Training Report On PMMC

SETT & DE
TOPIC: -Industrial Training report

on making of PMMC type
Galvanometer.
Submitted by: Payel Dey, Arnab and ......
Training Partner:-
Shekhar Banerjee & Subhashree Banerjee
Trainers:-
Sumon Sardar & Arnab Mukherjee
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Sett & De ; ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENT SPECIALIST COMPANY ; 15, COSSIPORE ROAD, KOL-700002
Acknowledgement
First of all I want to thank our guides Mr. Suman Sardar,
Mr. Arnab Mukherjee and Miss. Subhashree Banerjee for
their help and guidance. They had made our training easy. I
want to thank all the workers of that company, who have
given their valuable time in explaining various process to
manufacturing instrument and finally I want to thank my
friends, who have accompanied me in this training.
Date:
Sett & De
15, COSSIPORE ROAD, KOL-700002
Payel Dey, Arnab , ............

Department
Arnab of Electrical
Engineering;
Elitte Institute of
Engineering &
Management.
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CONTENT:-
 Measuring instrument and equipments
 Laboratory Equipments
1. Ballistic Galvanometer
2. Shunt Resistance
3. Rheostat
4. Resistance Box
5. Post Office Box
 Soldering and De-Soldering

1. Soldering
2. Soldering tools
3. Soldering Flux
4. Soldering Process
5. De-Soldering
 Assembly and Working of PMMC Type Meter

1. Construction
2. Working Principle
3. Advantage & Disadvantage
4. Application
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 Galvanometer
1. Galvanometer
2. Galvanometer as a ammeter
3. Galvanometer as a voltmeter
 Assembling of PMMC at workshop

 Calibration of Meters
 Conclusion
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INTRODUCTION
SETT & DE was established in the year 1950 by Sett and De to ensure
customers high quality electrical and electronic measuring and control
instruments. With 65 years of continuous service and dependability SETT & DE
have an enviable position and customer preference amongst India’s most
prestigious industrial and research establishments. SETT & DE has its own
research and development team which has designed and fabricated various
types of high quality calibration Standard Instrument, Shunts, Resistors,
Process control instrument and allied items in different types for use of
Defense, Atomic Energy, Space research, Railways, Industries & research
laboratories for precision requirements. SETT & DE’s reference Standards and
Calibration Instruments are traceable to NPL (New Delhi), ERTL (E), &RTC
(Kolkata) for maintaining high standards and high degree of quality and
satisfaction to our customers in respect to total quality assurance.
SETT & DE is a measuring instrument company. They supply measuring

instruments to the Indian Railways since 1950. With 65 years of continuous
service and dependability Sett & De have a well-deserved position and it is
Bengal’s most prestigious research establishment.
Measuring is a process of comparing unknown magnitude of a certain

parameter with the known predefined standard of that parameter.
Measurements are the crucial part for all types of engineering. Every branch of
engineering involves two processes are design and operation. The design may
be machine design, building design, circuit design, automobile design etc. For
instance while designing automobile we have to consider dimension of various
parts of automobiles, the load they can pick up etc. Similarly during the
operation of the plant say like industrial refrigeration plant we have to
measure various quantities of the coal, the quantity of water in the boiler, the
amount of steam produced etc. So measurement is required in every field and
it’s most vital part of any construction.
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Calibration and Testing Laboratory
SETT & DE’s calibration and testing laboratory is well equipped for
environmental and accuracy testing of electrical and electronic instruments as
per Indian Standards of Specifications.
They have complete testing facilities for:
1. Damp Heat and Dry Heat Test

2. Life Test
3. High Voltage Test
4. Accuracy Test
5. Overload Test, etc
Products of SETT & DE.
1.Galvanometer
2. Bllistic Galvanometer
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3. Resistance Box
4. Shunt
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5.Voltmeter(higher range)(PMMC)
6.Voltmeter(lower range)(PMMC)
7. Rheostat(Varriable Resistor)
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8. TE-BE Meter
Laboratory Equipments:-
A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a
physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance,
and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and
comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events.
Established standard objects and events are used as units, and
the process of measurement gives a number relating the item
under study and the referenced unit of measurement.
Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define
the instrument's use, are the means by which these relations of
numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to
varying degrees of instrument error and measurement
uncertainty.
Scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of

instruments to perform their measurements. These instruments
may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches
to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual
instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern
measuring instruments.
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List of electrical and electronic measuring equipment.
Name Purpose
Ammeter
Measures current
(Ampermeter)
Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component
Applies swept signals to a device and allows display of

Curve tracer
the response
Cos Phi Meter Measures the power factor
Distortionmeter Measures the distortion added to a circuit
Electricity meter Measures the amount of energy dissipated
ESR meter Measures the equivalent series resistance of capacitors
Frequency counter Measures the frequency of the current
Leakage tester Measures leakage across the plates of a capacitor
Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of

LCR meter
a component
Microwave power
Measures power at microwave frequencies
meter
General purpose instrument measures voltage, current

Multimeter and resistance (and sometimes other quantities as
well)
Network analyzer Measures network parameters
Ohmmeter Measures the resistance of a component
Displays waveform of a signal, allows measurement of

Oscilloscope
frequency, timing, peak excursion, offset, ...
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Name Purpose
Psophometer Measures AF signal level and noise
Q meter Measures Q factor of the RF circuits
Measures both the amplitude and the modulation of a

Signal analyzer
RF signal
Signal generator Generates signals for testing purposes
Spectrum analyser Displays frequency spectrum
Creates constant-amplitude variable frequency sine

Sweep generator
waves to test frequency response
Transistor tester Tests transistors
Tube tester Tests vacuum tubes (triode, tetrode etc.)
Measures the power

Wattmeter
Vectorscope Displays the phase of the colors in color TV
Video signal
Generates video signal for testing purposes
generator
Measures the potential difference between two points

Voltmeter
in a circuit. (Includes: DVM and VTVM)
VU meter Measures the level of AF signals in Volume units
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RESISTANCE BOX
In prototyping of electronic circuits, a decade box is a type of test
equipment that can be used to substitute the interchanging of different values
of certain passive components with a single variable output. Decade boxes are
made for resistance, capacitance, and inductance, the values of which can be
increased incrementally by way of switching the points of contact for the input
and output throughout a series of the respective components.[1][3][4] The
interface for these devices will usually consist of dials or adjustable tape
counters, and are operated in-circuit and without any external power source.
Using the Resistance Box.

A simple use of the resistance box is to wire it to a battery via a
galvanometer and two ways key to measure an unknown resistance
as in figure 3. Read the galvanometer deflection with the unknown
resistance in circuit then change over and adjust the resistance box
until the same deflection is obtained. Read off the resistance in
circuit and there you have it. Other simple uses include adjusting
relay timing, balancing duplex or quad telephony and in laboratory
work.
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Ballistic Galvanometer
A ballistic galvanometer is a type of sensitive galvanometer,
commonly a mirror galvanometer. Unlike a current-measuring
galvanometer, the moving part has a large moment of inertia, thus
giving it a long oscillation period. It is really an integrator measuring
the quantity of charge discharged through it. It can be either of the
moving coil or moving magnet type.
Calibration setup of a Ballistic galvanometer
Grassot flux meter, another form of ballistic galvanometer.
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Grassot flux meter calibration arrangement using a standard mutual
inductor and a known quantity of electrical discharge. Measuring
setup is similar.
Before first use the ballistic constant of the galvanometer must be
determined. This is usually done by connecting to the galvanometer
a known capacitor, charged to a known voltage and recording the
deflection.
The constant K is calculated from the capacitance C, the voltage V
and the deflection d. K is expressed in coulombs per centimeter.
In operation the unknown quantity of charge Q (in coulombs) is
simply. .
P a g e | 14
SHUNT RESISTANCE
Significant power losses caused by the presence of a shunt
resistance, RSH, are typically due to manufacturing defects,
rather than poor solar cell design. Low shunt resistance causes
power losses in solar cells by providing an alternate current
path for the light-generated current. Such a diversion reduces
the amount of current flowing through the solar cell junction
and reduces the voltage from the solar cell. The effect of a shunt
resistance is particularly severe at low light levels, since there
will be less light-generated current. The loss of this current to
the shunt therefore has a larger impact. In addition, at lower
voltages where the effective resistance of the solar cell is high,
the impact of a resistance in parallel is large.
Circuit diagram of a solar cell including the shunt resistance.
The equation for a solar cell in presence of a shunt resistance is:

I=IL−I0exp[qVnkT]−VRSHI=IL−I0exp[qVnkT]−VRSH
where: I is the cell output current, IL is the light generated
current, V is the voltage across the cell terminals, T is the
temperature, q and k are constants, n is the ideality factor,
and RSH is the cell shunt resistance.
The impact of the shunt resistance on the fill factor can be

calculated in a manner similar to that used to find the impact of
series resistance on fill factor. The maximum power may be
approximated as the power in the absence of shunt resistance,
minus the power lost in the shunt resistance. The equation for
the maximum power from a solar cell.
P a g e | 15
Images of SHUNT
P a g e | 16
Post Office Box
The Post Office Box was a Wheatstone bridge-style testing

device with pegs and spring arms to close electrical circuits and
measure properties of the circuit under test.]
The boxes were used in the United Kingdom by engineers from

the then General Post Office, who were responsible for UK
telecommunications to trace electrical faults, i.e. to determine
where a break occurred in a cable which could be several miles
in length. It works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge to
identify the resistance of wire connected and then by using wire
resistivity and cross section calculating length of wire and thus
determining where the cable had broken. Post Office Boxes also
were common pieces of scientific apparatus in the UK O-
Level and A-Level schools public examination Physics syllabus
in the 1960s.
A typical Post Office Box is in a wooden box with a hinged lid

and a metal or Bakelite panel showing circuit connections. Coils
of wire are wound non-inductively, mounted in the body of the
box, and have a negligible temperature co-efficient. Pairs of
ratio arms are each 10, 100, 1000 ohms. Resistance arms
contain a number of coils from 1 to 5000 ohms with a plug for
infinite resistance.
P a g e | 17
Rheostat
A rheostat is a variable resistor which is used to control current.

They are able to vary the resistance in a
circuit without interruption. The construction is very similar to
the construction of a potentiometers. It uses only two
connections, even when 3 terminals (as in a potentiometer) are
present. The first connection is made to one end of the resistive
element and the other connection to the wiper (sliding
contact). In contrast to potentiometers, rheostats have to carry
a significant current. Therefore they are mostly constructed
as wire wound resistors. Resistive wire is wound around an
insulating ceramic core and the wiper slides over the windings.
P a g e | 18
SOLDERING AND DE-SOLDERING
Soldering :- It is a process in which two or more items (usually
metal) are joined together by melting and putting a filler metal
(solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point
than the adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that
soldering does not involve melting the work pieces. In brazing, the
filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece metal
does not melt. In the past, nearly all solders contained lead, but
environmental and health concerns have increasingly dictated use of
lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing purposes.
Types of Soldering
Soldering is classified as shown in the image below:
P a g e | 19
1. Soft soldering
It is a process for joining small intricate parts having low melting

points which damages when soldering process is carried out at high
temperature. It uses tin-lead alloy as filler material. The melting point
of the filler material should be below 400oC (752oF). It uses gas torch
as the heat source.
2. Hard soldering
In this process, hard solder connects two pieces of metals by
expanding into the pores of the work piece opened by high
temperature. The filler material possesses high temperature
above 450oC (840oF).
It comprises of two parts namely silver soldering and brazing.
2.1 Silver soldering

It is a clean process useful for fabricating small fittings, doing
odd repairs and making tools. It uses an alloy containing silver
as filler material. Silver provides free flowing characteristics but
silver solder is not good at gap filling hence, different fluxes are
recommended for précised silver solder.
P a g e | 20
2.2 Brazing
Brazing is a process of joining two pieces of base metals by
creating melted metallic filler that flows by capillary attraction
across the joints and cools to form a solid bond through atomic
attraction and diffusion. It creates an extremely strong joint. It
uses. brass alloy as filler material
Soldering tools:-
Soldering Irons: - Soldering irons come in many varieties
and sizes. Soldering irons may be electric, gas powered or
externally heated. Most common types are electric. Simple
electric soldering irons have no controls and you simply plug
them in and wait for them to heat up.
Their temperature is regulated by the power of the heating
element and heat loss to the environment. Some soldering irons
have temperature controls which allow the user to set a desired
operating temperature for the soldering iron. This is useful if
the soldering iron is being used for different types of solders
which have different melting points or if the soldering iron is
being used for other purposes such as heating heat shrink. It
also introduces a problem if the user does not set an
appropriate temperature for the work; solder can be overheated
and decompose. Hotter is not better! A temperature of around
320°C works well for 60/40 leaded solder. Some temperature
controlled soldering irons use interchangeable tips to change
the temperature at which they operate.
P a g e | 21
Types of Solder
There are different types of solder used for electrical work. They
are broadly classified as tin/lead solders or lead free solders.
Tin/lead solders have been used for many years because of their
ease of use however they have been phased out of commercial
use due to the harmful effects on humans and the environment.
Tin/lead solder is still available and is used by “hobbyists” and
other non-commercial users as it is still easier to use than lead
free types. When using tin/lead (or leaded) solder there are
additional safety precautions that must be observed
P a g e | 22
Soldering Flux:-
For electrical soldering both solder wire and solder paste
contain flux. This helps to clean the surfaces being soldered
and prevent oxidization of the hot solder. The composition of
the flux will vary depending on whether it is in a paste or wire,
leaded or unleaded solder. Solder wire usually contains a flux
called “rosin”. Most fluxes will produce fumes when the solder
is heated and these fumes are likely harmful to your health.
For occasional soldering it may be sufficient to have a well-
ventilated workspace but for longer or repeated exposure a
fume extractor should be used. Solder flux can also cause
solder to spatter and eye protection should be worn when
soldering.
Soldering Process:-
You melt the solder over a joint by applying a hot tool called a
soldering iron (essentially a hot piece of metal with a pointed tip,
with the heat generated inside it by an electrically powered heating
element). It's very important to note that solder is not glue: it is not
designed to make a mechanical connection. If you rely on solder
alone to fasten two wires together, they'll probably break apart
sooner or later. It's important to make a good mechanical connection
and then solder on top. There are good and bad ways to solder,
some of which make poor joints that don't conduct electricity
P a g e | 23
properly. (For example, if you move a soldered connection while the
solder is still molten, you will generally get a badly formed or cold
joint, which will be dull- coloured, irregular, and pitted.)
De-Soldering:-
The reverse process of soldering is de-soldering. It is a process of
removal of solder and components mounted on circuit boards. The
soldered joint is removed by the process of de-soldering. For this
purpose a small vacuum pump is used to remove solder from the
plated through holes. The lead over which the desoldering tip was
placed is moved in a circular motion for rounded leads and back and
forth for flat leads.
De-soldering with a de-soldering gun.

P a g e | 24
Tools:-
De-soldering tools and materials include the following:
 Solder wick.
 Heat guns, also called hot air guns.
 De-soldering pump.
 Removal alloys.
 Removal fluxes.
 Heated soldering tweezers.
 Various picks and tweezers for tasks such as pulling at,
holding, removing, and scraping components.
 Vacuum and pressure pumps with specialized heater tips
and nozzles.
 Rework stations, used to repair printed circuit board
assemblies that fail factory test.
Terminology is not totally standardised. Anything with a base

unit with provision to maintain a stable temperature, pump air
in either direction, etc., is often called a "station" (preceded by
rework, soldering, desoldering, hot air); one, or sometimes
more, tools may be connected to a station, e.g., a rework station
may accommodate a soldering iron and hot air head. A
soldering iron with a hollow tip and a spring-, bulb-, or
electrically-operated suction pump may be called a desoldering
iron.
P a g e | 25
Working of PMMC Type Meter
Construction
A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned

between the poles of a U shaped permanent magnet which is made up of
magnetic alloys like alnico.
The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the coil is free to rotate.
The current is fed to the coil through spiral springs which are two in
numbers. The coil which carries a current, which is to be measured, moves
in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and a pointer
is attached to the spindle which shows the measured value.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil: Principle of Working
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it

experiences a force and tends to move in the direction as per Fleming’s left
hand rule.
P a g e | 26
Fleming left hand rule:
If the first and the second finger and the thumb of the left hand are held so
that they are at right angle to each other, then the thumb shows the
direction of the force on the conductor, the first finger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the second finger shows the direction of
the current in the wire.
Equation involved
The interaction between the induced field and the field produced by the
permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation.
The three important torque involved in this instrument are:
Deflecting torque:
The force F which will be perpendicular to both the direction of the current
flow and the direction of magnetic filed as per the fleming’s left hand rule
can be written as
F = NBIL
where N: turns of wire on the coil
B: flux density in the air gap
I: current in the movable coil
L: vertical length of the coil
Theoretically the torque (here electro-magnetical torque) is equal to the

multiplication of force with distance to the point of suspension.
Hence Torque on left side of the cylinder TL = NBIL x W/2 and torque on
right side of the cylinder TR = NBIL x W/2
Therefore the total torque will be = TL + TR
T = NBILW or NBIA where A is effective area (A= LxW)
Controlling Torque
P a g e | 27
This torque is produced by the spring action and opposes the deflection torque
so as the pointer can come to rest at the point where these two torques are
equal (Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque). The value of control
torque depends on the mechanical design of spiral springs and strip
suspensions.
The controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the

coil.
Control torque Ct =Cθ where, θ = deflection angle in radians and C = spring

constant Nm /rad .
Damping torque
This torque ensures the pointer comes to an equilibrium position i.e. at rest in
the scale without oscillating to give accurate reading. In PMMC as the coil
moves in the magnetic filed, eddy current sets up in a metal former or core on
which the coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil itself which opposes the
motion of the coil resulting in slow swing of pointer and than come to rest
quickly with very little oscillation.
Working
When a current flow through the coil, it generates a magnetic field which is
proportional to the current in case of an ammeter. The deflecting torque is
produced by the electromagnetic action of the current in the coil and the
magnetic field.
When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped and its angular
deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a
fixed reference, called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and
the spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear.
The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous bronze flat coiled

helical springs. These springs serve as a flexible connection to the coil
conductors.
P a g e | 28
Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the aluminum coil which
prevents the oscillation of the coil.
Applications
The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be used as:
1) Ammeter:
When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very small current range, the
moving coil is connected across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only
small part of the main current flows through the coil.
The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of alloy metal, which is
usually magnetic and has a low temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed
between two massive blocks of copper. A resistor of same alloy is also placed
in series with the coil to reduce errors due to temperature variation.
2) Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with high
resistance. Rest of the function is same as above. The same moving coil can be
used as an ammeter or voltmeter with an interchange of above arrangement
3) Galvanometer:
Galvanometer is used to measure small value of current along with its

direction and strength. It is mainly used onboard to detect and compare
different circuits in a system.
5) Ohm Meter:
The ohm meter is used to measure resistance of the electric circuit by applying
a voltage to a resistance with the help of battery. A galvanometer is used to
determine the flow of current through the resistance. The galvanometer scale
is marked in ohms and as the resistance varies, since the voltage is fixed, the
current through the meter will also vary.
Advantages
 The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.
P a g e | 29
 It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270 degree.
 The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
 It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with suitable resistance.
 It has efficient damping characteristics and is not affected by stray

magnetic field.
 It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
Disadvantage
 The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C supply as the
reversal of current produces reversal of torque on the coil.
 It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a rectifier.
 It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron instruments.
 It may show error due to loss of magnetism of permanent magnet.
What are different reason that causes error in PMMC?
1. Temperature effect: Error in the reading of the PMMC may cause due to
change in the temperature which will effect the resistance of the moving
coil. The temperature coefficients of the value of coefficient of copper
wire in moving coil is 0.04 per degree celsius rise in temperature. Since
the coil has a lower temperature coefficient, it will have a faster rate of
temperature rises which will result in increase in the resistance causing
an error
2. Spring material and age: The other factor which may lead to error in the
PMMC reading is the quality and contortion of the spring. Old ageing
spring will not allow the pointer to show the correct reading making an
error.
3. Ageing of Magnet: Along with the age, the effect of heat and vibration
will reduce the magnetic effect of the permanent magnet which will
produce an error in the reading.
Can PMMC be used to measure AC?

P a g e | 30
If the frequency is low enough, the PMMC with addition to a rectifier can be
used to measure AC which convert the measured quantity into a dc current
typically less than 1mA. Add an appropriate scale and you have a meter.
What will happen if I use it on high frequency AC?
If frequency of ac is high, the meter just vibrates in and around the zero value
(preferable to verify with a centre zero meter), and finally stops responding to
ac
What are permanent magnets made of?
Permanent magnets are made of special alloys such as :
 Aluminum-Nickel-Cobalt (Alnicos)
 Strontium-Iron
 Neodymium-Iron-Boron
 Samarium-Cobalt.
GALVANOMETER:
Definition: The galvanometer is the device used for detecting the presence of
small current and voltage or for measuring their magnitude. The galvanometer
is mainly used in the bridges and potentiometer where they indicate the null
deflection or zero current.
Principle of Galvanometer
The potentiometer is based on the premise that the current sustaining coil is
kept between the magnetic field experiences a torque.
P a g e | 31
Construction of the Galvanometer
The construction of the potentiometer is shown in the figure below.
The moving coil, suspension, and permanent magnet are the main parts of the
galvanometer.
Moving Coil – The moving coil is the current carrying part of the galvanometer.
It is rectangular or circular and has the number of turns of fine copper wire.
The coil is freely moved about its vertical axis of symmetry between the poles
of a permanent magnet. The iron core provides the low reluctance flux path
and hence provides the strong magnetic field for the coil to move in.
Suspension – The coil is suspended by a flat ribbon which carries the current to
the coil. The other current carrying coil is the lower suspension whose torque
effect is negligible. The upper suspension coil is made up of gold or copper
wire which is made in the form of a ribbon. The mechanical strength of the
wire is not very strong, and hence the galvanometers handle carefully without
any jerks.
P a g e | 32
Mirror – The suspension carries a small mirror which casts the beam of light.
The beam of light placed on the scale on which the deflection is measured.
Torsion Head – The torsion head is used for controlling the position of the coil
and for adjusting the zero setting.
Applications of Galvanometer
The galvanometer has following applications. They are
 It is used for detecting the direction of current flows in the circuit. It also
determines the null point of the circuit. The null point means the
situation in which no current flows through the circuit.
 It is used for measuring the current.
 The voltage between any two points of the circuit is also determined
through galvanometer.
Working of Galvanometer
1.Conversion of Galvanometer into an Ammeter
The galvanometer is used as an ammeter by

connecting the low resistance wire in parallel
with the galvanometer. The potential
difference between the voltage and the shunt
resistance are equal.
Where, S = shunt resistance and Is = current across the shunt.
P a g e | 33
As the galvanometer and the shunt resistance are connected in potential with
the circuit, their potentials are equal.
Thus, the shunt resistance is given as,
The value of the shunt current is very small as compared to the supply current.
2.Conversion of Galvanometer into a voltmeter
The galvanometer is used as a voltmeter by connecting the high resistance in

series with the circuit.
The range of the voltmeter depends on the value of the resistance connected
in series with the circuit.
P a g e | 34
Calibration of Meters :-
Calibration in measurement technology and metrology is the comparison of
measurement values delivered by a device under test with those of a
calibration standard of known accuracy. Such a standard could be another
measurement device of known accuracy, a device generating the quantity to
be measured such as a voltage, or a physical artefact, such as a metre ruler.
The outcome of the comparison can result in no significant error being noted
on the device under test, a significant error being noted but no adjustment
made, or an adjustment made to correct the error to an acceptable level.
Strictly speaking, the term calibration means just the act of comparison, and
does not include any subsequent adjustment.
The calibration standard is normally traceable to a national standard held by a

National Metrological Institute.
Instrument calibration prompts
Calibration may be required called for the following reasons:
 a new instrument
 after an instrument has been repaired or modified
 when a specified time period has elapsed
 when a specified usage (operating hours) has elapsed
 before and/or after a critical measurement
 after an event, for example
o after an instrument has been exposed to a shock, vibration, or

physical damage, which might potentially have compromised the
integrity of its calibration
o sudden changes in weather
 whenever observations appear questionable or instrument indications

do not match the output of surrogate instruments
P a g e | 35
 as specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification, instrument
manufacturer recommendation.
In general use, calibration is often regarded as including the process of

adjusting the output or indication on a measurement instrument to agree with
value of the applied standard, within a specified accuracy. For example, a
thermometer could be calibrated so the error of indication or the correction is
determined, and adjusted (e.g. via calibration constants) so that it shows the
true temperature in Celsius at specific points on the scale. This is the
perception of the instrument's end-user. However, very few instruments can
be adjusted to exactly match the standards they are compared to. For the vast
majority of calibrations, the calibration process is actually the comparison of
an unknown to a known and recording the results.
Basic calibration process
Purpose and scope
The calibration process begins with the design of the measuring instrument
that needs to be calibrated. The design has to be able to "hold a calibration"
through its calibration interval. In other words, the design has to be capable of
measurements that are "within engineering tolerance" when used within the
stated environmental conditions over some reasonable period of time. Having
a design with these characteristics increases the likelihood of the actual
measuring instruments performing as expected. Basically, the purpose of
calibration is for maintaining the quality of measurement as well as to ensure
the proper working of particular instrument.
Standards required and accuracy
The next step is defining the calibration process. The selection of a standard or
standards is the most visible part of the calibration process. Ideally, the
standard has less than 1/4 of the measurement uncertainty of the device being
calibrated. When this goal is met, the accumulated measurement uncertainty
of all of the standards involved is considered to be insignificant when the final
measurement is also made with the 4:1 ratio. This ratio was probably first
formalized in Handbook 52 that accompanied MIL-STD-45662A, an early US
Department of Defense metrology program specification. It was 10:1 from its
P a g e | 36
inception in the 1950s until the 1970s, when advancing technology made 10:1
impossible for most electronic measurements.
Maintaining a 4:1 accuracy ratio with modern equipment is difficult. The test
equipment being calibrated can be just as accurate as the working standard. If
the accuracy ratio is less than 4:1, then the calibration tolerance can be
reduced to compensate. When 1:1 is reached, only an exact match between
the standard and the device being calibrated is a completely correct
calibration. Another common method for dealing with this capability mismatch
is to reduce the accuracy of the device being calibrated.
For example, a gage with 3% manufacturer-stated accuracy can be changed to

4% so that a 1% accuracy standard can be used at 4:1. If the gage is used in an
application requiring 16% accuracy, having the gage accuracy reduced to 4%
will not affect the accuracy of the final measurements. This is called a limited
calibration. But if the final measurement requires 10% accuracy, then the 3%
gage never can be better than 3.3:1. Then perhaps adjusting the calibration
tolerance for the gage would be a better solution. If the calibration is
performed at 100 units, the 1% standard would actually be anywhere between
99 and 101 units. The acceptable values of calibrations where the test
equipment is at the 4:1 ratio would be 96 to 104 units, inclusive. Changing the
acceptable range to 97 to 103 units would remove the potential contribution
of all of the standards and preserve a 3.3:1 ratio. Continuing, a further change
to the acceptable range to 98 to 102 restores more than a 4:1 final ratio.
This is a simplified example. The mathematics of the example can be

challenged. It is important that whatever thinking guided this process in an
actual calibration be recorded and accessible. Informality contributes to
tolerance stacks and other difficult to diagnose post calibration problems.
Also in the example above, ideally the calibration value of 100 units would be
the best point in the gage's range to perform a single-point calibration. It may
be the manufacturer's recommendation or it may be the way similar devices
are already being calibrated. Multiple point calibrations are also used.
Depending on the device, a zero unit state, the absence of the phenomenon
being measured, may also be a calibration point. Or zero may be resettable by
P a g e | 37
the user-there are several variations possible. Again, the points to use during
calibration should be recorded.
There may be specific connection techniques between the standard and the
device being calibrated that may influence the calibration. For example, in
electronic calibrations involving analog phenomena, the impedance of the
cable connections can directly influence the result.
P a g e | 38
CONCLUSION
After making of PMMC type Galvanometers we are familiar
with its various components working procedure and how
they are assembled with another part for measuring accurate
voltage of traction system. This is a huge work to run an
instrument perfectly with its accurate calibration. At a time of
making this meter we are comparing with practical work and
theoretical knowledge.
So, it was a great experience for us and it is only happened
for the great cooperation of every members of the company.
We are very grateful near Company for helping us to gain
knowledge over different types of instruments of railway
traction system. This training will be very helpful for our
practical knowledge and also for carrier.
We would again like to thank our trainers Mr. Arnab

Mukherjee and Mr. Suman Sardar for their help and
cooperation. We would also like to specially mention the
name of Mrs. Subhashree Banerjee who had given us an
opportunity to learn such a vital part of Electrical Measuring
Instrument.
P a g e | 39

Training Report On PMMC

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SETT & DE

TOPIC: -Industrial Training report

Submitted by: Payel Dey, Arnab and ......

Payel Dey, Arnab , ............

5. Post Office Box

 Soldering and De-Soldering

 Assembly and Working of PMMC Type Meter

3. Advantage & Disadvantage

 Assembling of PMMC at workshop

SETT & DE is a measuring instrument company. They supply measuring

Measuring is a process of comparing unknown magnitude of a certain

They have complete testing facilities for:

1. Damp Heat and Dry Heat Test

Products of SETT & DE.

Scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of

Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component

Applies swept signals to a device and allows display of

Cos Phi Meter Measures the power factor

Distortionmeter Measures the distortion added to a circuit

Electricity meter Measures the amount of energy dissipated

ESR meter Measures the equivalent series resistance of capacitors

Frequency counter Measures the frequency of the current

Leakage tester Measures leakage across the plates of a capacitor

Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of

General purpose instrument measures voltage, current

Network analyzer Measures network parameters

Ohmmeter Measures the resistance of a component

Displays waveform of a signal, allows measurement of

Psophometer Measures AF signal level and noise

Q meter Measures Q factor of the RF circuits

Measures both the amplitude and the modulation of a

Signal generator Generates signals for testing purposes

Spectrum analyser Displays frequency spectrum

Creates constant-amplitude variable frequency sine

Transistor tester Tests transistors

Tube tester Tests vacuum tubes (triode, tetrode etc.)

Measures the power

Vectorscope Displays the phase of the colors in color TV

Measures the potential difference between two points

VU meter Measures the level of AF signals in Volume units

Using the Resistance Box.

Calibration setup of a Ballistic galvanometer

Grassot flux meter, another form of ballistic galvanometer.

Circuit diagram of a solar cell including the shunt resistance.

The equation for a solar cell in presence of a shunt resistance is:

The impact of the shunt resistance on the fill factor can be

The Post Office Box was a Wheatstone bridge-style testing

The boxes were used in the United Kingdom by engineers from

A typical Post Office Box is in a wooden box with a hinged lid

A rheostat is a variable resistor which is used to control current.

Soldering is classified as shown in the image below:

It is a process for joining small intricate parts having low melting

2.1 Silver soldering

De-soldering with a de-soldering gun.

Terminology is not totally standardised. Anything with a base

A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil: Principle of Working

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it

The three important torque involved in this instrument are:

where N: turns of wire on the coil

B: flux density in the air gap

I: current in the movable coil

L: vertical length of the coil