ULTRASONICS

Acoustics is the science of vibrations and waves in elastic media. Elastic media comprise air,
water and solid bodies such as metals, concrete, wood etc.

(Qn: - What is ultrasomics?)

Ultrasonics is a branch of acoustics which deals with the study of everything in the
frequency range from 20 KHz to 500 MHz

(Qn: - What are ultrasonic waves?)

The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range (i.e. above 20000 Hz) are
called ultrasonic waves.

The field of ultrasonics has applications for imaging, detection and navigation. Music and other
sounds that we consider pleasant are typically 12 KHz or less while some humans can hear
frequencies up 20 KHz. Ultra sound is a sound in which the frequency of vibration is too large
in comparison to audible sound. The limit of audibility is about 20000 Hz but varies from
person to person, it tends to be highest with young people and decreases as we get elder.

(Qn:- Why do ultrasonic waves have a wide range of applications?)

In general, ultrasound has a frequency greater than 20 KHz. Since the frequency of
ultrasonic waves is greater than 20 KHz, their wavelength is very small. Hence, a narrow
beam of ultrasonic waves can be sent out and reflected from small objects. Human ears
are sensitive to a frequency up to 20 KHz. Hence, ultrasonic frequencies are not
detectable with human ears.

Ultrasound has several applications in science and engineering. One of the earliest applications
of ultrasonics was for detecting flaws in materials. Today, ultrasound is one of the several
effective methods used in the field of Non-Destructive Testing and inspection. Ultrasonic
devices are also used in industrial processing applications such as cleaning, drilling,
emulsifying, soldering and welding. Ultrasonic devices are used in medical field for diagnosis
together with X-rays and other diagnostic procedures. Ultrasonic waves are also used in some
security systems.

Bats and dolphins are the only mammals that emit and
detect frequency up to 120 KHz corresponding to a
wavelength of 2.8mm, which they can use to locate small
prey. They use echolocation in order to make ultrasound.
When bats emit ultrasound from their mouth, they can
hear high frequency that they make while flying, they
listen to the vibration that return from various objects
near them.

1
Ships use a device called SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) to detect the outlines of
submarines and some submerged objects with ultrasonic waves. To create a sonogram,
ultrasonic waves are passed through the body and information about the frequency and intensity
of transmitted and reflected waves is processed to generate a three-dimensional picture of the
body’s interior.

Properties of ultrasonic waves

(Qn:- What are the important properties of ultrasonic waves?)
1. Since the frequency of ultrasonic waves is high, they have a very high energy
content.
2. Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected, refracted and
absorbed.
3. They can be transmitted over large distances with no appreciable loss of energy.
4. They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.

PRODUCTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

Ultrasonic waves are produced by the following two methods.

1. Magnetostriction generator
2. Piezoelectric generator

1. MAGNETOSTRICTION GENERATOR
MAGNETOSTRICTION EFFECT

(Qn:- What is magnetostriction effect?

(Essay qn:- What are ultrasonic waves? Write the principle of production of
ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction effect. Draw the circuit diagram of the
magnetostriction oscillator. Write any two applications of ultrasonic waves.

OR

How is magnetostriction effect used to produce ultrasonic waves? Give the

merits and demerits of this method.)
Magnetostriction occurs in ferromagnetic materials and certain non-metals which are
termed as ferrites. When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic
field parallel to its length, the rod experiences a small change in its length. This is known

2
as magnetostriction effect. The length of the rod may either increase or decrease on the
application of the magnetic field. If the length of the rod increases, then the effect is called
positive magnetostriction and if the length of the rod decreases, then the effect is called
negative magnetostriction. The change in length produced in the rod depends on the
strength of the magnetic field, the nature of the materials and is independent of the
direction of the magnetic field applied. Therefore, when an alternating field is applied, the
rod suffers a change in length during each half cycle of the alternating current. Consequently,
the rod vibrates with a frequency twice that of the frequency of alternating current. If the natural
frequency of the rod coincides with the frequency of the a.c., due to resonance the rod vibrates
with considerable amplitude.

The resonant frequency f for the longitudinal vibrations of a bar of length l can be calculated
as follows.

The velocity of ultrasonic waves in a bar is given by,

(10.1)

Where Y is the Young’s modulus of the material and ρ is the density of the material.

If the rod vibrates in its fundamental, then the length of the rod is,

(10.2)

Then,

(10.3)

Therefore,

Or,

(10.4)

MAGENETOSTRICTION OSILLATOR
3
The experimental arrangement for the generation of ultrasonic waves is shown in the following
figure.

XY is a rod of ferromagnetic material like iron or nickel. The rod is clamped in the middle.
The alternating magnetic field is generated by the electronic oscillator. The coil L1 is wound
on the right-hand portion of the rod with a variable capacitor C. This forms the resonant circuit
of the collector tuned oscillator. The frequency of oscillator is controlled by the variable
capacitor. The coil L2 wound on the left-hand portion of the rod, is connected to the base circuit.
The coil L2 acts as a feedback loop.

When the high-tension battery is switched on, the collector circuit oscillates with frequency,

(10.5)

This alternating current flowing through the coil L1 produces an alternating magnetic
field along the length of the rod. The result is that the rod starts vibrating due to
magnetostriction effect.

The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by equation (10.4). The capacitor C is adjusted
so that the frequency of the oscillatory circuit is equal to the natural frequency of the rod and
thus resonance takes place. Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude.
This results in a pressure variation in the surrounding medium which results in alternate
compression and expansion of the medium and hence leads to the generation of ultrasonic
waves of high frequency from the ends of the rod.

In order to obtain the best effect, Nickel or iron rod should be previously magnetized by means
of a second coil L2 wound over it and carrying a direct current.

4
Advantages
Some of the merits of magnetostriction oscillator are:

1. The design of the magnetostriction oscillator is very simple

2. The production cost is very low.
3. At low ultrasonic frequencies, a large power output can be produced without the risk of
damage of the oscillatory circuit.

Disadvantages
1. It has low upper frequency limit. It cannot generate ultrasonic frequency above 3 Mhz.
2. The frequency of oscillation depends on the operating temperature. At high
temperature, the output from the oscillator will not be very stable.
3. There will be loses of energy due to hysteresis and Eddy current.

2. PIEZO ELECTRIC GENERATOR

PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT

(Essay qn:- What is piezoelectric effect? How can you produce ultrasonic
waves using piezoelectric oscillator?

OR

What is inverse Piezo-electric effect? Describe the production of ultrasonic

waves by piezo electric oscillator method. Give the merits and demerits of
this method.)
In certain crystals, the application of an external mechanical stress between two opposite
faces induces a net dipole moment which produces polarization charges on the surface of
the crystal. In other words, the application of stress gives rise to a potential difference.
This phenomenon is called piezo electric effect. The piezo electric effect was discovered by
Curie brothers. Thus, if a mechanical stress is applied to one pair of opposite faces of certain
crystals like quartz, equal and opposite electric charges appear across its other faces. This
is called piezo electric effect.

(Sub qn:- What is inverse piezoelectric effect?)

5
The converse of piezo electric effect is also true. If an alternating voltage is applied between
the opposite faces of a crystal like quartz or Rochelle salt, corresponding changes in the
dimension of other pair of faces occurs, thereby generating elastic waves. This is known
as inverse piezo electric effect and it will give rise to ultrasonic waves. The inverse piezo
electric effect is called electrostriction effect. For such an effect to take place, the crystal
should not have an inversion center. i.e. those crystals which lack an axis symmetry can
exhibit piezo electric and inverse piezo electric effect. Inverse piezo electric effect was
predicted by Lippmann and verified experimentally by Curie brothers.

6
Quartz is commonly applied or
ultrasonic generation. A quartz crystal
is shown in the figure with a hexagonal
cross-section normal to the non-polar
optic axis, denoted by the Z –axis. The
axes joining the opposite edges are
denoted as X-axis. The associated axes,
which are perpendicular to these and joining opposite faces are termed as Y-axis. The X and Y
axes are polar axes and slab cut with their faces perpendicular to them manifest piezo electric
effect. Crystals that are cut with their faces perpendicular to the X-axis and Y-axis are
termed as X-cut and Y-cut crystals respectively. The X-cut crystals are usually utilized to
propagate compression waves and Y-cut crystals are applied to generate shear waves.

The natural frequencies for mechanical vibrations is proportional to the inverse of the
dimension along which they occur. Hence, the lower frequencies are generated by length
vibrations along the direction of the longer dimension while the higher frequencies are
produced by thickness vibrations along the direction of the smaller dimensions.

PIEZO ELETRIC OSCILLATOR

The circuit used for the production of ultrasonic waves using inverse piezo electric effect is
given below.

7
The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A and B. the plates are connected to the
primary L3 of the transformer which is inductively coupled to the electronic oscillator. The
electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned circuit. The coils L1 and L2 of the oscillator circuit
are taken from the secondary of a transformer T. the collector coil L2 is inductively coupled to
the base coil L1. The coil L1 and the variable capacitor C1 form the tank circuit of the oscillator.

When the H.T. battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency alternating
voltages with frequency,

(10.6)

Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil, L3. This high
frequency alternating voltages are fed on the plates A and B. inverse piezoelectric effect
takes place and the crystal contracts and expands alternatively. This results in a pressure
variation in the surrounding medium, leading to the formation of ultrasonic waves.

The frequency of vibration is given by,

(10.7)

Where p=1,2,3,4,…for fundamental. First overtone, second tone,..

Y is the Young’s modulus of the crystal and

ρ is the density of the crystal.

The variable condenser C1 is adjusted such that the frequency of the applied AC voltage is
equal to the natural frequency of the quartz crystal and thus resonance takes place. The
vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large amplitude.

8
Advantages
1. Ultrasonic waves of frequencies up to 500MHz can be obtained with this arrangement.
2. A wide range of frequencies can be generated at lower cost using synthetic materials.
3. The output of this oscillator is very high.
4. It is not affected by temperature and humidity.

Disadvantages
1. The cost of natural piezo electric crystal is high.
2. The cutting and shaping of piezoelectric materials involve complex mechanical
process.

DETECTION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES

(Qn:- Explain the various techniques adopted in detecting the ultrasonic
waves.

OR

What are ultrasonic waves? Explain two methods of detecting ultrasonic

waves)
Ultrasonic waves propagated through a medium can be detected in a number of ways. Some of
the important methods include:

1. Piezo electric method (Quartz crystal method)

2. Thermal detection
3. Kundt’s tube method
4. Sensitive flame method

1. Piezo electric method (quartz crystal method)

9
Quartz used for the production of ultrasonic waves
can be used for its detection also. If ultrasonic
waves comprising of compressions and
rarefactions are allowed to fall up on a quartz
crystal, varying electric charges are produced on
the other pair of faces. This results in a potential
difference, which can be amplified and detected
using electronic circuits.

2. Thermal detection
This is the most commonly used method for the detection of ultrasonic waves. In this method,
a probe of platinum wire is moved in the
region to be tested for ultrasonic waves.
The temperature of the medium through
which the ultrasonic waves travels changes
due to alternate compressions and
rarefactions. At antinodes, the temperature
remains constant, whereas at the node the
temperature does not remain constant, due
to compressions and rarefactions.
The resistance of the platinum wire changes with
respect to time. This can be detected with the help
of Callender and Griffith’s bridge arrangement.
At the position of the antinodes, the temperature
remains constant and hence the resistance of the
platinum wire also remains constant. This will be
indicated by the undisturbed (balanced) position
of the bridge.

3. Kundt’s tube method

Using the properties of wave motion, the frequency of the sound and the speed of sound in the
rod can be determined. Kundt’s tube can also be used to detect ultrasonic waves having longer
wavelength.

10
Kundt’s tube consists of 1m long, 3 to 4 cm in diameter glass tube, which is open at both the
ends. A clamp at one end of the base holds a metal rod which has a metal disk attached to one
end. The rod and disk extend inside the glass tube, whose position can be adjusted to center the
tube about the disk. It is important to make sure the disk is not touching the glass because the
vibrations set up in the rod will break the glass. The other end of the Kundt’s tube is loosely
closed with a cork and has the provision to fix up a movable piston. The other end is connected
to an ultrasonic transducer. Lycopodium powder is sprinkled between the movable piston and
the ultrasonic transducer.

When ultrasonic waves are produced, it passes the Kundt’s tube apparatus and gets reflected
that from the movable piston. The movable piston can be adjusted so as to form a stationary
wave. Once, the stationary wave is formed, the lycopodium powder collects in the form of
heaps at nodal points and blown off at antinodal points. The distance between two nodal and
anti-nodal points is measured and hence the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves can be

(10.8)

calculated using the relation,

Where λu represents the wavelength of ultrasonic waves and d is the distance between any two
adjacent nodal or antinodal points.

By measuring the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave, its velocity is determined using the
relation,

(10.9)

4. Sensitive flame method

A narrow sensitive flame is moved along the medium to be detected for ultrasonic waves.
At the position of the node, the flame flickers because there is a change in pressure. In
this way, the positions of nodes and antinodes can be found out in a medium. The average
distance between two adjacent nodes is equal to half of the wavelength. If the value of the

11
frequency of the ultrasonic waves is known, the velocity of the ultrasonic wave through
the medium can be calculated.

APPLCIATIONS OF ULTRSONIC WAVES

(Essay Qn: - Explain the various applications of ultrasonic waves)
Some important applications of the ultrasonic waves include:

1. NDT applications
2. Medical applications
3. Other applications including cavitation, ultrasonic cleaning etc.

1. NDT applications
(Qn: - Explain NDT using ultrasonics

OR

What is the principle of NDT by Ultrasonic waves? Name different scanning

methods used in Ultrasonic NDT.)

NDT stands for non-destructive testing. It is a method to inspect any object

without damage. When no permanent damage take place in the properties
of materials during the process of testing, it is called Non-Destructive testing.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and
make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more. A typical UT inspection
system consists of several functional units, such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and
display devices. A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage
electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic
energy. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form
of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected signal is transformed
into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. Signal travel time
can be directly related to the distance that the signal traveled. From the signal,
information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features can
sometimes be gained.

NDT can be utilized,

12
 1. To assist in product development.
2. To monitor or to understand the nature of incoming materials.
3. To monitor, improve or control manufacturing process.
4. To verify proper processing such as heat treating.
5. To verify proper assembly.
6. To inspect for in-service damage.

Low intensity ultrasonics is generally used for NDT. Number of methods such as pulse echo
method, progressive continuous wave method, stationary or resonance method,
reverberation method etc. are available. All these methods are based on the measurement of
acoustic velocities and attenuation. The involved frequency range is roughly 0.5 MHz to 10
MHz.

a. Pulse echo method –Flaw detection (reflection system)

(Qn:- What is the principle of Ultrasonics flaw detector?)

Flaw detection is the oldest and most common application of industrial ultrasonic testing. The
hidden cracks, voids, porosity and other discontinuities in metals, composites, plastics and
ceramics can be detected with the help of ultrasonic waves through the solid materials. High
energy sound waves reflect from flaws in predictable way, producing distinctive echo patterns
that can be displayed and recorded by portable instruments. Ultrasonic testing is completely
non- destructive and safe. The pulse echo method used for the flaw detection is shown below.

13
In the absence of any flaw (crack, cavity, bubble etc.) two peaks P and R are observed on the
screen. The peak P is of original transmission signal and R is the reflected signal. If there is
any flaw, the reflection of part or all of the incident wave takes place, which results in another
peak Q, indicating to some extend the size of the flaw. When the flaw is present, the height of
peak R diminishes. By moving the transducer probe, defects in various parts of the sample can
be detected.

Sound waves are simply organized mechanical vibrations travelling through a medium
which may be a solid, a liquid or a gas. These waves will travel through a given medium
at a specific speed for velocity, in a predictable direction and when they encounter a
boundary with a different medium, they will be reflected or transmitted according to
simple rules. This is the principle of physics that underlies ultrasonic flaw detection.

b. Transmission system
In this method, the transmission probe is placed in contact with the test specimen using a liquid
coupler and the receiving probe is placed in the opposite side of the specimen as shown in
figure.

If a defect is present in the test specimen partial reflection at the flaw causes a reduction in the
strength of the signal received. Some of the disadvantages of flaw detection are given below.

1. The specimen must have parallel sides and one has to approach the specimen from the
sides.
2. Two transducers are needed.
3. The two transducers must be placed exactly opposite to each other.
4. Only the presence of the flaw can be studied, and it is not possible to detect the exact
location of the flaw.

14
 c. Thickness gauging
Usually a pulse echo method or resonance method can be used for the thickness measurement
using ultrasonic waves. Pulse echo method for thickness gauging is exactly similar to the flaw
detection method using reflection system.

But in the resonance method, the gauge is first calibrated with a standard sample. The time
taken for travelling the distance (thickness) is measured by electronic circuits and the thickness
is estimated. The advantage of this method is that the thickness can be measured by accessing
only one surface.

d. SONAR
(Qn: - What is SONAR? Give its
applications.)

SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and

Ranging. Sonar uses sound waves to
navigate. Sonar can detect objects by
emitting sound waves that bounce off objects
and come back to the receiver, giving away
its position. Submerged objects like
submarines, rocks, shoal of fish etc. can be
detected using sonar.

A sharp ultrasonic beam is directed in

various directions into the sea. By
noting the time taken by the reflected
beam, an idea of the distance of the
reflecting body can be obtained.
The change in frequency of the echo signal due to Doppler Effect gives the velocity of the
body. The depth of the sea can be estimated from the time interval between the sending
of the wave and the reception of the reflected wave.

By knowing the speed of sound in water, the distance can be calculated from the formula,

Distance = speed × time.

There are two different types of Sonar.

15
Advantages of ultrasonic inspection
Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of
ultrasonic inspection include:

 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT
methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection.

Disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection

16
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:

 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into
the test specimen.
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse-grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.

(Sub Qn: - Compare destructive and non-destructive testing.)

Destructive testing will render the part unusable for its intended purpose (e.g. it is cut up
for analysis, or fatigue tested for life). Non-destructive testing will, after testing, allow the
part to be used for its intended purpose (e.g. test for leakage, flow, or resistance)

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC

2.
WAVES
(Essay Qn: - What are the medical applications of Ultrasonics? What are the
advantages of Ultrasonics in medical field over other technique?)

Medical diagnostic ultrasound uses ultrasound energy and the acoustic properties of the body
to produce an image from the stationary and moving tissues. Ultrasound is used in pulse echo
format usually whereby pulses of ultrasound produced in a very short duration travel through
various tissues and are reflected at tissue boundaries back to the source. Some of the medical
applications of ultrasonic waves include:
a. Ultrasound imaging
b. Echocardiography
c. Ultrasound guided technique

a. Ultrasound imaging

17
This method involves the on-invasive imaging of the internal organs or the sources of the body.
Ultrasound imaging systems generally use the pulse echo
and pulse Doppler techniques.

In pulse echo technique, an ultrasound is directed into the

body and its reflection from organs and other structures
and lesions in the body are detected. In pulse Doppler
method, a high frequency sound beam is used to send the
pulses and the echo is received. When the object that
reflects the sound is in motion, there will be a change in the frequency of the reflected signal.
From the change, it is possible to estimate the direction and blood velocity. With the help pf
this, it is possible to find the deposition of lipid and cholesterol particles in the walls of artery,
malignancy, vessel narrowing etc.

b. Echocardiography
Echocardiography is another area where ultrasonic waves are used to image cardiac image
dynamically. Here, a piezo electric transducer is placed on the outer chest and an ultrasonic
beam is directed towards the heart. The echoes from the
heart muscle are collected by the same transducer. A
single transducer, thus acts as a transmitter and a
receiver, alternately. By changing the position of the
transducer, we can detect reflections from the desired
areas on the heart. An aqueous gel is used to couple the
transducer to the skin, the beam from the transducer can
reach up to a depth of 5 to 10 cm. the amplified signals
are displayed in an oscilloscope. The two-dimensional
echocardiography permits the identification of holes, the
study of volume of volume heart and valvular lesions.

c. Ultrasound guided technique

Ultrasound guided technique makes possible the execution
of various invasive procedures like cyst puncture, obstetric
puncture, treatment of lymph nodes, prostate etc. The
process also helps surgeons by localizing masses, foreign
bodies and stones within organs during surgery.

1. OTHER APPLICATIONS

a. Ultrasonic cleaning

18
(Qn: - What is cavitation? Mention its applications)

Ultrasonic cleaning involves changing the surface of materials by the application of ultrasonics,
thereby removing contaminants. It is primarily the removal of contaminant from surfaces of
materials through the action of ultrasonically-
induced cavitation. The action may occur in plain
water but is often enhanced by the addition of
surfactants and even detergents. Cavitation can
also be induced in solvents, such as hydrocarbons
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), but these also
have drawbacks of environmental and
flammability hazards.
Cavitation is the sequential formation and
collapse of vapor bubbles and voids in a liquid subjected to acoustic energy at high
frequency and intensity. This action is analogous to thermal boiling but without the
associated rise in temperature of the mass of liquid, although localized temperatures on
the molecular level can be extremely high. The volume within a bath in which active
cavitation is generated by a radiating surface is called the cavitation field. Multiple
transducers mounted to a radiating surface can generate multiple cavitation fields and
the interaction and interference of these fields is a major design problem.

b. Effects on suspension
Ultrasonic waves when passed through fluid cause agitation. This effect finds application in
the dispersion of fog and smokes, degassing of liquid food etc.

Some other important applications of ultrasonic waves include:

1. It is used for soldering aluminum coil capacitors, aluminum wires and plates without
using any fluxes.
2. It is used to weld some metals which cannot be welded by electric or gas welding
methods.
3. It is used to cut and drill holes in metals.
4. It acts like a catalytic agent and accelerate chemical reactions.

19