CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. HISTORY:

An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air, or, in general,
the atmosphere of a planet. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using
the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. The human
activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot,
but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard
computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, propulsion, usage
and others.

The history of aircraft structures underlies the history of aviation in general. Advances in
materials and processes used to construct aircraft have led to their evolution from simple wood
truss structures to the sleek aerodynamic flying machines of today. Combined with continuous
power plant development, the structures of “flying machines” have changed significantly.

Earlier, Cayley studied the center of gravity of flying machines, as well as the effects of
wing dihedral. Furthermore, he pioneered directional control of aircraft by including the earliest
form of a rudder on his gliders. In the late 1800s, Otto Lilienthal built upon Cayley’s discoveries.
He manufactured and flew his own gliders on over 2,000 flights. His willow and cloth aircraft
had wings designed from extensive study of the wings of birds. Lilienthal also made standard use
of vertical and horizontal fins behind the wings and pilot station. Above all, Lilienthal proved
that man could fly. Octave Chanute, a retired railroad and bridge engineer, was active in aviation
during the 1890s. His interest was so great that, among other things, he published a definitive
work called “Progress in Flying Machines.” This was the culmination of his effort to gather and
study all the information available on aviation. With the assistance of others, he built gliders
similar to Lilienthal’s and then his own. In addition to his publication, Chanute advanced aircraft
structure development by building a glider with stacked wings incorporating the use of wires as
wing supports.

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 Figure 1.1: George cayley’s replica of his 1853 glider

The work of all of these men was known to the Wright Brothers when they built their
successful, powered airplane in 1903. The first of its kind to carry a man aloft, the Wright Flyer
had thin, cloth-covered wings attached to what was primarily truss structures made of wood. The
wings contained forward and rear spars and were supported with both struts and wires. Stacked
wings (two sets) were also part of the Wright Flyer.

Figure 1.2: The Wright flyer was the first successful powered aircraft

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1.2. INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT:

An aircraft is a device that is used for, or is intended to be used for, flight in the air.
Major categories of aircraft are airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-than-air vehicles. Each of
these may be divided further by major distinguishing features of the aircraft, such as airships and
balloons. Both are lighter-than-air aircraft but have differentiating features and are operated
differently.

The most common aircraft is the fixed-wing aircraft. As the name implies, the wings on
this type of flying machine are attached to the fuselage and are not intended to move
independently in a fashion that results in the creation of lift. One, two, or three sets of wings
have all been successfully utilized. Rotary-wing aircraft such as helicopters are also widespread.

The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal units: the fuselage, wings,
stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing gear. Helicopter airframes consist of the fuselage,
main rotor and related gearbox, tail rotor (on helicopters with a single main rotor), and the
landing gear.

Figure 1.3: Examples of different categories of aircraft, clockwise from top left: lighter-than-air,
glider, rotorcraft, and airplane

Airframe structural components are constructed from a wide variety of materials. The
earliest aircraft were constructed primarily of wood. Steel tubing and the most common material,
aluminum, followed. Many newly certified aircraft are built from molded composite materials,

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such as carbon fiber. Structural members of an aircraft’s fuselage include stringers, longerons,
ribs, bulkheads, and more. The main structural member in a wing is called the wing spar.

The skin of aircraft can also be made from a variety of materials, ranging from
impregnated fabric to plywood, aluminum, or composites. Under the skin and attached to the
structural fuselage are the many components that support airframe function. The entire airframe
and its components are joined by rivets, bolts, screws, and other fasteners. Welding, adhesives,
and special bonding techniques are also used.

Figure 1.4: Airplane Parts & Functions

1.3. INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT WINGS:

A wing is a surface used to produce an aerodynamic force normal to the direction of

motion by traveling in air or another gaseous medium, facilitating flight. It is a specific form of
airfoil. The first use of the word was for the foremost limbs of birds, but has been extended to
include the wings of insects, bats and pterosaurs and also man-made devices. A wing is an
extremely efficient device for generating lift. Its aerodynamic quality, expressed as a Lift-to-drag
ratio, can be up to 60 on some gliders and even more. This means that a significantly smaller

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thrust force can be applied to propel the wing through the air in order to obtain a specified lift.
The most common use of wings is to fly by deflecting air downwards to produce lift, but upside-
down wings are also commonly used as a way to produce down force and hold objects to the
ground.

1.3.1. Aircraft Wing Terms:

Figure 1.5: Aircraft Wing terms

Skin: The outer surface of the wing originally made of fabric. Modern aircraft use aluminum or
composite materials due to their lightweight and rust-resistant properties.

Ribs & Stringers: These make up the inner skeleton of the wing, providing rigidity, strength
and flexibility. While strength is necessary, it is also important that the wing can flex slightly
while it flies. This flexibility allows it to absorb the stress caused by turbulence and hard
landings.

Spar: The main center beam of the wing, designed to carry the structural loads and transfer them
by attachment to the fuselage, or body, of the aircraft

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Fuel Tank: Commonly located in the wing, fuel can either be housed in its own tank or allowed
to fill the cavities between the ribs. The fuel also adds rigidity to the wing.

Flaps: High lift / high drag device. Not only do they improve the lifting ability of the wing at
slower speeds by changing the camber, or curvature of the wing, they also create more drag,
meaning an aircraft can descend, or lose altitude faster, without gaining airspeed in the process.

Root: The wing root is the portion of the wing that attaches to the fuselage, or body of the
aircraft.

Wing Tip: The wing tip is furthest from the fuselage and is typically where the navigation lights
are mounted (a red light on the left, a green light on the right)

Slats: High lift device found on swept or delta wing aircraft. Slats are similar to the flaps except
they are mounted on the leading edge of the wing. They also assist in changing the camber to
improve lifting ability at slower speeds.

Figure 1.6: Wing with Different Parts

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Aspect Ratio: The ratio of the wing’s length to its chord line. A wing with a high aspect ratio
will perform well at slow speeds and produce large quantities of lift, but at the expense of
maneuverability and

Camber: The name given to the curvature of the upper or lower surfaces of the wing. A higher
camber or more curved surface, results in an aircraft that can fly at slower speeds while still
generating sufficient lift for flight.

Chord Line: The theoretical line running from the leading edge of the wing to the trailing edge.

Leading Edge: The front edge of an aircraft’s wing.

Trailing Edge: The rear edge of an aircraft’s wing.

1.3.2. Wing Configurations:

1.3.2.1. Wing Mounting Position:

Wings can be mounted in various positions which then effect other wing design
considerations. The higher a wing is mounted the less dihedral is needed. The weight of the
fuselage on a parasol wing serves the same righting affect as a high dihedral value does for a low
wing. The wing position can strongly affect overall airplane performance. High wing designs are
generally easier to fly because of the inherent stability of the pendulum effect but have more
difficulty with aerobatics such as inverted or knife edge flight than ones with mid or low wings.
Many high performance aerobatic airplanes have mid mounted wings so they can perform
equally well in any position.

Wing position has a large impact on the design of the rest of the aircraft as well as
directly on the wing itself. The position of the main wing can have an impact on the placement of
tail surfaces. High wings can put low mounted tail surfaces in turbulence at high angles of attack
during slow flight when tail surface effectiveness is most important. Low or mid wings can affect
the position of the cockpit for visibility greatly affecting the overall appearance of the airplane.

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 Figure 1.7: Wing Mounting Position

1.3.2.2. Wing Shape:

The shape of the wing is probably the most important decision in designing an airplane. It pretty
much determines the character of the aircraft. All other features are generally dependent on the
wing shape. Here is a graphic I found on-line showing the most common wing shapes:

Figure 1.7: Wing Shape

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1.3.2.3. Airfoil Types:

Flat bottomed airfoils are the most simple aerofoil shape and produce quite a lot of lift but aren't
the most slippery. They are used a lot in scratch building as they are very easy to reproduce.

Semi-symmetrical airfoils are probably the most commonly used airfoils on planes as they
produce less drag than flat bottomed airfoils but still a lot of lift.

Symmetrical airfoils are used on 3d, precision aerobatic and racer planes. They are used on 3d
planes as they produce lift inverted and upright and track very straight and are used in racers as
they are very slippery in the air. This type of wing generates lift by flying at a slight angle of
attack as if it was horizontal, equal amounts of low pressure would form over the top and bottom
of the wing.

Under-cambered airfoils are used in high load planes and slow flyers as they produce a very
large amount of lift but a lot of drag.

Figure 1.9: Different Types of Airfoils

1.4. MATERIALS USING IN AIRCRAFT :

The material used in manufacturing of aircraft have changed significantly from the
construction of the first aircraft. With its objective of flying using air support while, resisting
gravitational forces, the materials used for construction of aircraft must have a small weight, high
specific strength, heat resistant, fatigue load resistant, crack resistant and corrosion resistant.
Back in the days, aircrafts were constructed using wood and fabrics. But aircrafts that are made
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 up of wood and fabric were subjected to rapid deterioration and high maintenance. Thus the
search for better materials began. Now, aluminium, steel, titanium and composite materials are
preferred in the construction of aerospace structures.

 Wood was used on most early airplanes and is now mainly used on homebuilt airplanes. Wood is
lightweight and strong, but it also splinters and requires a lot of maintenance.
 Aluminum (blended with small quantities of other metals) is used on most types of aircraft
because it is lightweight and strong. Aluminum alloys don’t corrode as readily as steel. But
because they lose their strength at high temperatures, they cannot be used for skin surfaces that
become very hot on airplanes that fly faster than twice the speed of sound.
 Steel can be up to four times stronger and three times stiffer than aluminum, but it is also three
times heavier. It is used for certain components like landing gear, where strength and hardness
are especially important. It has also been used for the skin of some high-speed airplanes, because
it holds its strength at higher temperatures better than aluminum.
 Graphite-epoxy is one of several types of composite materials that are becoming widely used
for many aircraft structures and components. These materials typically consist of strong fibers
embedded in a resin (in this case, graphite fibers embedded in epoxy). Thin sheets of the material
can be stacked in various ways to meet specific strength or stiffness needs. Graphite-epoxy is
about as strong as aluminum and weighs about half as much.
 Titanium is about as strong as steel and weighs less, though it is not as light as aluminum. It
holds its strength at high temperatures and resists corrosion better than steel or aluminum.
Though titanium is expensive, these characteristics have led to its greater use in modern aircraft.
1.4.1 The materials selection: The starting point for any materials selection is the identification
and specification of design requirements. In this case, we keep the example fairly simple at the
level that might be used in an introductory materials engineering course.
The requirements for the aircraft wing (illustrated, right) are:

A. High stiffness
B. High strength
C. High toughness
D. Low weight

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 CHAPTER – II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A review on how wing design changes with respect to atmospheric or manual effects
have evolved during the past years shows a dramatic change in the design requirements of an
aircraft wing.

2.1. Design And Stress Analysis of Aircraft Wing Rib With Various Cut Outs
by S. Bairavi (PG Scholar, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Karpagam Academy of
Higher Education), Mr. Suresh Balaji (Assistant Professor, Department of Aerospace
Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education).
In this paper they demonstrated different geometric discontinuities taken into
consideration. The local stress increase induced by stress concentration sometimes causes the
initiation of a fatigue crack in a structure, which must be carefully examined for engineering
design. Stress concentration in an elastic body may be caused mainly by the two-mechanisms
i.e., concentrated forces acting to a body and geometrical discontinuities of a body such as holes
or abrupt change of its surface geometry. The presence of cutouts in aircraft wing ribs creates
stress concentration, which eventually reduces the mechanical strength of the structure and in
extreme cases may lead to its failure. In this paper the induced stresses for ribs with circular,
elliptical and rectangular cutouts have been estimated with the help of finite element software
package ANSYS 14.
And they concluded that 1. Elliptical holes may lead to high mesh refinement due to its
shape. 2. Rectangular hole creates accurate corner stresses for simpler bending but the stresses
are less accurate for loads. 3. Circular hole provides the gradual values of stress. The location of
maximum stress concentration factor may vary under different conditions.
2.2. Linear Static Analysis of CFRP Aircraft Wing by Dr. Alice Mathai (Associate
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Mar Athanasius College of Engineering,
Kothamangalam) *, Amrutha P Kurian & Bia Jacob (Civil Engineering VIII Semester
Students, Mar Athanasius College of Engineering, Kothamangalam).
The linear static analysis of CFRP aircraft wing was conducted. In the analysis the wing
is idealized as a cantilever beam with fixity at the root rib. For a cantilever beam bending

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problem the maximum deflection is expected at free end. But in the linear static analysis of the
preliminary model the maximum deflection occurred at top mid panel near to the rear spar and
the maximum deflection in refined model is at the tip of wing. Maximum stress intensity
occurred at the middle portion of rear spar in preliminary model which was more than the
permissible stress of CFRP and there was stress concentration at ribs and spars. This stress was
reduced by providing flanges to ribs and spars in refined model. The obtained value of maximum
stress in refined wing is well within the permissible limits of stress in CFRP. Also the stress
distribution is nearly uniform throughout the wing in refined model. So the refined model is
acceptable on the basis of the above obtained results and can be safely used for airplane wing.
Also it is found that various components of an aircraft wing can be safely made using CFRP.
2.3. Statistic and Dynamic Analysis of Typical Wing Structure of Aircraft
using Nastran by Mr. Pritish Chitte, Mr. P. K. Jadhav & Mr. S. S. Bansode as Asst.
Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Walchand Institute of Technology,
Solapur, India.
The paper is about preliminary sizing and analysis of a wing box. The main objective is
to fix a appropriate structure within the given envelope. Sizing is done by using classical
engineering theories and FEA packages (MSC Nastran and MSC Patran).Skin and web are
considers as shell elements. Flange, spar and stringer are considered as beam elements. The
analysis is carried out with iterations such as, with different sections like Rectangular sections, Z
–sections and L- sections, Panel breakings and varying skin thicknesses. From the analysis
structure has been optimally designed which satisfies the strength and stability criteria, which
still has a scope for optimization by redesigning components like Ribs and Spars.
For this project they concluded that 1. A structure has been optimally designed which
satisfies the strength and stability criteria, which still has a scope for optimization by redesigning
components like Ribs and Spars. 2. By use of FEM and FEM software’s, it is easy to do analysis
of Mechanical components like Aerospace parts like Wings and Spars which otherwise it will be
very complicated to perform the analysis.3. No Experimental cost is involved due to use of
advanced FEM software’s. 4. We can perform the parametric analysis with the use of different
parameters like Material properties, loading condition, boundary condition, mesh resizing by
virtue of which we obtain some useful information without experimental cost and we can finally
optimize our model.

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2.4. Design and Analysis of Aircraft Wing by Sudhir Reddy Konayapalli & Y.sujatha
as M.Tech (Production Engineering & Engineering Design, GVIC, Madanapalli.)

In this Project, the aircraft wing model was created by CATIA V5 R20 software. Then,
the model created by CATIA was imported to ANSYS 14.5 software. We observed, aircraft wing
with AA7075 obtained 144MPa and for the composite material, we obtained 53.03MPa only. By
using the composite material GLARE less stresses had developed on aircraft wing. An aircraft
wing with AA7075 obtained 0.59mm and for the composite material, we obtained 0.046mm
only. By using the composite material GLARE less deformation had developed on aircraft wing.
It is observed from the fluent analysis; dynamic pressure on leading edge is decreasing with
increasing the angle of attack. It is observed from the fluent analysis; static pressure on lower
surface is increasing with increasing the angle of attack. We also conclude that static pressure is
increased with increasing the angle of attack is increased. Dynamic pressure on lower surface is
decreasing with increasing angle of attack whereas; static pressure is increasing on lower surface.
We conclude that dynamic pressure is increased with increasing the angle of attack is increased.
Maximum dynamic pressure occurs at upper surface near and around maximum camber
and minimum static pressure occurs at and around the same location. We also seen that the
minimum dynamic pressure and maximum static pressure occurs at the leading edge of the
airfoil, this is the stagnation point. The stagnation point has moved further away from the leading
edge. Therefore, as the angle of attack is increased the stagnation point moves away from leading
edge on the lower surface of the airfoil. From the contours of the fluent analysis of NACA 4412
airfoil conclude that at 0˚ pressure coefficient of upper surface indicate negative pressure. When
increase the angle of attack we can understand the decrease the pressure coefficient on upper
surface and increase on lower Surface also became the maximum at 8˚.

2.5. Design Of An Aircraft Wing Structure For Static Analysis And Fatigue
Life Prediction by A. Ramesh Kumar (PG scholar), S. R. Balakrishnan (Director /
HOD), S. Balaji (Professor) From Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Nehru
institute of engineering and technology.
In this project detailed design of trainer aircraft wing structure made by using CATIA V5
R20. Then stress analysis of the wing structure is carried out to compute the stresses at wing
structure. The stresses are estimated by using the finite element approach with the help of

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ANSYS-12 to find out the safety factor of the structure. In a structure like airframe, a fatigue
crack may appear at the location of high tensile stress. Life prediction requires a model for
fatigue damage accumulation, constant amplitude S-N (stress life) data for various stress ratios
and local stress history at the stress concentration. The response of the wing structure will be
evaluated. In this study prediction of fatigue life for crack initiation will be carried out at
maximum stress location.
And it is concluded that maximum stress is identified at wing root which is found out to
be lower than yield strength of the material. Normally the fatigue crack initiates in a structure
where there is maximum tensile stress is located. The fatigue calculation is carried out for the
prediction of the structural life of wing structure. Since the damage accumulated is less than the
critical damage in the wing structure is safe from fatigue considerations. Life of the particular
region in wing structure is predicted to become critical and found out to be 3058 flying hours or
3.058 blocks, hence advised to conduct the maintenance without fail during this period.
2.6. Design and Analysis of Wing of an Ultralight Aircraft by Yuvaraj S R (P.G.
Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering), Subramanyam P (Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering) From MLR Institute of Technology, Hyderabad,
India.
In this we found that it deals with the structural design and analysis of high wing of an
ultralight aircraft. The wing design involves its initial considerations like planform selection,
location to the aircraft and the structural design involves the design calculations for the selection
of airfoil, area of the wing, wing loading characteristics and weight of the wing. The design is
done corresponding to the calculated values with the help of designing software CATIA and the
analysis is done to show the structural deformations and stress for the applied loading conditions
with the help of ANSYS 14.0, also the drag polar for the applied flow conditions is shown with
the help of ANSYS FLUENT a flow analysis software. The objective of this project is to
compare the results obtained for different materials like Al 2024- T3, Al 6061-T6, Al 7075-T651
& Al 7075 + 15% FLY ASH MMC using analysis software.
From the comparisons they would like to conclude as, Al 7075-T651 material has better
structural characteristics than other Alloys. But there are possibilities to use Al 7075 + 15% Fly
Ash MMC as there will reduction in weight of the wing as the 15% weight of the Aluminum
7075 is replaced by 15% Fly Ash, which in turn helps in increasing the aerodynamic

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characteristics as the Drag due to weight is reduced. Even the Factor of Safety (1.8315) for the
Metal Matrix Composite is greater than the required value. Margin of Safety=FOS-1 which gives
value of 0.8315 is also greater than 0 and nearly equal to 1. As the demand for lighter material
with good structural characteristics increases in aerospace and automotive industries, Metal
Matrix Composites can be the low cost solution than the Laminated Composite Materials.
2.7. CONCLUSION FROM LITERATURE REVIEW:
In the past, wings were required to be as stiff as possible in order to avoid the aeroelastic
effects; the current aim however is to have more flexible and lighter structures, using composite
materials, and take advantage from the aeroelastic effects to increase the efficiency of the aircraft
performance. The current methods to analyze, size and optimize composite aircraft wings using
both classical and approximate numerical approaches are therefore herein reviewed and several
concepts of adaptive wings and morphing high lift devices are described. The related
development of morphing skins, active actuation systems and smart materials are also presented.

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 CHAPTER – III

ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGY
3.1. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

There are a number of factors to consider when designing a wing. Here some of the factors
shown below:

 Wing mounting position: Low, mid, shoulder, high or parasol.

 Wing Shape: Rectangular, tapered, elliptical, delta, swept back, forward swept, flying
wings (various).

 Wing Span / Wing Cord / Aspect Ratio.

 Wing Area / Wing Loading

 Airfoil Shape.

 Wing Thickness.

 Spar Design.

 Aileron design.

 Dihedral Angle.

 Wash Out.

 Tip Design.

 Angle of Incidence.

 Wing Mounting details

3.2. PROBLEM DEFINITION:

The wing structure experience various types of loads during each phase of the flight which
includes take-off, climb, cruise, loiter, landing, touch-down. In each segment there is variation in
load factor which induces various types of stresses in various components of aircraft body. This
problem can be simplified by considering wing as a cantilever beam whose one end is fixed in

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the fuselage and the another end is free. The loading condition on a wing is equivalent to the
uniform varying load throughout the wing. The various types of stresses and its intensity induced
in the skin of the aircraft during take-off and the first six modes of vibration which are possible
when the aircraft in at ground will be explained in this project. As all the details required for
solving this problem are not available appropriate assumptions are made wherever required to
simplify the problem. To simplify the problem the assumptions made are as follows.
 The aerofoil used in Aircraft wing is symmetrical aerofoil of NACA 2412.
 The material used for the whole structural and modal analysis purpose is aluminum alloy,
titanium Alloy & Composite material (Carbon Epoxy M46J UD & Carbon Epoxy T800
UD).
 The boundary conditions applied to the FEA model is that the root section of the aerofoil
is fixed so that the degree of freedom is restricted in all the six directions.
 The loading condition is found using the maximum take-off weight and maximum climb
angle which is allowed for this aircraft from any airport.
 Material is homogenous.
 Material is isotropic.
 Material is elastic
3.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES:

Density Young’s Poison’s Yield Shear Bulk Ultimate

Material (Kg/m3) Modulus ratio Stress Modulus Modulus Stress
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
Aluminum 2800 72 0.33 46.5 26.7 70 47
Alloy
Titanium 4500 114 0.36 71.3 35.3 114 107
Alloy
Carbon 1800 250 0.38 70 38.2 120 112
Epoxy
M46J UD
Carbon Epoxy 1800 154 0.32 59 36 120 103
T800 UD
Table 3.1: Material Properties

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3.4. LOAD CALCULATIONS:

Lift load is considered as important criteria while designing an aircraft. Fuselage and
wings are the two main regions where lift load acting in an aircraft. Here 80% of the lift load is
acted on the wings (i.e., maximum lift load is acted on the wings) and remaining 20% in acted on
the fuselage. Therefore in wings the maximum load is acted nearer to the wing roots. Load
calculation for the wing Structure
From the basic aerodynamics,
L = n * W ……………………………………………(1)

Where,
L = Lift produced by the entire aircraft
N = Load Factor
W = Weight of the aircraft
As we are interested to calculate the structural parameters during take-off and climbing phase,
lift must be greater than weight of an aircraft.

 Weight = 200kg
 Design load factor =3
 Total load acting on aircraft = 200×3=600kg
 Factor Of Safety =1.5
 Design load = 6000×1.5=900kg
 Lift load experienced by both fuselage and wing Lift load on the wing
= 80% of total load
= 0.8×9000
= 720kg
 Load acting on each wing = 720/2
= 360kg=3530.394N
 Pressure = 35303.94N/9
= 3922.5 Pa

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  A
 Inlet velocity = 18m/s
3.5. WING DESIGN PARAMETERS
The design parameter like wing span, wing twist, taper ratio, wing sweep, wing thickness,
wing aspect ratio and wing dihedral are calculated and the wing is designed in CATIA R20.
Actual wing area can be calculated from the total takeoff weight and the actual wing loading
values. After comparing the wing loading for different flight conditions such as stall, cruise it is
found that the minimum wing loading is obtained from the stall constraint. This value is taken to
be the actual wing loading value.
Total takeoff weight, W0 = 200 kg

The actual wing loading, W/S = 4.4187lbs/ft2= 1.6kg/m2

Wing Area S = W0/ (W/S) …………………………………… (2)
= 662.75/4.4187
= 149.98 ft2 ≈ 150 ft2
S = 13.935 m2
This is the actual wing area for our design process
Then the wing span can be calculated as follows
b = (S*A.R) 1/2 ………………………………………… (3)
b = (150*6)1/2
b = 9.144m
The half span value is, b/2 = 4.572m
Chord length can be calculated from,
c = S/b …………………………………………………..(4)
c = (150/30)
c = 1.524 m
The mean aerodynamic chord is calculated by
M.A.C = 2/S ∫0b/2c2dy ……………………………………….(5)
= (2/150)*(25*15)
M.A.C= 4.99875 ft =1.524m

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Weight of the wing
(W)Wing=96.948{[WT0*n/105][A.R/cos(1/4)]*0.57[Sw/100] [(1+λ)/2(t/c)] 0.36+[1+
Vcruise/500]0.5}0.993 ………………………………………………………………… (6)
V cruise = cruise airspeed at S.L. in knots= 45.59 m/s(or) 88.433knots
WT0 = take-off weight in lbs = 662.948 lb = 300.68
n = ultimate load factor
1/ 4 = wing quarter chord sweep
S w = wing area in ft2 =150
λ = taper ratio = 1
t /c = maximum thickness ratio = 11.725
A.R = 6
We have the values to substitute in the formula except load factor, it can be find out from the
following procedure,
n = L/W= (q∞* S* CLmax /W) (6)
n = (q∞ *CLmax / (W/S))
n = (1/2ρ∞ (Vstall) 2 CLmax/4.4187)
n = (3.2739(1.35))/ (4.4187)
n = 1.00024 ≈ 1
The load factor value has been obtained as 1 now we are going to substitute all the above values
to find out the
Weight of wing.
(W) Wing = 110.84 lbs
(W) Wing = 50.27 kg
The above expression is valid for light conventional metal airplanes. Ultralight airplanes use
„Dacron‟ as the skin material, fly considerably lower-speeds. Therefore, it was decided to reduce
the weight by say 23%
Now the weight of the wing will be reduced by 25.49 lbs

(W) Wing =110.84 – 25.49

(W) Wing = 85.35 lbs
(W) Wing= 38.714 kg

Page No. 20
 Thickness of all rib is same which is equal to 45.72 mm, and this value is taken from the
survey of rib design for ultralight aircraft’s wing having almost same specifications. Clark Y is
the name of a particular aerofoil profile, widely used in general purpose aircraft designs, and
much studied in aerodynamics over the years. The airfoil has a thickness of 11.7 percent and is
flat on the lower surface from 30 percent of chord back. The flat bottom simplifies angle
measurements on propellers, and makes for easy construction of wings on a flat surface. Clark-Y
airfoil coordinates are used to design the wing.

Parameter Value
Airfoil NACA 2412
Chord 1524 mm
Surface Area 1.935 m2
Aircraft Weight 200 Kg
Load Factor 6g
Design Factor 3
Table 3.2: Geometrical configurations

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 CHAPTER - IV

MODELLING OF AIRCRAFT WING

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDWORKS:

4.1.1 HISTORY:
Solidworks Corporation was founded in December 1993 by Massachusetts Institute of
Technology graduate Jon Hirschtick. Hirschtick used $1 million he had made while a member of
the MIT Blackjack Team to set up the company. Initially based in
Waltham, Massachusetts, USA, Hirschtick recruited a team of engineers with the goal of
building 3D CAD software that was easy-to-use, affordable, and available on the Windows
desktop. Operating later from Concord, Massachusetts, SolidWorks released its first
product SolidWorks 95, in 1995. In 1997 Dassault, best known for its CATIA CAD software,
acquired SolidWorks for $310 million in stock.

SolidWorks currently markets several versions of the SolidWorks CAD software in

addition to eDrawings, a collaboration tool, and DraftSight, a 2D CAD product.

SolidWorks was headed by John McEleney from 2001 to July 2007 and Jeff Ray from
2007 to January 2011. The current CEO is Gian Paolo Bassi from Jan 2015. Gian Paolo Bassi
replaces Bertrand Sicot, who is promoted Vice President Sales of Dassault Systems Value
Solutions sales channel.

4.1.2 ABOUT SOLIDWORKS:

Solidworks is a 3-D modeling tool. Unlike other 3-D modeling tools, Solidworks is not
fully three dimensional. Other programs allow the user to easily draw in three dimensional space.
In Solidworks, one draws in a plane and then extrudes solids from the plane. Planes are used to
obtain position in three dimensional space. It is possible to draw in three dimensional space using
Solidworks, but is very difficult. Therefore, the best method of creating three dimensional
objects is using planes.

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 SOLIDWORKS is 3D CAD software delivers powerful design functionality with the
intuitive SOLIDWORKS user interface to speed your design process and make you instantly
productive.

4.2 MODELLING PROCEDURE:

SOLIDWORKS contains several modules of work. These are known as work benches.
The workbenches that used in SOLIDWORKS for the project are as follows:

1. Sketcher
2. Part work
3. Wire frame and surface
4. Assembly
Sketcher: This workbench used to draw simple two dimensional figures that determine
the profiles of a three dimensional object such as the cross section of the object.

Part design: this workbench used to complete the feature of a three dimensional part of a
major model by obtaining the profiles from the sketcher.

Wireframe and surface: The wireframe and surface workbench is used to obtain the
surfaces and around profiles or creating surfaces of desired shapes and sizes.

Assembly: The assembly workbench is a platform for all part design to be imported and
assembled by providing proper constraints by the parts movements and limits.

4.3 PARTS TO BE DESIGNED:

Following are the parts to design the Aircraft Wing.

1. Airfoil with Surface

Wing Design Procedure:

Step 1: Download the coordinate files from Google. The airfoil was NACA 2412.

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 Figure 3.1: NACA 2412 Coordinate files

Step 2: Firstly, check the format of the text file that only X Y Z separated by space and it should
not have any headings, comas etc.,

Step 3:

Now, go to SOLIDWORKS 2015  Part design to create wing as shown in below figure.

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 Figure 3.2: Solidworks main window

STEP 4: Click on Features -> Select curve through xyz points from curves toolbar.

Figure 3.3: part design feature to do the wing

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Browse for the file which has Coordinate points.

Figure 3.4: Browsing for coordinates of airfoil

Figure 3.5: Inserting Coordinate files from text file to Solidworks

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 Figure 3.6: 2D sketch of Airfoil in Solidworks

Step 5: Then go to sketch -> Convert entities ->Select Airfoil -> You will get True sketch of
airfoil to use for adding material.

Step 6: Use the extrude Boss option to create solid airfoil & mention the thickness value as 10
mm.

Figure 3.7: Solid Airfoil by using extrude command

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Repeat the above steps for creation of other profiles or use the offset command in part design
toolbar. You will get parts which is show below,

Figure 3.8: Creation of number of airfoils in Solidworks

To create skin on the airfoils, use the surface features available in SOLIDWORKS 2015.

Use the Boundary surface & Skin loft tools to design the Surface of wing.

Figure 3.9: Creation of skin over the airfoil

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Repeat the process for remaining airfoils, then we will get total wing as shown below.

Figure 3.10: Complete wing in Solidworks

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 CHAPTER - V

COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

ANSYS program helps in bringing quality products to the market quickly. ANSYS, Inc.
supports the ongoing development of innovative technology and delivers flexible, enterprise-
wide engineering systems that enable companies to solve the full range of analysis problems,
maximizing their existing investments in software and hardware.

ANSYS Inc. supports a process- centric approach to design and manufacture, allowing
users to avoid expensive and time consuming “build and bread” cycles ANSYS analysis and
simulating tools give customers ease-of-use, data compatibility, multiplatform support and
coupled field- multi physics capabilities.

5.1.1. PROCEDURE FOR ANSYS ANALYSIS

Static analysis is used to determine the displacement, stresses, strains and forces in
structures or components due to loads that do not include significant inertia and damping effects.
Steady loading and response conditions are assumed. The kind of loading that can be applied in
static analysis include externally applied forces and pressures, steady state inertia forces such as
gravity of rotational velocity imposed (non-zero) displacements, temperatures (for thermal
strain).

A static analysis can be either linear or non-linear. In our present work, we are going to
consider linear static analysis.

The procedure for static analysis consists of these minimum steps:

1. Building the model

2. Obtaining the solution
3. Reviewing the results
Obtain the solution:

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 In this step we define the analysis type and options, applying loads, and initiate the finite
element solution. This involves three phases.

 Pre –processor phase

 Solution phase
 Post-processor phase
5.1.1.1 PRE-PROCESSING
It consists of model generation (geometry and topology) and discretization into finite
elements.

There are four geometric entities in pre-processor namely key points, lines, areas, and
volumes. These entities can be used to obtain the geometric representation of the structure. All
the entities are independent of each other and have unique identification label.

KEY POINTS: Key points are basic entity and usually the first entity to be created. The
key points can be generated by many methods by individual definition, by transporting existing
key points and from the other entities e.g., intersection of two lines, key points are at corners etc.

LINE: A line is a general 3-D curve defined by using a parametric cubic equation. Lines
can be generated number of grids. Sweeping specified grid about a given axis through a desired
included angle could generate a circular arc.

VOLUME: Volume is a general 3-D solid region defined by using a parametric equation.
Similar to areas, volumes also have parametric directions. Using two or four areas can generate
these, spinning an area about an axis can also generate volume (swept volumes). Volumes of
cylinder, torus, prism, and sphere can be directly created to required dimensions

Definition of properties of model such as element type, material, various constants such
as Young’s modulus, poisons ratio etc., dimensions of each element i.e., thickness, moment of
inertia, area, density, coefficient of thermal conductivity etc.

Generation of elements: Two different methods are used in generating the elements,

 Direct Generation
 Solid Generation

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 Direct Generation: In this method the nodes are defined first and then elements are
interconnected to obtain the final model.

Solid Generation: In this method solid model is generated and then model is divided into
finite elements. This conversion of solid model to finite element model to finite element model is
done by mesh generation. This method is more useful in certain complex model.

5.1.1.2 MESH GENERATION

It is the process of discretization or dividing the geometry into a number of suitable finite
elements, which are interconnected at the nodes. Comprehensive libraries of finite element are
available in software. The element will be linear or parabolic, shell, solid, beam, rod, spring,
damper mesh and gap are some of the elements available for the purpose of modeling. Fem
software provides extensive capabilities to define loading and boundary conditions correctly
stimulate the environment. The generation mesh can be

1. Automatic
2. User Defined
1. Automatic or free mesh generation: In this type of generation the user does not have to
type in each node point coordinate and elements consecutively. This method of
generation attempts to quicken the FE meshing and needs only the enclosed areas to
generate elements.
2. User defined mesh generation: In this the user manually controls the mesh generations.
5.1.1.3 PROCESSING (SOLUTION)
After the model built in pre- processor phase, the solution to the analysis is obtained in
the procession phase. The analysis type indicates to the processor the governing equations to be
used to solve the problems, the general categories available include structural, thermal, and
electromagnetic field, computational fluid dynamics etc., and each category can include several
specific analysis types, such as static or dynamic analysis.

Processing requires no user interaction. All analysis types are based on the classical
engineering concepts. These concepts can be formulated into matrix equations that are suitable
for the analysis using FEM. It calculates transformation matrices. It maps element equation into
global system. Assembly of element takes place, boundary conditions are introduced and
solution procedures are performed.

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 The type of analysis most of the mechanical and structural engineers are familiar with the
structured static analysis, displacement stresses, strains and forces that occur in a structures or
component as a result of applied loads.

5.1.1.4. POST PROCESSING PHASE

Post processing deals with the presentation of the result such as deformed configuration,
shapes, temperatures and stress distribution.

Any post-processor displays graphically the results in the following modes:

 Displacement shapes: Deformed and undeformed mesh is displayed.

 Contour: A display of scalars like temperature distribution.
 Animation: Time dependent or harmonic results can be portrayed vividly.
 Auto generation: Results are presented as charts, tables, graphs etc., the major
job of post processor is to present results in an easy to understand manner,
pictorial representation interactive graphics is the best. These aids in determining
the basic trends and then concentrated on critical areas. The user can also exercise
control over viewing direction, magnification the parameters displayed color
maps etc., the additional information which can be obtained from post- processing
is the sensitivity study of various design parameters which help in optimization of
design like weight reduction, optimum configuration etc.

5.1.2. TYPES OF ANALYSIS

ANSYS program can do the following types of analysis.

 Structural Analysis
 Thermal Analysis
 Fluidic Analysis
 Electro Magnetic Analysis
In this dissertation work we use the structural analysis to analyze the design.

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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element
method. The term structural (or structure) implies not only civil engineering structures such as
buildings and bridges, but also mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, tools etc.
Many types of structural analysis are available in the ANSYS program. The primary unknown
values that are (nodal DOF) calculated in structural analysis are the displacements, other
quantities such as strains, stresses and reaction forces are then derived from the nodal
displacements.

The following types of structural analysis are possible in ANSYS.

STATIC ANALYSIS: To determine displacements, stresses and etc., under static

conditions. Both linear and nonlinear static analysis is possible. Among the nonlinearities that
can be included are plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity,
contact surface and creep.

MODAL ANALYSIS: To calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a

structure. Different mode extraction methods are available.

HARMONIC ANALYSIS: To determine the response of a structure to harmonically

time varying loads.

TRANSIENT DYNAMIC ANALYSIS: To determine the response of a structure to

arbitrarily time varying loads. All non linerairities mentioned under static analysis above are
allowed.

SPECTRUM ANALYSIS: An extension of the model analysis, used to calculate

stresses and strains due to a response spectrum or a random vibration.

BUCKLING ANALYSIS: To calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling
mode shape. Both linear and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.

In addition to the above analysis types some special purpose features are available, such as
fracture mechanics, composites and fatigue.

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5.2. PROCEDURE FOR STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ON
AIRCRAFT WING:

In this ANSYS work bench we are going to find the structural analysis of the Aircraft
wing designed in SOLIDWORKS 20015. To perform the structural analysis we need to follow
these steps:

5.2.1: GEOMETRY:

Step 1: Open ANSYS workbench -> static structural -> a window will open

Figure 0.1: ANSYS WORKBENCH main window

Step 2: Right click on the Engineering data for the purpose of adding materials to the
analysis part. Edit the Engineering data then we have to add materials

Right click on engineering data -> select general materials -> in that select aluminum
alloys, titanium alloys.

For creation of composite material, click on engineering data sources -> Give a name of
materials -> mention properties of material.

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 Figure 5.2: Material are added to the analysis

Then update the project & Return to project.

Step 3: Now go to main window -> right click on the geometry -> import the geometry
from external file (Aircraft Wing) which is saved in stp form. Then click on generate.

Figure 0.3: Imported Aircraft wing in ANSYS WORKBENCH

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 Step 4: Now go to main ANSYS window -> right click on the model -> edit

In model there are 4 steps;

They are,

1. Geometry
2. Coordinate system
3. Connections, mesh
4. Static structural

In geometry each and every part should be specified by their materials and properties.

Figure 0.4: Details of model

Model: Here we specify the material and their properties of the parts.

Step 5: Apply each material for each type of analysis separately.

5.2.2: MESHING:

For the numerical treatment of the problem, the flow field inside nozzle is divided into an
arbitrary number of regions, which are subdivided into computational cells. The cells are further
subdivided into sub cells, two sub cells /cell in each coordinate direction. The cell provides a
convenient reference for the sampling of the macroscopic gas properties, while the collision
partners are s elected from the same sub cell for the establishment of the collision rate. As a
result, the physical space network is used to facilitate the choice of molecules for collisions and
for the sampling of the macroscopic flow properties, such as velocity, density, pressure,
temperature, etc.

Right click on the mesh then generate mesh.

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 It generates the automatic mesh generation. For the more accurate of the meshing we can
give the sizing to the parts as shown in below figure.

Figure 5.5: Details of mesh

It takes few minutes to generate the mesh.

By giving the above conditions we can get the more accurate meshing as shown in below figure.

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 Figure 0.6: Wing with fine meshing

5.2.3: LOADS: After meshing we have to give the loading conditions to the landing gear. This
can be done by the click on the setup.

The fixed support was applied at one end of the wing.

Force was applied at each & every airfoil of magnitude of 1000 N.

Figure 5.7: Boundary conditions for Aircraft wing

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Repeat the process by adding different material.

After giving supports and loads click on the solve. It takes 5 to 10 minutes to calculate
the results.

Figure 0.8: Solution status of Aircraft wing

Deformation, stresses and strains are to be added to the solution which is after the static
structural. These are given by right click on the solution then select insert command.

After completion of the solution take the images of the results. These are shown in below figures.

5.2.4: POST PROCESSING VALUES FOR ALUMINIUM ALLOY AT 1000 N:

Figure 5.9: Deformation of wing for Aluminum alloy

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Figure 5.10: Stress of wing for Aluminum alloy

Figure 5.11: Strain of wing for Aluminum alloy

Page No. 41
 Figure 5.12: Strain Energy of wing for Aluminum alloy

5.2.5: POST PROCESSING VALUES FOR TITANIUM ALLOY AT 1000 N:

Figure 5.13: Deformation of wing for Titanium alloy

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Figure 5.14: Stress of wing for Titanium alloy

Figure 5.15: Strain of wing for Titanium alloy

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 Figure 5.16: Strain energy of wing for Titanium alloy

5.2.5: POST PROCESSING VALUES FOR COMPOSITE MATERIAL AT 1000 N:

Figure 5.17: Deformation of wing for composite material

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Figure 5.18: Stress of wing for Composite material

Figure 5.19: Strain of wing for Composite alloy

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 Figure 5.20: Strain energy of wing for Composite alloy

After completion of one analysis, set the load values to the parameter set bar to see the
remaining load values for the change of deformation, stress, strain etc.,

Double click on parameters in ANSYS main window

Figure 5.21: Adding Parameters to the project

Page No. 46
 Figure 5.22: Values for different Load Conditions

Here we will get Different load conditions with different values of deformation, stresses, strains
etc.,

5.3: PROCEDURE FOR MODAL ANALYSIS ON AIRCRAFT WING:

The Procedure for modal analysis is similar to Static structural analysis upto mesh. The only
change was in specifying boundary conditions.

In this analysis just give the support for the wing.

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 Figure 5.23: Boundary condition for wing in modal analysis

Right click on modal -> Solve.

After completion of solving, you can see the graph below the graphical area which shows the
natural frequency values in six mode shapes.

Figure 5.24: Graph values in modal analysis

Page No. 48
Right click on graph -> Select all -> Create mode shape results.

Then right click on solution -> Solve.

The following images show that the mode shapes of each material.

5.3.1: POST PROCESSING RESULTS OF MODAL ANALYSIS FOR ALUMINIUM

ALLOY:

Figure 5.25: First mode shape for Aluminum alloy

Figure 5.26: Second mode shape for Aluminum alloy

Page No. 49
Figure 5.27: Third mode shape for Aluminum alloy

Figure 5.28: Fourth mode shape for Aluminum alloy

Page No. 50
Figure 5.29: Fifth mode shape for Aluminum alloy

Figure 5.30: Sixth mode shape for Aluminum alloy

Page No. 51
5.3.2: POST PROCESSING RESULTS OF MODAL ANALYSIS FOR TITANIUM
ALLOY:

Figure 5.31: First mode shape for Titanium alloy

Figure 5.32: Second mode shape for Titanium alloy

Page No. 52
Figure 5.33: Third mode shape for Titanium alloy

Figure 5.34: Fourth mode shape for Titanium alloy

Page No. 53
Figure 5.35: Fifth mode shape for Titanium alloy

Figure 5.36: Sixth mode shape for Titanium alloy

Page No. 54
5.3.3: POST PROCESSING RESULTS OF MODAL ANALYSIS FOR COMPOSITE
MATERIAL:

Figure 5.37: First mode shape for Composite material

Figure 5.38: Second mode shape for Composite material

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Figure 5.39: Third mode shape for Composite material

Figure 5.40: Fourth mode shape for Composite material

Page No. 56
Figure 5.41: Fifth mode shape for Composite material

Figure 5.42: Sixth mode shape for Composite material

Page No. 57
 CHAPTER - VI

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION

A finite element analysis was carried out on the Aircraft wing. Firstly 1000 N was applied
on the surface of wing.

Changing the magnitude 1000 N to 5000 N for each material, we got the following results
showing in table.

6.1: RESULTS FOR ALUMINUM ALLOY:

Table 6.1: Different loads with different results for Aluminum alloy

Load Vs Deformation
6000

5000

4000
Load (N)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.355065234 0.710130467 1.065195703 1.420260935 1.775326051
Deformation (mm)

Table 6.2: Load Vs Deformation for Aluminum alloy

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 Stress Vs Strain
8000
7000
6000
Stress (MPa)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.019103922 0.038207844 0.057311766 0.076415688 0.09551961
Strain

Table 6.3: Stress Vs Strain for Aluminum alloy

6.1: RESULTS FOR TITANIUM ALLOY:

Table 6.4: Different loads with different results for Titanium alloy

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 Load Vs Deformation
6000

5000

4000
Load (N)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.213001741 0.426003482 0.639005252 0.852006964 1.065008734
Deformation (mm)

Table 6.5: Load Vs Deformation for Titanium alloy

Stress Vs Strain
10000
9000
8000
7000
Stress (MPa)

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.009255624 0.018511249 0.027766874 0.037022498 0.046278123
Strain

Table 6.6: Stress Vs Strain for Titanium alloy

Page No. 60
6.1: RESULTS FOR COMPOSITE MATERIAL:

Table 6.7: Different loads with different results for Composite material

Load Vs Deformation
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.216261115 0.43252223 0.648783374 0.865044461 1.081305547

Table 6.8: Load Vs Deformation for Composite material

Page No. 61
 Stress Vs Strain
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.010974177 0.021948354 0.032922532 0.043896709 0.054870889

Table 6.9: Stress Vs Strain for Composite material

Now, below see the combination of all results with all the materials. Here values are taken as
average of total values.

Material Deformation Stress (MPa) Strain Strain energy

(mm) (mJ)
Aluminum Alloy 1.062 4069.13 0.057 3.586
Titanium Alloy 0.642 5553.37 0.028 2.172
Composite 0.648 5070.72 0.032 2.467

As per the calculated design requirements, the modeling of wing of an aircraft was done
with the help of designing software SOLIDWORKS 2015. The structural analysis of the wing
section was carried out for materials such as Al 2024-T3, Titanium Alloy, Al 7075-T651 &
Composites (Carbon Epoxy M46J UD & Carbon Epoxy T800 UD) with help of ANSYS
WORKBENCH, the results were compared.

From the comparisons we would like to conclude as, Titanium Alloy material has better
structural characteristics than other Alloys. But there are possibilities to use Composite material
as there will reduction in weight of the wing as the 20% weight of the Titanium alloy is replaced

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by 20% composite material, which in turn helps in increasing the aerodynamic characteristics as
the Drag due to weight is reduced.

Page No. 63
 FUTURE SCOPE
 There is always an improving technology arising in the field of aeronautical. The main
landing gear concept is also one such idea where the design gets changing frequently to
improve the performance of the aircraft.
 Through this project one can add new ideas to the existing model like applying the fluid
flow effects while takeoff, climb and cruise level of aircraft.
 The extension of the project may be done by applying or using various materials for the
aircrafts wing. The point of interest is that the fighter aircraft should be stronger to resist
any kind of load at any moment as they may face different and difficult task depending
on the situation.
 The future wing for design aircraft poses many new challenges in configuration design,
use of materials, design and analysis methods. These challenges can be met, while
adhering to all regulatory requirements of safety, by employing advanced technologies,
materials, analysis methods, processes and production methods. By applying functional
simulation and developing design tools, the development time and cost reduced
considerably.
 Use of higher strength of materials, composites and technologies like active damping
control, electric systems, along with CAX, KBE and health technologies will steer the
landing gear design in days to come.
 Different materials can be tested with same conditions to find more suitable material with
good aerodynamic and structural characteristics, number of main load carrying members
can be changed and analysis can be performed.
 Detail stress analysis of individual components.

Page No. 64
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