8b Frame - Design New

Frame Design
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
(Sway frame)
1
Design of Sway Frames
If the effects of deformed geometry has to be considered, the

design of sway frame may be accomplished by one of the following
methods:
1. Member buckling check with second order moment or
amplified moment
2. Member buckling check of equivalent columns with appropriate
buckling lengths according to the global buckling mode of the
structure.
3. Direct second order analysis that considers member & global
frame imperfections and member stability directly
2
Nonsway Frame
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(3))
Effects of deformed geometry can be ignored if
For elastic analysis:
where
αcr = factor by which the design loading would have to be
increased to cause elastic instability in a global mode
FEd = design loading on the structure

Fcr = elastic critical buckling load for global instability based on
initial elastic stiffness.
3
Simple Estimate for cr
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(4))
The following estimate for cr may be used for

 beam-and-column plane frames in buildings
 H Ed  h 
 cr    
 
 VEd   H , Ed 
where
h is the storey height
Ed is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey
VEd is the total vertical load at the bottom of the storey In the calculation of cr , the horizontal
reaction can be either due to
H,Ed is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey,  equivalent horizontal forces,
 horizontal forces, or
relative to the bottom of the store, when the frame is  total horizontal forces
loaded with horizontal loads. but the horizontal displacements due to
the respective horizontal forces have to be
used in the calculation.
4
Frame stability
Limits for treatment of second order
effects depend on αcr= Fcr/FEd
5
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures 6
Design of Non-Sway Frames

Non-Sway frames should be designed as follows:
→ to resist gravity loads (load combination 1).
→ the non-sway mode effective length of the
columns may be used.
→ pattern loading should be used to
determine the most severe moments and
forces.
→ sub frames may be used to reduce the
number of load cases.
→ the frame should then be checked for combined vertical and
horizontal loads without pattern loading.
Design of Sway Sensitive Frames
Sway sensitive frames should be designed as

follows:
• Check in the non-sway mode i.e. design to resist
gravity loads (1.35G+1.5Q) as for independently
braced frames without taking account of sway ( i.e.
without horizontal forces, but with pattern loading).
• Check in the sway mode for combined vertical and
horizontal loads, without pattern loading (1.35G +
1.5Q + 0.75W+EHF and 1.35G + 1.5W + 1.05Q+EHF)
without any pattern load.
• The sway effect should be allowed for by using (1)
amplified sway moments, (2) column effective lengths,
or (3) direct analysis.
7
Member Resistance Checks

Second order moment / amplified moment OR
M y ,Ed M z ,Ed Member Buckling Resistance Check 
N Ed
 k yy  k yz  1 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling
N b, y ,Rd M b,Rd M z ,Rd about MAJOR axis
Effective length for sway frame
Second order moment / amplified moment OR
N Ed M y , Ed M z , Ed Member Buckling Resistance Check 
 k zy  k zz  1 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling
N b , z , Rd M b , Rd M z , Rd about MINOR axis
Effective length for sway frame
8
Designing for Sway Effects
Sway effects can be calculated using:
 Second Order Analysis (for any cr) or
 Amplified Sway Method (for cr  3.0)
Amplified Sway Method
Perform first order analysis and amplify all horizontal loads (i.e. wind and
equivalent horizontal forces) by the factor:
1
kr 
1  (1 /  cr )
This approach is valid for
 Single storey frames designed on the basis of elastic global analysis
 Multiple storey frames provided that all storeys have similar distribution of
(1) vertical loads;
(2) horizontal loads;
(3) frames stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear forces. 9
Sway Effective Length Method

EC3 1-1 Clause 5.2.2(8) The individual members should be checked
with the equivalent column method according to the buckling length
values based on a global sway buckling mode of the frame.
This approach is valid for
 Multiple storey frames provided that all storeys have similar
distribution of
(1) vertical loads;
(2) horizontal loads;
(3) frames stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear
forces.
SSNA 2.10
In such cases the sway moments in the beams and beam-to-column
connections should be multiplied by kr unless a smaller value is shown to be
adequate by analysis. kr may be evaluated using the following expression
provided that cr > 3.0: 1
kr 
1  (1 /  cr )
10
Effective Length Method

(BS5950: Part 1
or
NCCI: Buckling lengths of columns: A Rigorous Approach)
11
Effective Lengths and Critical Loads

Critical load of a Pin-ended Column
Ncr = Pe = 2EI/L2
Critical load of a column with other boundary condition

Ncr = 2EI/(KL)2 = Ne/ K2
KL = Effective Length
Ne = Euler buckling load
Effective Length factor, K = (Ne/Ncr)0.5
e.g., Cantilever Column

Pcr= 0.252EI/L2 = 2EI/4L2 = 2EI/(2L)2
Effective Length factor = (Ne/Ncr)0.5
Hence the effective length LE for a cantilever is 2L
Nominal effective lengths

Restraint Position Position Position None
Direction Direction Direction
Restraint Position Position Position Position Position

Direction Direction Direction
Practical 1.0 L 0.85 L 0.7 L 2.0 L 1.2 L
LE
13
Ib = infinite
14
Ku
K TL
Ku K TR
K TL A
K TR
Kc
Kc
B
K BL K BR
K BL K BR KL
KL
15
BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of

columns in Nonsway frames
Pinned
1
0.9
k1
0.8
0.7
Ku
K TL
K TR 0.6
Kc 0.5
K BL 0.4
K BR
KL 0.3
0.2
0.1
Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Fixed k2
Pinned
16
BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of columns in Sway

frames
Pinned
1
0.9
k1
0.8
k2
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
17
Buckled Mode Shapes
Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

Effective Length of Columns in Multistorey Frame
Total Column Stiffness at Jo int

k K
Total Stiffness of All Members at Jo int u
K K1 K
TL TR
K = I/L
k c  ku
c
Column being considered
k1  K K
kc  ku  kTL  kTR
BL BR
K
2
K
L
kc  k L
k2 
kc  k L  k BL  k BR
19
Derivation of Charts
kl = KC / (KC + KBL + KBR) 1
LE
k2 = KC+ KL / (KC +KL + KBL + KBR)
2
Conservative Formulae for the curves

For non-sway frames
LE / L  0.5  0.14k1  k 2   0.55(k1  k 2 ) 2

For sway frames
1  0.2(k1  k 2 )  0.12k1 k 2 
LE / L   
 1  0.8(k1  k 2 )  0.6k1 k 2 
20
Use of the charts of Annex E

• k1 = (Kc + Ku) / (Kc+Ku+KTL +KTR)
• k2 = (Kc + KL) / (Kc+KL+KBL +KBR)
• The stiffness K for each member is
taken as a function of I / L
• If a beam supports a floor slab, its K
value should be taken as I / L
• For a beam which is not rigidly
connected to the column, K should be
taken as zero.
21
Use of the charts of Annex E

• For a beam which carries more
than 90% of its moment capacity, a
90%Mp
pin should be inserted at that
location or set Ib/Lb = 0. Ib/|Lb = 0
• If either end of the column carries
more than 90% of Mp, the value of k2 = 1
k1 or k2 as appropriate should be
taken as 1.0.
• For other conditions, the
appropriate values of K are given in
Tables E1, E2 and E3 of the code.
22
Beam stiffness values

Table E.1 – BS5950:Part1
Loading condition Non-sway mode Sway mode
Beam directly supporting 1.0 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )

concrete floor or roof slab
Other beams supporting 0.75 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )
direct loads
Beams with end moments 0.5 ( I/L ) 1.5 ( I/L )
only
Beam in single
Beam in double
curvature
curvature
Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

23
Columns in a Mixed Frame (E.5)
Effective length to
be increased by
F
Rigid frame Simple frame
Storey buckling amplification factor
 Vsr = total vertical load in that storey in the columns that resist sway in that plane
V su = total vertical load in that storey in the columns not resisting sway in that plane
24
Question 7
Homework 5
The members of the unbraced rigid-jointed two storey frame shown in Fig. 7 are all of S275 steel. The
member properties are shown in Table 1. The frame is subjected factored gravity load and wind loads
shown in Fig. 7.
• By using a structural analysis software (SAP2000, STAAD PRO, etc.), perform elastic analysis to
determine the internal force distribution in the members for the frame subject to the factored loads
as shown.
• determine the effective length of the columns
• determine the amplified design moments for the columns;
• determine the adequacy of the columns for the actions determined by elastic analysis using either
effective length method or amplified sway method;
5 10 10 10 10 10 5
5 5 7 9 12 14 16
3 10 20 20 20 20 20 10
5.0
10 4 6 8 11 13 15
2
Rigid frame Simple frame 5.0

10 17
1
3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3.
0 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 7. Frame and loads (m, kN)
Table 1. Member properties
Member Section Ix (cm4) A (cm2) py (N/mm2)
1-3, 10-12 UC 203 x 203 x 46 4570 58.7 275
2-11 UB 610 x 229 x 113 87300 144 275
3-12 UB 457 x 191 x 74 33300 94.6 275
25
Amplified Moment Method
26
Amplification factor for sway effect
For multi-storey frames second order sway effects may be calculated
by increasing the horizontal loads HEd (e.g. wind) and equivalent
horizontal loads VEd due to imperfections according to first order
theory by the factor:
1
kr  provided that αcr ≥ 3.0
1  (1 /  cr )
H  h 
 cr   Ed  
 
 VEd   H , Ed 
27
28
Limitation of the simplified

method (Cl 5.2.2 (6)B)
All storeys have a similar
Only for typical rectilinear frame
• distribution of vertical loads and
• distribution of horizontal loads
and
• distribution of frame stiffness with
respect to the applied storey
shear forces.
Amplified Sway Effect
Sway effect can be introduced approximately by amplifying
the design horizontal load by kr
kr (W + EHF)
kr (W + EHF)
kr (W + EHF)
kr (W + EHF)
29
Example 1: Determine effective lengths of
columns in sway frame
2 3.6m
Ix beams = 21500cm 4
1 3.6m
Ix columns = 6090cm 4
3.6m
3 3.6m
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Factored dead plus live load
16kN/m
72kN/m
Beams are supporting concrete slab, Kb = 1.0 I/L
30
2 3.6m
Using Appendix E 1 3.6m
3.6m
3 3.6m
Column 1 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m
Beams KTL = KTR = KBL = KBR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9

Columns KU = KC = KL = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9
End restraint factors
Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
Bottom k2 = (KC+KL) / (KC + KL +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
The frame is a sway frame; use Figure E.2 for sway frame
LE/L = 1.27 i.e. LE = 1.27 x 3.6 = 4.57m
If bracings were provided and the frame is a non-sway frame,

the effective length ratio from Figure E.1 would be 0.625 .
i.e. LE = 0.625 x 3.6 = 2.25m
31
Pinned
1
0.9
k1
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
32
2 3.6m
1 3.6m
3.6m
3 3.6m
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m
Column 2
Beams KTL = KBL = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KC = KL = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9
End Restraint factors
Top k1 = (KC) / (KC +KTL) = 0.36
Bottom k2 = (KC+KL) / (KC + KL +KTL) = 0.53
From Figure E.2 for sway frame

LE/L = 1.4 i.e. LE = 1.4 x 3.6 = 5.04m
33
2 3.6m
Column based is pinned
1 3.6m
3.6m
3 3.6m
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Column 3
Beams KTL = KTR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KU = KC = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9
Bottom k2 = (KC) / (KC ) = 1
Therefore as the frame is a sway frame from Figure E.2

LE/L = 2.25 i.e. LE = 2.25 x 3.6 = 8.10m
The design would then proceed as normal using the
effective lengths calculated above.
34
2
If the column bases were rigid – base
stiffness is taken as column stiffness : cl. 1
5.1.3.2 in BS5950:Part1
3
Column 3
Beams KTL = KTR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KU = KC = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9

Bottom k2 = (KC) / (KC + KC ) = 0.50
From Figure E.2 LE/L = 1.35 i.e. LE = 1.35 x 3.6 = 4.86m
The effective length is much reduced and the column will be smaller but
the cost of providing moment resisting foundations may out-weight the cost
of the savings in steelwork. The fixity would also be beneficial in
controlling sway deformations.
35
Example 2
The figure below shows an unbraced two-storey frame where the column based are fixed and
subjected to factored floor (dead and imposed) loadings qi and factored wind loadings Wi.
Determine the equivalent horizontal forces if it is necessary to be considered in the design of
this frame. The frame is braced in the out-of-plane direction at every level.
q1=40kN/m
W1=8kN
q2=60kN/m 3m
W2=16kN
3m
6m 6m
H Ed  (W1  W2 )  (8  16)  24 kN
VEd  ( q1  q2 ) * 2l  (40  60) * 12  1200 kN
H Ed  24 kN  0.15VEd  0.15 * 1200  180kN
Since HEd < 0.15VEd, sway imperfections have to be taken into account.
36
Equivalent horizontal forces
 1  2   1   1 2 2
  0 h m     0.5 *  1    h  but   h  1.0
 200  6   
 3   300 h 3
1
H1   q1 (2l )  * 40 * 12  1.6kN  1
300  m  0.5 1  
1  m
H 2   q2 (2l )  * 60 * 12  2.4kN
300
Example 3
For the frame in Example 2, determine the horizontal forces that need to be considered to
account for the sway effects. The inter-floor displacements for the total horizontal force
(equivalent horizontal forces + Wind forces) are H,1 = 6.48mm and H,2 = 8.75mm
respectively.
q1=40kN/m H,1 = 6.48mm
H1=1.6kN
W1=8kN q1=60kN/m 3m
H2=2.4kN
W2=16kN H,2 = 8.75mm
3m
6m 6m 37
 H Ed  h 
VEd 1  q1 (2l )  40 * 12  480 kN  cr    
 
 VEd   H , Ed 
VEd 2  q2 (2l )  60 * 12  720 kN
 H 1  W1   h1   1.6 + 8   3000   Conservatively taking  = 8.00

 cr 1           9.26  The amplification factor crk is
 VEd 1    H ,1   480   6.48   r
 1 1
 H1  W1  H 2  W2   h2   9.6  18.4  3000   kr    1.14
 cr 2          8.00  1  (1 /  cr ) 1  (1 / 8)
 V Ed 1  VEd 2 
  H ,2   480  720  8.75 
Total horizontal forces to be considered for design

q1=40kN/m
(H1+W1) x kr = 11.0kN
q1=60kN/m 3m
(H2+W2) x kr = 21.0kN
3m
6m 6m 38
Example 4
Design Column “A” for the following load combination (factored loads)
Assume the frame is braced in the out-of plane direction at each storey.
W1=8kN W2=16kN H1=1.6kN H2=2.4kN

kr  1.14
q1=40kN/m
(H1+W1) x kr = 11.0kN
q1=60kN/m 3m
(H2+W2) x kr = 21.0kN column “A”
3m
39
Bending Moment Shear Forces
Column Reaction Force Axial Forces

40
12/8/2016
Design of Column “A” R Liew
Analysis result Member section

My(major) 19.2KNm Try203x203x60 UC S275
Mz-z (minor) 0KNm Section table mm
NEd 660KN h 209.6 Iy-y 6120cm4
L 3m b 205.8 Iz-z 2060
Span 6m tw 9.4 Wy-y 656cm3
tf 14.2 Wz-z 305
Eff legth fac(major) 1 r 10.2 A 76.4cm2
Eff legth fac(minor) 1 d 160.8 Iw 0.197dm6
cf/tf 6.2 IT 47.2cm4
Ley
Lez
3
3
cw/tw 17.1 iy
iz
8.96cm
5.2cm
660 kNm
E 210KN/mm2
fy 275 G 81KN/mm2
ε 0.92 14.54 kNm
Member classification
Flange
cf/tf 6.2 < 9ε 8.32 Class 1
Web
1  h 1 N Ed 
     t  r 
19.2 kNm
f
c  2 2 f y t w  = 1.29 < 1.0
take  = 1.0
cw=d=c
cw/tw 17.1 < 396ε/(13α - 1) = 30.36 Class 1
Overall classification is Class 1

Column “A”
 1  93 . 9   86.8
41
R Liew
For buckling about y-y axis:

L cr, y 1
y   0.39
iy 1
h/b = 1.02< 1.2
Using buckling curve b, imperfection factor α 0.34
 
Φ  0.5 1  α  λ  0.2   λ 2   0.61
y   y  y 
1
χ   0.93
y 2  λ 2
Φ  Φ
y y y
χ Af
N 
y y
 1957.5 KN Design table : N b,y,Rd = 1960 KN
b, y, Rd γ
M1
For buckling about z-z axis:

L 1
cr, z
λ   0.66
z i λ
z 1
h/b = 1.02< 1.2
Using buckling curve c, imperfection factor α 0.49
Φ
z
 0.5  1  α λ  0.2
 z
  λ
z
2   0.83

1
χ   0.75
z 2 2
Φ  Φ  λ
z z z
χ Af
N 
z y
 1568.3KN Design table : N b,Z,Rd = 1570 KN
b, z, Rd γ
M1
42
12/8/2016 R Liew
Resistance to lateral torsional buckling:

660 kNm
C1 = (1.88-1.4*ψ+0.52*ψ^2)
ψ= M1/M2
ψ= -0.76
C1= 3.23 so 2.7 should be <= 2.7 14.54 kNm
0.5
 2 EI z  I w Lcr GI T 
2
M cr,0    2  = 629.76KNm
Lcr
2
 I z  EI z 
M  C M  1700KNm
cr 1 cr,0
W f
pl.y y
λ   0.33
LT M
cr 19.2 kNm
h/b = 1.02< 2
Using buckling curve a, imperfection factor α = 0.21 Column “A”

Φ
LT
 0.5 1  α

λ
LT LT
 0.2  λ 2 
LT 
  0.57
1
χ   0.97
LT 2  λ 2
Φ  Φ
LT LT LT
χ W f
LT pl, y y
M   175.24 KNm Design table : M b,,Rd = 180 KNm
b, Rd γ
M1
43
From bending moment distribution

and Annex B-EC3
C = 0.6+0.4ψ >=0.4
ψ= -0.76
Cmy = 0.3 so 0.4
Cmz = 0
CmLT = 0.3 so 0.4
Interaction factors:
 N 
λ  1.0  k  C   
1   λ  0.2  Ed   0.43
y yy my   y  N 
 b, y, Rd 
 0.1 λ N 
λ  1.0  k  1  z Ed   0.81
z zy  C  0.25 N 
 mLT b, z, Rd 
Second order moment

My,Ed Member Buckling Resistance Check 
NEd 660 19.2
 kyy   0.43  0.38  1.0 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about
Nb,y,Rd Mb,Rd 1957.5 175.24 MAJOR axis
NEd My,Ed M
 kzy  kzz z,Ed
Nb,z,Rd Mb,Rd Mz,Rd First order moment (=19.2/1.14) Member Buckling Resistance Check 
Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about
660 16.8 MINOR axis.
  0.81  0  0.42  0.096  0.52  1.0
1568 175.24 The frame is non-sway in the out-of-plane at the storey level.
Column “A” is adequate

A smaller column size may be used
It is necessary to conduct cross section resistance check to complete the design.

Homework
Design the edge column
44
100 kN
Additional Homework 100 kN
100 kN
100 kN
EHFx EHFy
EHFy EHFx
Equivalent horizontal force = (1/200)
floor gravity load applied in one
direction at a time.
The frame is a sway frame in both
direction. 150 kN
Column designed will be governed 150 kN
150 kN
by buckling about the minor axis. 150 kN
Hence, design the member for
buckling about the minor axis
All members UC 152 x 152 x 37 S 275 steel y
x
45
100 kN
100 kN
100 kN
HW: Continue 100 kN
Alternate design
100 kN
Provide bracing to prevent side
sway in the x direction as NHLy
shown. NHLy NHLx
150 kN
Design the column as nonsway

in the x direction, but consider
sway effect in the y direction. 100 kN
x
46
HW(Continue). Consider sway effect in the y direction.
EHF
100kN 100kN Lateral Deflectionat
1kN thestorey level (cm)
1.503
100 3.5m
100 1kN
1.305
3.5m
150 150 1.5kN
0.942
3.5m
150 150 1.5kN
B 0.412
3.5m
A Y direction
3.5m
Frame Classification for sway or nonsway
 H i   hi 
determine  cri     At every floor
 VEdi    Hi 
47
Check  cri
•
Storey h/Hi  cr
No. 504.7 kN
1 847.56 4.23 B
2.7 kNm
2 662 3.31
3 961.5 4.80
4 1785,7 8.93
5.973 kNm A
1 Design column AB using the effective length approach
2 Design column AB using the amplified moment approach 504.7 kN
Forces in column AB
from first order elastic
analysis
48
49
Direct Advanced Analysis

Methods
1 Nonlinear second order analysis

2 Include member and sway imperfections
3 Perform cross sectional checks
Limitations of First Order Liner
Analysis
• Only valid for cr ≥10
• First-order analysis and effective length method

could be used for frames dominated by sway
buckling modes (NOT for general frames as
calculation of cr is based on sway buckling
mode)
• Many effects such as snap-through buckling,

plastic strength reserve cannot be considered.
50
Effective Length Method
The individual compression members should be checked with
the buckling length values based on a global sway buckling
mode of the frame.
Hybrid System
Use KL to design for these members?
Arches + Gridshell
Ne
K 
cr N Ed
αcr= Ncr/NEd
from buckling analysis
Euler buckling load

NE = 2EI/L2
51
Paradox of Effective Length Method
NEd = 0 NEd
Effective Length Factor
Ne KL= 
K
 cr N Ed
L
If NEd = 0  K = infinity
EC3:1-1 - SSNA 2.10

How about beam and joint design?
The design of beams and joints should be based on Beam?
second order moments. Joint?
Second order moment is still needed for joint design! Design using KL
52
Second-order direct analysis
• For complex structures - more economical with
average saving in steel weight about 25%.
• Safer as “old” method could under-design critical
members and over-design redundant members
• More efficient as design and analysis are
automatically done by computer software -
“old” method needs manual input of effective
length factor and member imperfections for each
member in each load case.
53
Second-order analysis is mandatory for slender & complex
structures in many codes like EC-3, HK Steel Code & AISC
54
Directly Second Order Analysis Method is
not familiar to most structural engineers
Design engineers do not understand the method of

second-order analysis & non-linear theory
Many engineers think they know but they actually
overlook many essential points like use of member
initial imperfection to Table 5.1 in Eurocode-3
55
(2) Consideration of frame imperfection
using buckling mode (Eurocode-3)
Overlooking of the above gives design NOT to

code requirements & will be inadequate !
56
AISC- Direct analysis method is the preferred method
57
Books have been published on
this new method a decade ago
http://www.amazon.com/Stability-
Design-Semi-Rigid-Frames- http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/Wil
Chen/dp/0471076708#reader_04710767 eyTitle/productCd-
http://en.nidacse.com/ 08 0470030615.html#
58
Can a Braced Frame be a Sway Frame?
Yes, when lateral deflection is large.
Especially for high-rise building.
Resistance to horizontal force is provided by concrete 59
core
Braced frame is always stable?
Can we design the members in a braced frame using the member length between the two node points?
Experience shows that conventional method over design the main members and under-design the bracing members
collapse of a telecom tower in Vietnam

60
61
NIDA Software
62
under-design of the bracing members
Collapse of Water Tank Tower - Brune

63
Mix of braced and unbraced frames
Temporary Support
braced
Unbraced
64
Slender braced frame
- Crane Tower
65
This method has been used for
court case & investigation
66
Differences between conventional
method and direct analysis method
• Conventional method often based on linear

analysis. Checking of strength and stability is
at the design stage.
→ Analysis simple and design complex.
• Member stability check approach - Design

formulae have many limitations including
uncertainty associated with the use of member
effective length.
67
Differences between conventional
method and direct analysis method
• Direct analysis considers member and frame
stability and the design becomes simple since
only cross section checks are required.
→ Analysis complex and design simple.
• System stability & performance-based

approach and can be applied to different
scenarios including analysis for progressive
collapse.
68
• Check only the cross sectional strength - the design
resistance is reached when the section Capacity is
reached.
• The design resistance is taken as the load causing the
formation of the first plastic hinge for plastic (class 1)
section or compact (class 2) section or first yield semi-
compact (class 3) section or slender section with further
reduction of cross-sectional properties due to local
buckling.
Cross section check:

N Ed ( M y ,Ed  P y  P y ) ( M z ,Ed  P z  P z )
  1
Af y M y ,Rd M z ,Rd 69
Imperfections
Imperfections are essential for a reliable and safe

design by second-order analysis.
The effects of imperfections shall be taken into

account as.
• Frame imperfection based on global buckling
mode – load case sensitive
• Member imperfection to be modelled using
curved element with initial curvature - Table 5.1
70
12/8/2016
Frame imperfections
5.3.2 - The effects of frame imperfections shall be incorporated in frame
analysis using an equivalent geometric imperfection or equivalent horizontal
force.
EHF = 0.5% of the vertical load should be
applied horizontally to a frame to
simulate imperfection.
  1 / 200
Frame imperfection Equivalent horizontal forces

71
12/8/2016
Equivalent Horizontal Force (EHF)

• To account for the effect of initial sway imperfection, EC3 requires
the consideration of equivalent horizontal forces, for each column.
• EHF is a function of the design vertical load, NEd.
EHF   N Ed N Ed N Ed
  0 h m  N Ed
0  1 / 200
2 2
h    h  1.0
h 3
 1
 m  0.5  1   N Ed N Ed
 m
h: height of structure in meters
m: number of columns in a row with the NEd applied on the column ≥ 50%Ned,avg
for all columns in the vertical plane.
Member imperfections
For a compression member, the equivalent initial
bow imperfection specified in Table 5.1 of
Eurocode-3 may be used in a second order
analysis of the member.
 SSEN 1993-1-1 Singapore national annexes adopts recommended

values from EN1993-1-1 Table 5.1 as
Buckling curve Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
acc. To Table 6.1 e0/L e0/L
a0 1/350 1/300 e0
a 1/300 1/250 L
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
73
P P

If we consider both P- and P-

 effects, we need not worry
about the effective length and
the design is more efficient and
accurate.
The P- and P- Effects 74

NIDA Software
Client : Macau SAR Government

Architect : Eddie Wong & Associates
Structural Engineer : Dr. S.L. Chan 75
Recent projects
NIDA Software
76
Second-order plastic direct analysis of Structural Steel Truss at MICE
area of Marina Bay Sands Integrated Resort Project, Singapore
NIDA Software
77
NIDA Software
78
The Flower Dome
Skybridge
Flower Dome
Gardens by the Bay
Cloud Forest
Gardens By The Bay, Conservatory Enclosures
Cool Dry
Cool Moist
Gardens by the Bay
Geometry – Plan View
170m
100m
The Flower Dome The Cloud Forest
The Flower Dome
Key Structural Components of Hybrid System
+
Gridshell: Single layer lattice shell structure in
Arches and Tie Rods
the form of the structural steel grid
+ =
Hanger connectors between arches and Hybrid structure. Column‐free conservatory enclosure.
gridshell
3-D modelling, Analysis and Design
90m
35m
170m
83
The Flower Dome
Sections of Arches
H = 2120
Type 3
Type 4 H = 2350
Type 2 (transition from box
to open section)
H = 1050
Type 1
E1/W1 Arch
Flange Thickness = 30 mm H = 2350
Web Thickness = 12 mm
1050mm 2350mm
85
Gridshell members ‐ Triangular Sections
Cannot use the EC 3 buckling curves
Final shape Original shape
Gridshell sections were made
from S355 plates bent into the
required shape and hot finished.
The outer bend radius adopted is
2*t.
Gardens by the Bay – Cool Dry
Single Layer Lattice Gridshell – Gridshell Members
Triangular profile section

reduces ground shadows
due to direct sunlight
Fully welded to form the gridshell structu

How to Connect them?
Fully Welded Node

Welded Node to Connect Triangular Gridshell
Fabrication of Nodes （节点加工）
Setting of node positions （调整节点位置）
Welding member to node （焊接构件和节点）
Welding of members to a node （焊接）
Forming of gridshell panel
Forming of gridshell panel
The Flower Dome
Arch
Gridshell
100mx170m single layer latt
A mountain forest with cool and moist
environment– Another Cantiléver feature
The Flower Dome
Arch Shoe –Designed as fixed base
The Flower Dome
Arch Shoe Pile caps

The Flower Dome
Arch South Shoe – Allow rotation during construction to reduce the number
of anchors bolts. Design as semi‐rigid joints after construction
Designed as pinned during

construction; semi-rigid after
construction
The Flower Dome
Arch South Shoe – Designed as pinned during construction; fixed
after construction
Allow rotation during constructio

Gardens By The Bay, Conservatory Enclosures
(After Construction)
Cool Dry – Flower Doom
Cool Moist-Cloud Forest

Arts Science Museum
8 7
6
9
5
10 4
3
1 2
The steel roof consists of 10 “fingers” they are significantly different. Each finger
denotes various gallery spaces with skylights at the "fingertips" which provide
illumination for the curved interior walls. The roof harvests the rainfall and let it
falls right through the centre atrium of the building as a waterfall.
ArtScience Museum
About 50m  30m
60m
About 5000 tons of steel

106
The steel roof consists of 10
“fingers” they are
significantly different in
length. Each finger denotes
various gallery spaces with
skylights at the "fingertips"
which provide illumination for
the curved interior walls.
107
Structural Concept
Oculus frame, UB & UC

Tension Ring
Centre Core
with Diagrid
Jumbo CHS Compression Ring
sections
SHS Jumbo Column
108
Radial Trusses
Connecting the
tension and
compression rings
109
Finger Trusses
Lateral bracing
frame
Arts Science Museum

111
Because of its complex
geometry, 3D BIM was created
Plan view
to facilitate accurate Structure was supported by off-
fabrication and construction. central core
112
ection of Rain Water to form Water Fall
114
Advanced Analysis of 3D frame
Subject to Extreme Loads
At first
At initial At first
buckling At limit
yield plastic hinge of member load
Collapse
Analysis of
Composite
Frames
20-story building
subjects
to Wind Load
At first plastic hinge At collapse

with PROPER consideration of
Imperfections
Second-order direct analysis can be used in

all cases. No effective length or moment
amplification is required. Only section
capacity check is needed.
117
First Order Versus Second Order Analysis
Direct Second Order Analysis First order Linear Analysis
Design is included in the analysis Only for αcr > 10
Frame classification is not need Frame classification is needed
Check section capacity Check individual member buckling

capacity and estimate effective buckling
length
More reliable as buckling is checked by Less reliable as buckling is checked by
rigorous nonlinear theory column buckling length
Implemented in modern design codes Allowed to be used in modern design
codes, but it is not the preferred method
Design speed is faster as effective Design speed is slower as effective
lengths are not needed lengths are needed
More economical or safer design May not be safe as some critical
members may be under-designed
Collapse analysis and progressive Limited to simple problems and system
collapse analysis can be carried out “true” capacity cannot be obtained
Simple to use as imperfections are Design is tedious as effective lengths
automatically computed by software for need to be computed for different load
all load combinations cases and cannot be done automatically 118
HOMEWORK 5:
CONTINUOUS FRAMES
(IVLE)
119

8b Frame - Design New

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8b Frame - Design New

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Frame Design

If the effects of deformed geometry has to be considered, the

Effects of deformed geometry can be ignored if

For elastic analysis:

FEd = design loading on the structure

The following estimate for cr may be used for

Design of Non-Sway Frames

Design of Sway Sensitive Frames

Sway sensitive frames should be designed as

Member Resistance Checks

Sway Effective Length Method

Effective Length Method

Effective Lengths and Critical Loads

Critical load of a column with other boundary condition

Effective Length factor, K = (Ne/Ncr)0.5

e.g., Cantilever Column

Nominal effective lengths

Restraint Position Position Position Position Position

BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of

BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of columns in Sway

Buckled Mode Shapes

Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

Effective Length of Columns in Multistorey Frame

Total Column Stiffness at Jo int

Conservative Formulae for the curves

LE / L  0.5  0.14k1  k 2   0.55(k1  k 2 ) 2

Use of the charts of Annex E

Use of the charts of Annex E

Beam stiffness values

Beam directly supporting 1.0 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )

Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

Rigid frame Simple frame 5.0

Limitation of the simplified

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Beams are supporting concrete slab, Kb = 1.0 I/L

Using Appendix E 1 3.6m

Column 1 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Beams KTL = KTR = KBL = KBR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9

If bracings were provided and the frame is a non-sway frame,

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

From Figure E.2 for sway frame

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Therefore as the frame is a sway frame from Figure E.2

End restraint factors

 H 1  W1   h1   1.6 + 8   3000   Conservatively taking  = 8.00

Total horizontal forces to be considered for design

W1=8kN W2=16kN H1=1.6kN H2=2.4kN

Column Reaction Force Axial Forces

Analysis result Member section

Overall classification is Class 1

For buckling about y-y axis:

For buckling about z-z axis:

Using buckling curve c, imperfection factor α 0.49

Resistance to lateral torsional buckling:

Using buckling curve a, imperfection factor α = 0.21 Column “A”

From bending moment distribution

Second order moment

Column “A” is adequate

It is necessary to conduct cross section resistance check to complete the design.

All members UC 152 x 152 x 37 S 275 steel y

Design the column as nonsway

Frame Classification for sway or nonsway