-made
 https://www.understanding-cement.com/history.html
 https://www.understanding-cement.com/raw-materials.html
 http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/cement-materials-and-manufacturing-
process/
 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/106237/8/08_chapter%203.pdf