CHAPTER (5)

TYPES AND PRINCIPLES OF BURNER DESIGN

5.1 How does combustion occur?

The release of potential energy of fuel by combustion with air requires several stages:- •
a) Mixing of air and fuel
b) Ignition of the mixture
c) Chemical reaction
d) Disposal of products of combustion from the reaction site so that fresh reactants
are available.
Except mixing of air and fuel, all other stages are extremely fast such that it is said that if
fuel and air are mixed, fuel is burnt. Accordingly mixing is the slowest step in the process
of combustion
This can be understood by considering that each mole of carbon theoretically requires 1
mole of oxygen for complete combustion. But 1 mole of oxygen is obtained from 4.76 moles
of air. That means 3.76 moles of nitrogen are present with 1 mole of oxygen. Nitrogen is
inert and does not take part in combustion therefore mixing of air + fuel is important.
Excess air can be determined by the amount of oxygen in the flue gas and calculated by:
𝐾∗21
Excess air (%) = x100, where: K = 0.9 for gas and 0.94 for oil.
(21−%𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛)−1
5.2 What is a burner?
A burner is a mechanical device that.
a) Supplies required amount of fuel and air
b) Creates condition for rapid mixing of fuel and air
c) Produces a flame which transfers thermal energy to furnace and charge
Burners are the devices responsible for:
a) Proper mixing of fuel and air in the correct proportions, for efficient and complete
combustion
b) Determining the shape and direction of the flame
In oil burners, oil is atomized into a fine spray by a spray nozzle and air is supplied for
combustion in the spray chamber. Alternatively oil may be atomized by high speed air to
produce a fine dispersion of droplets into air.
There are liquid fuel and gaseous fuel burners. In liquid fuel burner, oil is heated and
atomized either mechanically or by high speed gaseous jet. In mechanical methods oil is
atomized by means of a rotating disc or cup or by swirler as shown in the figure 1.
 Figure1: Spreading of an axis‐symmetric jet in the surrounding (Rotary Cup Burner)
Mechanical atomization produces wider spray of oil and wide flame area with uniform
droplet size.
In atomization, compressed air or steam is the atomizing fluid. Air atomization produces
higher flame temperature than steam atomization. Steam atomization is preferred for
viscous oil. Some ways of air atomization are shown in the figure .2

Figure 2: Entrainment of the surrounding in the free jet. (Swirling Burner)

A gaseous fuel burner could either be of premixed type or diffusion type. In a pre‐mixed
type gas and air are mixed prior to passing through the nozzle. In diffusion type fuel and
some amount of air is mixed and the mixture is passed through the burner. Rest air for
combustion is supplied in the furnace chamber. Combustion of fuel is controlled by the rate
of mixing of air and fuel. In these burners small portion of air is mixed with fuel as primary
air and the rest amount, known as secondary air is supplied in the furnace.
Industrial burners for gaseous fuel are diffusive type.
5.3Mixing of air and gaseous fuel
In diffusion burner air and gaseous fuel are supplied separately in the furnace. In modt
combustion systems mass of air is at least 8 to9 times than fuel. When air and fuel pass
through the burner, the momentum flux of air is several times greater than fuel. Some
fraction of total air is mixed with the fuel and this air is known as primary air. Rest amount
of air, known as secondary air is supplied in the furnace through appropriate locations.
Mixing and combustion take place simultaneously.
When a mixture of air and gaseous fuel passes through the burner, a free jet is produced
downstream the burner. If the air fuel mixture is discharged in the furnace then a confined
jet is produced because of the furnace walls. The difference between the free jet and
confined jet is that in the former the amount of surrounding is unlimited whereas in the
later the amount is limited. Mixing of secondary air in the jet is important for complete and
efficient combustion. In the absence of mixing the chances of formation can not be ruled
out.
5.4 Characteristic features of jet
A jet is produced when a fluid is discharged through the nozzle. In the jet the velocity of the
fluid is accelerated. Free jet is produced when the fluid is discharged in the surrounding
with no confinement. A jet is said to be confined when the fluid is discharged in the
container. The characteristic feature of the jet (whether free of confined) is that it spreads
due to the difference in the density of the jet and the surrounding. A hot jet in the cold
surrounding spreads faster than a cold jet in the same surrounding.
Spreading of the jet is due to entrainment of the surrounding. Due to entrainment of the
surrounding, the axial velocity of the jet decreases. For any downstream axial distance, the
maximum velocity is at the center and minimum at the periphery such that a parabolic
profile is developed as shown in the figure .3.

Figure.3: Spreading of an axis‐symmetric jet in the surrounding

In addition, jet carries with it momentum flux. The momentum flux within the jet is
Momentum flux = Mass of the jet * velocity of jet
Mass of jet = Mass of air at the exit of the nozzle +Mass of surrounding
Mass of the air at the exit of the nozzle is constant. The entrainment of the surrounding in
the jet increases the mass of the jet but decreases the velocity of the jet. The cumulative
effect is that momentum flux within the jet remains constant. Entrainment of the
surrounding and hence increase in mass of jet depends on the difference in the momentum
flux within the jet and that of surrounding (note that as the jet is discharged into a still
surrounding, the surrounding sets in motion). The entrainment of the surrounding will
continue as long as the difference in the momentum flux exists.
A free jet has no confinement and hence can spread till the difference between the
momentum flux of the jet and the surrounding becomes zero. Figure 4 shows the
entrainment in the free jet.

Figure .4: Entrainment of the surrounding in the free jet.

1. A free unconfined get spreads in the surrounding

2. Spreading of the get is due to entrainment of the surrounding
3. Entrainment of the surrounding is due to the difference in momentum flow rate within the
jet and that within the surrounding. Entrainment of surrounding continues till the
difference becomes zero.
4. Entrainment of surrounding depends on mass flow rate and jet velocity
In furnaces jet is confined by furnace walls. Due to confinement, mass of the surrounding is
limited to the amount equal to secondary air. The primary air mixes rapidly with the fuel at
the nozzle but the remaining air must be entrained and for this purpose excess momentum
flux in the jet is required. If the confined jet has momentum flux in excess of that required
for the complete entrainment of the secondary air, products of combustion will entrain and
a circulatory jet is produced. Figure.5 shows recirculation of products of combustion in the
jet

Figure 5: Entrainment of products of combustion in the jet.

- At point, A, secondary air is entrained.
- Beyond point A the products of combustion entrain due to the excess momentum in
the jet.
In the design of burner for gaseous fuel it is important to design the primary air
depending on the requirement. Since the amount of air is many times greater than the
fuel, momentum flux within the jet is controlled by the primary air. The primary air
controls the fuel /air mixing rate and assists in stabilizing the jet and to control
recirculation. In designing a gaseous fuel burner total mass flow rat of air is
subdivided into primary and secondary air. Whereas primary air is mixed with fuel,
and secondary amounts of air are introduced through the pots in the furnace.
5.5 Degree of recirculation
Recirculation sets in when the secondary air is mixed completely with the fuel. Degree
of recirculation indicates complete mixing of fuel with air.
In confined gets, absence of recirculation results in a tendency for the flame to expand
until it impinges into the furnace walls of load. Hot gases will be in direct contact with
the refractory brick which may result in failure. The recirculating gases provide a
“cushion” of cooler inert flue gases which prevents direct impingement of flame. A
high momentum recirculartory jet will also produce a stable flame which is
comfortable.
5.6- Oil atomization systems
As previously mentioned, oil must be atomized for optimal combustion. Oil burners are
classified according to the method used for atomization:
 Air-atomizing burners
 Steam-atomizing burners
 Mechanical-atomizing burners
The ability to burn fuel oil efficiently requires a high fuel surface area-to-volume ratio.
Experience has shown that oil particles in the range of 20 to 40 µm are the most
successful. Particles which are:
Bigger than 40 ''µ''m tend to be carried through the flame without completing the
combustion process
Smaller than 20 ''µ''m may travel so fast that they are carried through the flame
without burning at all
Each of the burner types uses a nozzle to provide the spray of liquid fuel. The rate of
combustion is limited by vaporization of the liquid fuel. The greater the surface area of
the fuel, the greater the combustion capability. Warm up guns normally use air
atomization of light oil or steam atomization of heavy oil. Fuel pressure requirements
for mechanical atomization are much higher. '''Table 4.1''' is a summary of oil
atomization systems.
 Oil atomization
Type Flow control Major characteristics
systems
Fuel system simplicity,
Mechanical Simplex adjusting fuel feed rate
poor turndown
Constant differential adjusting fuel feed Consistent over wide
pressure rate load range
Constant supply adjusting return Used in large boilers;
pressure valve variable spray angle
Constant - Saves steam at low
Two-fluid (using
differential adjusting fuel feed rate load.
steam or air)
pressure (T-jet) - Δp may be adjustable
- Excellent atomization
- very wide turndown
capability;
Constant steam (or adjusting fuel feed
- air atomization
air) pressure (Y-jet) rate
economical for small
boilers or warm-up
guns only
Spinning cup or
Rotary Adjusting fuel feed rate
disk

5.7 Types of Boiler Burner

Turndown Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of minimum heat input rate to maximum heat input rate.
Turndown ratio is important from economic and legislative perspective so that the
burner provides efficient and proper combustion. Some burners can have as much as a
50:1 or more turn down while other types of burners are designed for only 2 or 3:1
turndown. The turndown ratio for various burners are-
Burner type Turndown ratio
Pressure jet 2:1
Rotary cup 4:1
Depending on the type of fuel, design and application there are different types of
burners.
Gas Burners:
These are type of burners that are classified on the basis of the air and fuel mixing
phenomenon as- premixed and diffusion type. In premix type, fuel and gas are
premixed before passing through the burner nozzle. In diffusion type, a small quantity
of air is mixed in the flow of gas and there will be diffusion between them. Air and
gaseous fuels are supplied separately in the furnace. The rate of mixing of air and fuel
decides the combustion process. Diffusion type of burners are used in industrial as
well as domestic application. Gas burners are also classified on the basis of pressure.
They are operated on atmospheric as well as high pressure condition. Low pressure
burners vary from 1 to 4 kpa. While high pressure burners vary from 7 to 70 kpa.
In atmospheric type of burners air is supplied in the furnace chamber. Small portion of
air is mixed with the fuel as primary air and the rest amount known as secondary air is
supplied above the burner port.The mass of air is about 10 times that of fuel. Some
fraction of total air is mixed with the fuel and this air supplied with the fuel is called
the primary air. The secondary air is further added in the combustion point in the
furnace. Mixing and combustion take place simultaneously.
A free jet is produced in the downstream side of the burner during the discharge of
fuel. The gas velocity at the orifice will be proportional to the square root of the
differential pressure across the orifice. The venture tube is provided for better mixing.
When a mixture of air and gaseous fuel passes through the nozzle of the burner, they
mixed thoroughly in the divergent section of the venture. In this section pressure
increases gradually as the velocity head is converted to the pressure head. The
secondary air is supplied to the flame to complete combustion of the fuel
Oil burners:
In this type, the oil is first vaporized by applying heat. The oil vapours are mixed with
excess air and then burned. Oil is vaporized at a slower rate than the rate of
combustion reaction. This process is modified by using atomizers to form tiny droplets
of oil before its ignition. The droplets can be vaporized easily. The oil droplets
produced are in the range of 0.0002 to 0.010 inch. The small size of droplets results in
quick ignition and rapid flame formation. Designing of nozzle is important so that the
droplets produced are delivered at uniform rate. Oil is also atomized by using rotary
cup and swirling method.
Pressure jet burners:
These burners consist of an orifice at the end of the pressurized tube. The pressure of
the fuel oil ranges from 7 to 15 bar. These burners are easy to maintain and have less
cost. Substantial pressure drop is developed over the orifice in the operating range
when fuel is discharged into the furnace leads to atomization of the fuel. Pressure of
the fuel oil is directly proportional to the flow rate of the fuel. P ∝ Q2.
The turndown ratio is restricted to 2:1. Pressure jet burners are supplied with variety
of interchangeable nozzles to adjust different boiler loads.
As the load in the boiler is not constant, the boiler will have to be taken off-line to
change the nozzle. .
Characteristics of jet:
A jet is produced when a fluid is discharged through the nozzle. In the jet the velocity
of the fluid is accelerated. Free jet is produced when the fluid is discharged in the
surrounding with no confinement. A jet is said to be confined when the fluid is
discharged in the container. The characteristic feature of the jet (whether free of
confined) is that it spreads due to the difference in the density of the jet and the
surrounding. A hot jet in the cold surrounding spreads faster than a cold jet in the
same surrounding. Spreading of the jet is due to entrainment of the surrounding.
Due to entrainment of the surrounding, the axial velocity of the jet decreases. For any
downstream axial distance, the maximum velocity is at the center and minimum at the
periphery such that a parabolic profile is developed.
Swirl oil burner:
In swirl oil burner, oil is pressurized to about 7-10 bar. This pressurized fuel enters
tangentially through the slot at a high velocity in the oil swirl chamber. It flows in the
form of vortex and escapes through a nozzle at the other end of the chamber.
Centrifugal force is exerted on to the oil and it moves forward in the shape of hollow
tube. Air enters to the annular space and moves forward. Then the fine droplets
emerge at the exit of the chamber in the form of a spray
Rotary cup Burner:
This burner has a rotary cup and a fan. The cup and the fan are rotated by an electric
motor with a shaft. Oil is feed to the oil distributer to throw at the inner surface of the
cup. The cup rotates at the speed of about 3600 rpm. Then oil flows in a swirling
motion and is thrown as fine droplets at the other end. Fan or blower supplies primary
air in whirling motion opposite to oil motion. This helps to further disintegrate the oil
particles and reach combustion chamber.
Dual fuel burners:
These are burners designed with gas as main fuel and have additional facility for
burning fuel oil. The changeover of the fuel from gas to oil should be rapid as there
should not be any interruption in the supply.
While changing the supply from gas to oil, the gas lines should be first isolated, and oil
supply should be switched on. The boiler should then be re-fired. Fuel oil is a stand by
and used for short periods. Oil firing capacity may be basic.
In a marine boiler, oil fired burner is normally used. Diesel or heavy fuel oil is used as
burning fuel. The fuel to be used has to be clean and in correct temperature and
viscosity for rapid combustion. This is to ensure the fuel to be at right atomization that
will turn the fuel into micro droplets for efficient combustion.
Temperature is a critical factor as a lower than the normal temperature will lead to
increase in the size of droplet resulting in poor combustion producing soot and smoke.
If the fuel temperature is too high, the droplets can be too small leading to rapidly
burning of the fuel near the burner tip. For boilers, three basic types of burners are
used:
1- Pressure Jet Burners
In the operating range, the substantial pressure drop created over the orifice when the
fuel is discharged into the furnace results in atomization of the fuel. Putting a thumb
over the end of a garden hosepipe creates the same effect. Varying the pressure of the
fuel oil immediately before the orifice (nozzle) controls the flow rate of fuel from the
burner. The main purpose of boiler burner is to break the oil into fine droplets i.e. to
atomize the fuel in correct manner so that efficient combustion can be achieved. In
 pressure jet burner, an orifice or nozzle is fitted at the end of a pressure tube which
atomizes the fuel in to fine droplets. Atomization of fuel also depends mainly on the
flow rate of the fuel from the burner’s end. The difference in the pressure of the fuel
before and after the nozzle controls the flow-rate of the fuel from burner. Hence, if the
flow rate of the fuel from burner is reduced to 50%, it will affect the atomization by a
drop of 25%. To overcome this problem, this type of burner is supplied with different
size of nozzle (having different diameter of orifice), which can be interchanged as per
the flow rate of the fuel which mainly depends on the boiler load.
The fuel pressure required for pressure jet burner may vary from 7 bar to 15 bar
depending upon the design of burner and load of the boiler. The maximum required
viscosity at the burner inlet is normally 15 cst and both diesel and heavy oil can be
used as a fuel.

Figure 6: Pressure Jet Burners

Advantage of Pressure jet burner:
1) Simple in construction
2) Economical in maintenance
3) Variety of sizes for different boiler load
4) Can be accommodated in all type o furnca
5) Produces variety of flame: short and fat, long and thin
Disadvantage of Pressure jet burner:
1) Limited turndown ratio for some nozzle size- 2:1
2) Nozzle hole prone to frequent clogging
3) This burner requires highest oil- pre heat treatment
4) Nozzle cleaning to be carefully done as it can be damaged easily
5) Requires frequent maintenance
6) Inefficient at high load boilers
2- Air or steam blast atomizer:
This type of burner is similar in working as pressure jet, with an addition of high pressure
steam supply arrangement incorporated in it. The oil is thus sprayed in the path of this
high pressure air r steam which helps the fuel for atomization. Normally air is used during
the initial starting of burner and then steam take over the operation. A convergent
divergent nozzle is used to convert the pressure energy to kinetic energy which results in a
high velocity jet of steam which enables atomization of oil which is sprayed in its path.
The steam side have tangential nozzle which provides rotatory motion to the fuel to ensure
efficient combustion.
The fuel pressure required for pressure jet burner may vary from10 bar to 21 bar
depending upon the design of burner and load of the boiler. The maximum required
viscosity at the burner inlet is normally 15 cst and both diesel and heavy oil can be used as
a fuel.

Figure 7: Air or steam blast atomizer

Advantages:
1) Robust construction
2) High Turndown ratio of 4:1
3) Efficient combustion over whole firing range
4) Air fuel ratio can be adjusted for achieving efficiency
5) Good combustion of heavy fuel oil
Disadvantages:
1) Combustion depends on steam/ air supply
2) Additional maintenance of connections and piping for air and steam
3- Rotary cup burner
As the name suggest, this burner comprises of a burner nozzle which is covered by a
rapidly rotating cone. The fuel oil is carried on to a nozzle which is centrally located within
the rotating cone. As the fuel oil moves along the cup due to absence of centripetal force,
the oil film becomes thinner in its course as the circumference of the cup increase.
Ultimately, the fuel is discharged from the tip of the rotating cone in the form of fine
atomized spray. The atomization achieved in the rotating cup burner has very high
turndown ration as compared to pressure jet burner because atomization is produces by
rotating cup rather than pressurizing the fuel supply to nozzle.
 Figure 8: Rotary cup burner
Advantages:
1) Good turndown ratio of better than 4:1.
2) Good atomization of heavy fuel oils.
3) Lowest oil pre-heat temperature required 
for atomization.
4) No high pressure fuel in the line
Disadvantages:
1) Complex in construction
2) Costly to maintain.
3) Electrical consumption and connections required for the cup drive.

5.8 Selection of burner:

Combustion volume:
The space occupied by the fuel and the products of combustion varies considerably with
the burner design, upstream pressures and flow rates.
Stability:
Turndown ratio is defined as the ratio of minimum heat input rate to maximum heat input
rate. Minimum heat input rate is controlled by the phenomenon “back fire” whereas
maximum heat input is controlled by the extinguishing of the flame. If the velocity of
mixture of fuel +air is greater than flame velocity, flame will extinguish. The back fire will
occur when the velocity of mixture of fuel +air is lower than flame velocity.
5.8.1 Procedure
Establish application information
• Required burner capacity
• Back pressure of the furnace
• Fuel to be used
• Fuel inlet pressure to the burner
• Capacity regulation method of the burner
Calculate the burner capacity.
Burner capacity = boiler capacity/efficiency.
Gas burners:
Calculate the required gas flow [m3n/h]
The required gas flow [m3n/h] = (burner capacity [kW] x 3.6)/the calorific value of
the gas [MJ/m3n].
m3n =normal cubic meter=, at 20oC (1bar)
Example: the required burner capacity = 11110 kW
The required gas flow = (11110 kW x 3.6) / 35.8 MJ/m3n =1117 m3n/h
Where 35.8 MJ/m3n is the calorific value of natural gas.
Oil burners:
Calculate the required oil flow [kg/h].
The required oil flow [kg/h] = (burner capacity [kW] x 3.6)/the calorific value of oil
[MJ/kg].
Example: the required burner capacity = 11110 kW
The required oil flow = (11110 kW x 3.6)/ 40.5 MJ/kg = 988 kg/h
Where 40.5 MJ/kg is the calorific value of heavy fuel oil.
Calculate the required combustion air flow and pressure.
Example: the required burner capacity = 11110 kW, the pressure loss of the boiler and
chimney at this burner capacity is 15 mbar.
Example: The combustion air flow required when using natural gas with a flue gas
oxygen value of 3 % is calculated. To combust 1 m3n of natural gas to produce 3 %
oxygen content in the flue gas, approximately 11.3 m3n of air is required.
The required combustion air flow = 1117 m3n/h x 11.3 m3n/m3n =12620 m3n/h.
The combustion air flow is also to be calculated when using heavy fuel oil.
To combust 1 kg of heavy fuel oil producing a flue gas oxygen content of 3
%, approximately 12.4 m3n of air is required. The required combustion air flow = 988
kg/h x 12.4 m3n/kg = 12250 m3n/h.
The required fan output is calculated by multiplying the required combustion air flow
with the safety factor 1.05.The required fan pressure is calculated using the max. air
flow. The required pressure p [mbar] = (the pressure loss generated by the boiler and
the chimney + the pressure loss of the air ducts + max. pressure loss in the burner) x
safety factor 1.05.Example: The pressure loss generated by the boiler and the chimney
= 15 mbar, the pressure loss of the air ducts = 5 mbar, max. Pressure loss of the
burner = 35 mbar. The required fan pressure p = (15 mbar + 5 mbar + 35 mbar) x
1.05 = 58 mbar. The air duct to be connected with the burner should run directly from
below the burner, and it should be straight for a distance of no less than 1.5 meters
before the burner. If the duct cannot be installed in this way, an air distribution box
should be used.
Check the dimensions of the flame in the flame dimensions diagram.
Note that the flame must not touch the furnace walls.

Diagrams 1 and 2 indicate the required combustion air flow for each kilogram of oil
or cubic meter of natural gas.
5.8.2 Equations and rules of thumb
1- Burner capacity = boiler capacity / η(where ,η=boiler efficiency %)
2- Steam boilers: 1 ton/h steam ≈ 700 kW boiler capacity
3- Light fuel oil: 1 kg/h ≈ 11.86 kW burner capacity with calorific value 42.7 MJ/kg
4- Heavy fuel oil: 1 kg/h ≈ 11.22 kW burner capacity with calorific value 40.5 MJ/kg
5- Natural gas: 1 m3n/h ≈ 10 kW burner capacity with calorific value 35.84 MJ/m3n
6- Oil pumping, filtering, and preheating unit is required when firing heavy fuel oil.
When the burner capacity is more than 2 MW, a transfer pump unit is always needed,
even when firing light fuel oil.
7- The required minimum pump output [kg/h] can be calculated as follows:
Required minimum output [kg/h] = (oil flow to be burned [kg/h] + 150 kg/h) x 1.2.